Chapter Two: Limit State Design 1

Chapter Two: Limit State Design

1.1 Introduction

The objective of limit state design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that the structure
being designed will not become unfit for its intended purpose during its expected life. When a
structure or structural element becomes unfit for its intended use, it is said to have reached a
limit state. The limit states for reinforced concrete structures can be divided into three basic
groups:
1. Ultimate limit states
2. Serviceability limit states
3. Special limit states

Ultimate limit States

These involve a structural collapse of part or all of the structure. Such a limit state should
have a very low probability of occurrence since it may lead to loss of life and major financial
losses. The major ultimate limit states are:

a) Loss of equilibrium of a part or all of the structure when considered as a rigid body.
Such a failure would generally involve tipping or sliding of the entire structure and
would occur if the reactions necessary for equilibrium could not be developed.
b) Rupture of critical parts of the structure, leading to partial or complete collapse. It
includes flexural failures, shear failures, direct compression or tension failures and so
on. The majority of this course deals with this limit state.
c) Progressive collapse: In some cases a minor localized failure may cause adjacent
members to be overloaded and fail, until the entire structure has collapsed. Since such
failures frequently occur during construction, the designer should be aware of
construction loads and procedures.
d) For motion of plastic mechanism: A mechanism is formed when the reinforcement
yields to form plastic hinges at enough sections to make the structure unstable.
e) Instability due to deformations of the structure: This type of failure involves
buckling due to gravity load effects.
f) Fatigue: Fracture of members due to repeated stress cycles may cause collapse of part
or all of a structure. Although, fatigue failure results from repeated application of
service loads, this has been listed as an ultimate limit state as it leads to a structural
collapse.

Serviceability limit states

These involve disruption of the functional use of the structures but not collapse. Since there is
less danger of loss of life, a higher probability of occurrence can generally be tolerated than in
the case of an ultimate limit states. The major serviceability limit states include:

a) Excessive deflections for normal service: Excessive deflections may cause

machinery to malfunction, may be visually unacceptable, and may lead to damage to

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 Chapter Two: Limit State Design 2

nonstructural elements or to changes in the distribution of forces. A minimum depth is

recommended for the control of deflection.
b) Excessive crack width: Although reinforced concrete must crack before the
reinforcement can act, it is possible to detail the reinforcement to minimize the crack
widths. Excessive crack widths lead to leakage through the cracks, corrosion of the
reinforcement, and gradual deterioration of the concrete. In addition, wide cracks may
be unsightly. Special detailing is required in structures that must be watertight.
c) Undesirable vibrations: Vertical vibrations of floors or bridges and lateral and
torsional vibrations of tall buildings may disturb the user.

Special limit states

a) Damages or collapses in extreme earthquakes

b) Structural effects of fire, explosions, or vehicular collisions
c) Structural effects of corrosion or deterioration, particularly when exposed to deicing
compounds.

Limit State design Procedure

During design it is necessary to identify whether the ULS or SLS is the conical limit state for
a particular structure and base the design on this. Checks are then made to ensure that all other
relevant limit states are satisfied by the results produced.

Generally, in the design of reinforced concrete members (except in special cases such as water
retaining structures), it is usual to first ensure that the ULS is not exceeded (by applying factor
of safeties) and then to check that the relevant SLSs are satisfied.

General Design Equation

Consider the RC simply supported beam shown below. The applied loads cause bending
moments, which are directly obtained from the loads using the law of statics. The bending
moments, shear force, axial force, torsion, deflection, etc. are referred to as load effects.

w
D e s ig n a c t io n s

D e s ig n a c t io n e f f e c t s
( B .M .D )

Fig. 2.1 Action and action effects

Fig. 2.2 shows flexural stresses acting on a beam cross-section and the internal couple
resulted from their resultants. The compressive and tensile stresses can be replaced by their
resultants, C and T, as shown below. The resulting couple is said to be an internal resisting
moment. The internal resisting moments when the cross section fails is referred to as the
moment capacity or moment resistance. The word resistance can also be used to describe

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 Chapter Two: Limit State Design 3

shear resistance or axial load resistance. The beam shown in Fig. will safely support the loads
if at every section the resistance of the member exceeds the effects of the loads.

I n t e r n a l c o u p le
S t r e s s e s

Fig. 2.2 Internal resisting moment

Accordingly, the structure or structural elements shall be verified by the following equations.

Verifications of Static Equilibrium and Strength, Ultimate Limit State

1) When considering a limit state of static equilibrium or of gross displacement of the

structure as a rigid body, it shall be verified that:

Ed,dst  Ed,stb

where Ed,dst is the design value of the effect of destabilizing actions;

Ed,stb is the design value of the effect of stabilizing actions.

