2-5-2008

Vector Spaces
Vector spaces and linear transformations are the primary objects of study in linear algebra. A
vector space (which I’ll define below) consists of two sets: A set of objects called vectors and a field (the
scalars).
Definition. A vector space V over a field F is a set V equipped with an operation called (vector) addition,
which takes vectors u and v and produces another vector u + v.
There is also an operation called scalar multiplication, which takes an element a ∈ F and a vector
u ∈ V and produces a vector au ∈ V .
These operations satisfy the following axioms:
1. Vector addition is associative: If u, v, w ∈ V , then

(u + v) + w = u + (v + w).

2. Vector addition is commutative: If u, v ∈ V , then

u + v = v + u.

3. There is a zero vector 0 which satisfies

0 + u = u = u + 0 for all u ∈ V.

4. For every vector u ∈ V , there is a vector −u ∈ V which satisfies

u + (−u) = 0 = (−u) + u.

5. If a, b ∈ F and x ∈ V , then
a(bx) = (ab)x.

6. If a, b ∈ F and x ∈ V , then
(a + b)x = ax + bx.

7. If a ∈ F and x, y ∈ V , then
a(x + y) = ax + ay.

8. If x ∈ V , then
1 · x = x.

The elements of V are called vectors; the elements of F are called scalars. As usual, the use of words
like “multiplication” does not imply that the operations involved look like ordinary “multiplication”.

Example. If F is a field, then F n denotes the set

F n = {(a1 , . . . , an ) | a1 , . . . , an ∈ F }.

F n is called the vector space of n-dimensional vectors over F . The elements a1 , . . . , an are called the
vector’s components.

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 F n becomes a vector space over F with the following operations:

(a1 , . . . , an ) + (b1 , . . . , bn ) = (a1 + b1 , . . . , an + bn ).

p · (a1 , . . . , an ) = (pa1 , . . . , pan ), where p ∈ F.

It’s easy to check that the axioms hold. For example, I’ll check Axiom 6. Let p, q ∈ F , and let
(a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ F n . Then

(p + q)(a1 , . . . , an ) = ((p + q)a1 , . . . , (p + q)an ) Definition of scalar multiplication

= (pa1 + qa1 , . . . , pan + qan ) Field axiom: Distributivity
.
= (pa1 , . . . , pan ) + (qa1 , . . . , qan ) Definition of vector additon
= p(a1 , . . . , an ) + q(a1 , . . . , an ) Definition of scalar multiplication

As a specific example, R3 consists of 3-dimensional vectors with real components, like

 
1
(3, −2, π) or , 0, −1.234 .
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You’re probably familiar with addition and scalar multiplication for these vectors:

(1, −2, 4) + (4, 5, 2) = (1 + 4, −2 + 5, 4 + 2) = (5, 3, 6).

7 · (−2, 0, 3) = (7 · (−2), 7 · 0, 7 · 3) = (−14, 0, 21).

(Sometimes people write h3, −2, πi, using angle brackets to distinguish vectors from points. I’ll use angle
brackets when there’s a danger of confusion.)
Z23 consists of 2-dimensional vectors with components in Z3 . Since each of the two components can be
any element in {0, 1, 2}, there are 3 · 3 = 9 such vectors:

(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2).

Here are examples of vector addition and multiplication in Z23 :

(1, 2) + (1, 1) = (1 + 1, 2 + 1) = (2, 0).

2 · (2, 1) = (2 · 2, 2 · 1) = (1, 2).

Example. The set R[x] of polynomials with real coefficients is a vector space over R, using the standard
operations on polynomials. For example,

(2x2 + 3x + 5) + (x3 + 7x − 11) = x3 + 2x2 + 10x − 6.

4 · (−3x2 + 10) = −12x2 + 40.

Unlike Rn , R[x] is infinite dimensional (in a sense to be made more precise shortly). Intuitively, you
need an infinite set of polynomials, like
1, x, x2 , x3 , . . .
to “construct” all the elements of R[x].

Example. Let C[0, 1] denote the continuous real-valued functions defined on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Add
functions pointwise:
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) for f, g ∈ C[0, 1].