2) When considering a limit state of rupture or excessive deformation of a section,

member or connection it shall be verified that:

E d  Rd

where Ed is the design value of the effect of actions such as internal force, moment or
a vector representing several internal forces or moments;
Rd is the corresponding design resistance, associating all structural properties
with the respective design values.

Verification of Serviceability, Serviceability Limit States

It shall be verified that:

E d  Cd
Where Cd is a nominal value or a function of certain design properties of materials related to
the design effects of actions considered; and
Ed is the design value of the action effect (e.g. displacement, acceleration), determined
on the basis of one of the combinations defined for serviceability.

Characteristic Strengths and Loads

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 Chapter Two: Limit State Design 4

The characteristic strength of a material may be defined as the strength that is normally
expected to be exceeded and may be defined statistically as (based on the assumption that,
for a given material the distribution of strengths follows normal distribution curve):
fk =m - k1
Where: fk = characteristic strength (expected to be exceeded)
fm = mean strength
 
n 

2 
 = standard deviation,     xi  x  / n 
i 1
  

- k1 = a factor which ensures that the probability of the characteristic strength is not
being exceeded is small (K1 = 1 is to ensure that not more than 5% (1 in 20) of the
test results will give a strength less than the characteristic value) (see Fig.).

The characteristic load may be defined as the load which is not likely to be exceeded during
the useful life of the structure and can be expressed as:
Fk = Fm + k2
where: Fk = characteristic load (not likely to be exceeded)
Fm = mean Load
 = standard deviation,
K2 = a factor which ensures that the probability of the characteristic load being
exceeded is small (may be k1 = 1.64) (see Fig. 2.3).

E ffec t o f L o ad S t r e n g t h o f M a t e r ia ls
F re q u e n c y

1 .6 4  1 .6 4 

F m F k fk fm

F ig . 2 . 3 D e t e r m in a t io n o f c h a r a c t e r is t ic P a r a m e t e r s

For the case so far, material specifications and safety provisions are listed in the respective
national building codes. For instance consider the following in accordance with Ethiopian
Standards.

Characteristic Strengths of Materials, EBSC 2

Grades of concrete:

Concrete of a given strength is identified by its grade. Concrete is on tests of 150mm cubes at
the edge of 28 days in terms of its characteristic compressive strength (the strength below

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 Chapter Two: Limit State Design 5

which 5% of all possible strength measurements may be expected to fall) and this depends on
the classification of the concrete works and its intended use (see Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 Grades of concrete

Class Permissible grades of concrete
I C5 C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
II C5 C15 C20
Grade C5 shall be used as lean concrete

The numbers in the grade designation denote the specified characteristic compressive strength
in MPa (N/mm2).

Cylindrical or cubical specimens of other sizes may also be used with conversion factors
determined from a comprehensive series of tests. In the absence of such tests, the conversion
factors given in Table may be applied to obtain the equivalent characteristic strength on the
basis of 150 mm cubes.

The characteristic cylinder compressive strength f ck are also given for the different grades of
concrete (see Table 2.3).

Table 2.2 Conversion factors for strength

Size and Type of Test Specimen Conversion Factor
Cube (200mm) 1.05
Cylinder(150mm diameter 300mm 1.25
height)

Table 2.3 Grades of concrete and characteristic cylinder compressive strength fck
Grades of C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
concrete
fck 12 16 20 24 32 40 48

The characteristic tensile strength of concrete may be determined from the characteristic
cylinder compressive strength by:
fctk = 0.21fck2/3

The characteristic strength fyk of steel is defined as the 5% fractile of the proof stress f y or o.2
% offset strength, denoted as f0.2.

Characteristic Values of Actions, EBSC 1

The characteristic value of an action is its main representative value. Characteristic value of
actions FK shall be specified: as a mean value, an upper or lower value, or a nominal value
(when statistical distribution is not known).

The characteristic value of a permanent action shall be determined as follows:

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 Chapter Two: Limit State Design 6

a) if the variability of G is small, one single value GK may be used

b) if the variability of G is not small, two values have to be used; an upper value G K,sup
and a lower value GK,inf

In most cases the variability of G can be assumed to be small if G does not vary significantly
during the design working life of the structure and its coefficient of variation is not greater
than 0.1. However in such cases when the structure is very sensitive to variations in G (e.g.
some types of prestressed concrete structures), two values have to be used even if the
coefficient of variation is small.

The following may be assumed in most cases:

a) Gk is the mean value
b) Gkinf is the 0.5 fractile, and Gksup is the 0.95 fractile of the statistical; distribution for G
which may be assumed to be Gaussian.
The self-weight of the structure can, in most cases, be represented by a single characteristic
value and be calculated on the basis of the nominal dimensions and mean unit masses

For variable actions the characteristic value (Qk) corresponds to either:

a) an upper value with an intended probability of not being exceeded or a lower value
with an intended probability of not falling below, during some reference period;
b) a nominal value which may be specified in cases where a statistical distribution is not
known.

For accidental actions the representative value is generally a characteristic value A k

corresponding to a specified value.

Values of AEd for seismic actions are given in EBCS 8.

Other Representative Values of Variable and Accidental Actions

The most common cases the other representative values of a variable action are:
a) The combination value generally represented as a product: oQk. Combination values are
associated with the use of combinations of actions, to take account of a reduced
probability of simultaneous occurrence of the most unfavourable values of several
independent actions.
b) The frequent value generally represented as a product: 1Qk. The frequent value is
determined such that the frequency with which it is exceeded is limited to a given value.
Unless other values are specified the part may be chosen to be 0.05 or the frequency to be
300 per year for ordinary buildings.
c) The quasi-permanent value generally represented as a product: 2Qk. The quasi-
permanent value is so determined that the total time, within a chosen period of time,
during which it is exceeded is a considerable part of the chosen period of time. The quasi-
permanent value may also be determined as the value averaged over the chosen period of
time.

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 Chapter Two: Limit State Design 7

These representative values and the characteristic value are used to define the design values of
the actions and the combinations of actions. The combination values are used for the
verification of ultimate limit states and irreversible serviceability limit states. The frequent
values and quasi-permanent values are used for the verification of ultimate limit states
involving accidental actions and for the verification of reversible serviceability limit states.
The quasi-permanent values are also used for the calculation of long term effects of
serviceability limit states.

Partial Safety Factors

To safe guard the structure against unforeseen effects LSD make use of partial safety factors
for all the uncertainties and variables originating from different causes.

Partial Safety Factors for Materials (m)

The value of partial safety factor for material strength should account for the following
parameter:
- Possibility of deviation of the strength of material
- Deviation of the sectional dimensions
- Accuracy of the calculation procedure
- Risk to life and economic consequences

There fore, in LSD the basic or characteristics strength of a material is modified by a partial
safety factor to give the design strength.

Hence the design strength of a material is given by:

fd = fk/m
where fk = characteristic strength of materials, (fck for concrete, fyk for reinforcing steel)
fd = design strength for ULS (fcd or fyd)

Accordingly, the design strengths as per EBCS 2 are as follows:

Concrete in compression: fcd = (0.85fck) /c

Concrete in tension: fctd =fctk /c
Steel (in tension and compression):fyd = fyk / s
Where c and s are partial safety factors of concrete and steel respectively and are given below
(EBCS 2).

Table 2.4 Partial safety factors for materials

Class I works Class II works
Design situation Concrete, Reinforcing steel, Concrete, Reinforcing steel,
c s c s
Persistent and 1.50 1.15 1.65 1.20
Transient
Accidental 1.30 1.00 1.45 1.10

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 Chapter Two: Limit State Design 8

The value of m in serviceability limit states may be taken as 1.0 for both steel and concrete.

Note: Persistent situation corresponding to normal conditions of use of structure

Transient situations, such as those, for example during construction or repair
Accidental situations, which refer to exceptional conditions applicable to the
structure or to its exposure, e.g. to fire, explosion, impact

Partial Safety Factors for Loads (f)

In practice the applied loads may be greater than the characteristic load for any of the
following reasons:
- In accurate assessment of the effect of loading (calculation errors).
- Constructional inaccuracies (member sizes and building dimensions)
- Adverse modification of load effect in design assumption
- Change of load due to level of usage
- Unforeseen stress redistribution

To allow for these, the respective characteristic loads are multiplied by a partial safety factors
to give the ultimate design load appropriate to the limit being considered.

The design load is given by:

Fd = f Fk
Where f is the partial safety factors for the action considered
Fk is the characteristic load

The ultimate design load acting on a member will be the summation of the relevant
characteristic load combination multiplied by their respective partial safety factors.