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 From calculus, you know that the sum of continuous functions is a continuous function.
If a ∈ R and f ∈ C[0, 1], define scalar multiplication in pointwise fashion:

(af )(x) = a · f (x).

For example, if f (x) = x2 and a = 3, then

(af )(x) = 3x2 .

These operations make C[0, 1] into an R-vector space.

Like R[x], C[0, 1] is infinite dimensional. However, its dimension is uncountably infinite, while R[x]
has countably infinite dimension over R.
You can also define a “dot product” for two vectors f, g ∈ C[0, 1]:
Z 1
f ·g = f (x)g(x) dx.
0

The product of continuous functions is continuous, so the integral of f (x)g(x) is defined. This example
shows that abstract vectors do not have to look like little arrows!.

Proposition. Let V be a vector space over a field F .

(a) 0 · x = 0 for all x ∈ V .

(b) (−1) · x = −x for all x ∈ V .

(c) −(−x) = x for all x ∈ V .

Proof. (a) Note that the “0” on the left is the zero scalar in F , whereas the “0” on the right is the zero
vector in V .
0 · x = (0 + 0) · x = 0 · x + 0 · x.
Subtracting 0 · x from both sides, I get 0 = 0 · x.

(b) (The “−1” on the left is the scalar −1; the “−x” on the right is the “negative” of x ∈ V .)

(−1) · x + x = (−1) · x + 1 · x = ((−1) + 1) · x = 0 · x = 0.

(c)
−(−x) = (−1) · [(−1) · x] = [(−1) · (−1)]x = 1 · x = x.
Definition. Let V be a vector space over a field F , and let W ⊂ V , W 6= ∅. W is a subspace of V if:

(a) If u, v ∈ W , then u + v ∈ W .

(b) If k ∈ F and u ∈ W , then ku ∈ W .

In other words, W is closed under addition of vectors and under scalar multiplication.
Lemma. Let W be a subspace of a vector space V .

(a) The zero vector is in W .

(b) If w ∈ W , then −w ∈ W .

Proof. (a) Take any vector w ∈ W (which you can do because W is nonempty), and take 0 ∈ F . Since W
is closed under scalar multiplication, 0 · w ∈ W . But 0 · w = 0, so 0 ∈ W .

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(b) Since w ∈ W and −1 ∈ F , (−1) · w = −w is in W .

Example. If V is a vector space over a field F , {0} and V are subspaces of V .

Example. Consider the real vector space R2 , the usual x-y plane. Then

W1 = {(x, 0) | x ∈ R} and W2 = {(0, y) | y ∈ R}

are subspaces of R2 . (These are just the x and y-axes, of course.)

I’ll check that W1 is a subspace. First, I have to show that two elements of W1 add to an element of W1 .
An element of W1 is a pair with the second component 0. So here are two elements of W1 : (x1 , 0), (x2 , 0).
Add them:
(x1 , 0) + (x2 , 0) = (x1 + x2 , 0).
(x1 + x2 , 0) is in W1 , because its second component is 0. Thus, W1 is closed under sums.
Next, I have to show that W1 is closed under scalar multiplication. Take a scalar k ∈ R and a vector
(x, 0) ∈ W1 . Take their product:
k · (x, 0) = (kx, 0).
The product (kx, 0) is in W1 because its second component is 0. Therefore, W1 is closed under scalar
multiplication.
Thus, W1 is a subspace.
Notice that in doing the proof, I did not use specific vectors in W1 like (42, 0) or (−17, 0). I’m trying to
prove statements about arbitrary elements of W1 , so I use “variable” elements.
In general, the subspaces of R2 are {0}, R2 , and lines passing through the origin. (Why can’t a line
which doesn’t pass through the origin be a subspace?)
In R3 , the subspaces are the {0}, R3 , and lines or planes passing through the origin.
And so on.

Example. Prove or disprove: The following subset of R3 is a subspace:

W = {(x, y, 1) | x, y ∈ R}.

If you’re trying to decide whether a set is a subspace, it’s always good to check whether it contains
the zero vector before you start checking the axioms. In this case, the set consists of 3-dimensional vectors
whose third components are equal to 1. Obviously, the zero vector (0, 0, 0) doesn’t satisfy this condition.
Since W doesn’t contain the zero vector, it’s not a subspace of R3 .

Example. Let
W = {(x, sin x) | x ∈ R} .
Prove or disprove: W is a subspace of R2 .
Note that (0, 0) = (0, sin 0) ∈ W . This is not one of the axioms for a subspace, but it’s a good thing to
check first because you can usually do it quickly. If the zero vector is not in a set, then the lemma above
shows that the set is not a subspace. In this case, the zero vector is in W , so the issue isn’t settled, and I’ll
try to check the subspace axioms.
First, I might try to check that the set is closed under sums. I take two vectors in W — say (x, sin x)
and (y, sin y). I add them:
(x, sin x) + (y, sin y) = (x + y, sin x + sin y).

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 The last vector isn’t in the right form — it would be if sin x + sin y was equal to sin(x + y). That doesn’t
sound right, so I suspect that W is not a subspace. I try to get a specific counterexample to contradict
closure under addition.
First, π π  π 
, sin = , 1 ∈ W and (π, sin π) = (π, 0) ∈ W.
2 2 2
On the other hand,
 
π π π  3π
, sin + (π, sin π) = , 1 + (π, 0) = , 1 6∈ W.
2 2 2 2

3π
For I have sin = −1 6= 1.
2
Since W is not closed under vector addition, it is not a subspace.

Example. Let F be a field, and let A, B ∈ M (n, F ). Consider the following subset of F n :

W = {v ∈ F n | Av = Bv}.

Prove or disprove: W is a subspace.

This set is defined by a property rather than by appearance, and axiom checks for this kind of set often
give people trouble. The problem is that elements of W don’t “look like” anything — if you need to refer to
a couple of arbitrary elements of W , you might call them u and v (for instance). There’s nothing about the
symbols u and v which tells you that they belong to W . But u and v are like people who belong to a club:
You can’t tell from their appearance that they’re club members, but they’re carrying membership cards in
their pockets.
With this in mind, I’ll check closure under addition. Let u, v ∈ W . I must show that u + v ∈ W .
Since u and v are in W ,
Au = Bu and Av = Bv.
Adding the equations and factoring out, I get

Au + Av = Bu + Bv
A(u + v) = B(u + v)

The last equation shows that u + v ∈ W .

Warning: Don’t say “A(u + v) + B(u + v) ∈ W ” — it doesn’t make sense! “A(u + v) + B(u + v)” is
an equation that u + v satisfies; it can’t be an element of W , because elements of W are vectors.
Next, I’ll check closure under scalar multiplication. Let k ∈ F and let v ∈ W . Since v ∈ W , I have

Av = Bv.

Multiply both sides by k, then commute the matrices and the scalar:

k(Av) = k(Bv)
A(kv) = B(kv)

The last equation says that kv ∈ W .

Since W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication, it’s a subspace.

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Example. Consider the following subsets of the polynomial ring R[x]:

V1 = {f (x) ∈ R[x] | f (2) = 0}, V2 = {f (x) ∈ R[x] | f (2) = 1}.

V1 is a subspace; it consists of all polynomials having x = 2 as a root.

V2 is not a subspace. One way to see this is to notice that the zero polynomial (i.e. the zero vector) is
not in V2 , because the zero polynomial does not give 1 when you plug in x = 2.
Alternatively, the constant polynomial f (x) = 1 is an element of V2 — it gives 1 when you plug in 2 —
but 2 · f (x) is not. So V2 is not closed under scalar multiplication.

Lemma. If A is an m × n matrix over the field F , the set of n-dimensional vectors x which satisfy

Ax = 0

is a subspace of F n (the solution space of the system).

Proof. If Ax = 0 and Ay = 0, then

A(x + y) = Ax + ay = 0 + 0 = 0.

Therefore, if x and y are in the set, so is x + y.

If Ax = 0 and k is a scalar, then

A(kx) = k(Ax) = k · 0 = 0.

Therefore, if x is in the set, then so is kx.

Therefore, the solution space is a subspace.

Example. Consider the following system of linear equations over R:

w 0
  
 
1 1 0 1  x  0
  =  .
0 0 1 3 y 0
z 0

The solution can be written as

w = −s − t, x = s, y = −3t, z = t.

Thus,
w −s − t
   
x  s 
 = .
y −3t
z t
The Lemma says that the set of all vectors of this form constitute a subspace of R4 .
For example, if you add two vectors of this form, you get another vector of this form:

−s − t −s − t′ −(s + s′ ) − (t + t′ )
   ′   
 s   s′ s + s′
+ = .
  
−3t −3t′ −3(t + t′ )

t t′ t + t′

You can check that the set is also closed under scalar multiplication.

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Definition. If v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are vectors in a vectors space V , a linear combination of the v’s is a vector

k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kn vn ,

where the k’s are scalars.

Example. Take u = h1, 2i and v = h−3, 7i in R2 . Here is a linear combination of u and v:

2u − 5v = 2 · h1, 2i − 5h−3, 7i = h17, −31i.

√ π2
( 2 − 17)u + v is also a linear combination of u and v. u and v are themselves linear combinations
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of u and v, as is the zero vector (why?).
In fact, it turns out that any vector in R2 is a linear combination of u and v.
On the other hand, there are vectors in R2 which are not linear combinations of p = h1, −2i and
q = h−2, 4i. Do you see how this pair is different from the first?

Definition. If S is a subset of a vector space V , the span hSi of S is the set of all linear combinations of
vectors in S.

Theorem. If S is a subset of a vector space V , the span hSi of S is a subspace of V .

Proof. Here are typical elements of the span of S:

j1 u1 + j2 u2 + · · · + jn un , k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kn vn ,

where the j’s and k’s are scalars and the u’s and v’s are elements of S.
Take two elements of the span and add them:

(j1 u1 + j2 u2 + · · · + jn un ) + (k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + km vm ) = j1 u1 + j2 u2 + · · · + jn un + k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + km vm .

This humongous sum is an element of the span, because it’s a sum of vectors in S, each multiplied by
a scalar. Thus, the span is closed under taking sums.
Take an element of the span and multiply it by a scalar:

k · (k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · kn vn ) = kk1 v1 + kk2 v2 + · · · + kkn vn .

This is an element of the span, because it’s a sum of vectors in S, each multiplied by a scalar. Thus,
the span is closed under scalar multiplication.
Therefore, the span is a subspace.

Example. Prove that the span of h3, 1, 0i and h2, 1, 0i in R3 is

V = {ha, b, 0i | a, b ∈ R} .

To show that two sets are equal, you need to show that each is contained in the other. To do this, take
a typical element of the first set and show that it’s in the second set. Then take a typical element of the
second set and show that it’s in the first set.

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 Let W be the span of h3, 1, 0i and h2, 1, 0i in R3 . A typical element of W is a linear combination of the
two vectors:
x · h3, 1, 0i + y · h2, 1, 0i = h3x + 2y, x + y, 0i.
Since the sum is a vector of the form ha, b, 0i for a, b ∈ R, it is in V . This proves that W ⊂ V .
Now let ha, b, 0i ∈ V . I have to show that this vector is a linear combination of h3, 1, 0i and h2, 1, 0i.
This means that I have to find real numbers x and y such that

x · h3, 1, 0i + y · h2, 1, 0i = ha, b, 0i.

If I expand the left side, I get

h3x + 2y, x + y, 0i = ha, b, 0i.
Equating corresponding components, I get

3x + 2y = a, x + y = b.

This is a system of linear equations which you can solve by row reduction or matrix inversion (for
instance). The solution is
x = a − 2b, y = −a + 3b.
In other words,
(a − 2b) · h3, 1, 0i + (−a + 3b) · h2, 1, 0i = ha, b, 0i.
Since ha, b, 0i is a linear combination of h3, 1, 0i and h2, 1, 0i, it follows that ha, b, 0i ∈ W . This proves
that V ⊂ W .
Since W ⊂ V and V ⊂ W , I have W = V .

c 2008 by Bruce Ikenaga 8