Combination of Actions, ULS

For each critical load case, the design values of the effects of actions (Ed) should be
determined by combining the values of actions which occur simultaneously, as follows:

(a) Persistent and transient situations: Design value of the permanent actions together with
the design values of the dominant variable actions and the combination design values
of other actions. Symbolically, it may be represented as follows:


S d  S   G, j G k , j   Q,1Qk ,1    Q,i o,i Qk ,i
i 1

(b) Accidental situations: Design values of permanent actions together with the frequent
value of the dominant variable action and the quasi-permanent values of other variable
actions and the design value of one accidental action. Symbolically, it may be
represented as follows:

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 Chapter Two: Limit State Design 9


S d  S   GA, j G k , j  A d  1,1Qk ,1    2,i Qk ,i
i 1

(c) Seismic situations: Characteristic values of the permanent actions together with the
quasi-permanent values of the variable actions and the design value of the seismic
actions. Symbolically, it may be represented as follows:


S d  S   GA, j G k , j  A Ed    2,i Qk ,i
i 1

Where: Gk, j = is the characteristic value of permanent action
Qk, 1 is the characteristic value of the variable action
Qk, i is the characteristic value of the other variable actions
Ad is the design value (specified value) of the accidental action
AEd is the design value of the seismic action
G, j is the partial safety factors for permanent action j
GA, j is as G, j , but for accidental design situations
Q, i = is the partial safety factor for variable action i
0, 1, 2 are combination coefficients (see Table)

Combination for static equilibrium may be taken as:

Sd = S(0.9G1 – 1.1 G2 – 1.6 Q1)

Where: G1 is the permanent stabilizing action

G2 is the permanent non-stabilizing action
Q1 is the variable non-stabilizing action

- When the dominant action is not obvious, each variable action should be
considered in turn as the dominant action.

- In the relevant load cases, those permanent actions that increase the effect of the
variable actions (i.e. produce unfavourable effects) shall be represented by their
upper design values, those that decrease the effect of the variable actions (i.e.
produce favourable effects) by their lower design values (see EBCS 1).
- Where the result of verification may be very sensitive to variations of the
magnitude of a permanent action from place to place in the structure, the
unfavourable and the favourable parts of this action shall be considered as
individual actions. This applies in particular to the verification of static
equilibrium.

- Combinations for accidental design situations either involve an explicit accidental

action A (e.g. fire or impact) or refer to a situation after an accidental event (A =
0). Unless specified otherwise, GA = 1 may be used.

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 Chapter Two: Limit State Design 10

- For building structures, the partial safety factors for ultimate limit states in the
persistent, transient and accidental design situations are given in the following
Table.

Table 2.5 Partial safety factors: Ultimate Limit States for Buildings
Design
Sym
Case Action Situation
bol
P/T A
Case A Permanent actions: self weight of
Loss of Static structural and non-structural
equilibrium components, permanent actions
caused by ground, ground water and Gsup 1.10 1.00
free water Ginf 0.90 1.00
- unfavourable
- favourable

Variable actions Q 1.60 1.00

- unfavourable
A 1.00
Accidental actions
Case B Permanent actions (see above)
Failure of structure or - unfavourable Gsup 1.30 1.00
structural elements, - favourable Ginf 1.00 1.00
including those of the
footing, piles, basement Variable actions
walls etc., governed by - unfavourable Q 1.60 1.00
strength of structural
materials Accidental actions A 1.00

Case C Permanent actions (see above)

Failure in the ground - unfavourable Gsup 1.00 1.00
- favourable Ginf 1.00 1.00

Variable actions
- unfavourable Q 1.30 1.00

Accidental actions A 1.00

P: persistent situation T: Transient situation
A: Accidental situation

1) The design should be verified for each A, B and C separately as relevant.

2) In this verification the characteristic value of the unfavourable part of the permanent
action is multiplied by the factor 1.1 and the favourable part by the factor 0.9. More
refined rules are given in EBCS 3 and EBCS 4.
3) In this verification the characteristic values of all permanent actions from one source
are multiplied by 1.3 if the total resulting action effect is unfavourable and by 1.0 if

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 Chapter Two: Limit State Design 11

the total resulting action effect is favourable.

4) In cases when the limit state is very sensitive to variation of permanent actions, the
upper and lower characteristic values of these actions should be taken.
5) For cases B and C the design ground properties may be different, see EBCS 7.
6) Instead of using G (1.30) and Q = (1.60) for lateral earth pressure actions the design
ground properties may be introduced in accordance with EBCS 7 and a model factor
sd is applied.

Table 2.6  factors for buildings

The simplified load combination for building structures for the persistent and transient
situations can be taken as follows:

a) Design situations with only one variable action Qkl

  Gj G kj  1.6Q kl
j 1

b) Design situations with two or more variable actions Qk,i

  Gj G kj  1.35  Q ki
j 1 i 1

Combination of Actions, SLS

The combination of actions to be considered for serviceability limit states depends on the
nature of the effect of actions being checked, e.g. irreversible, reversible or long term. Three
combinations of actions for serviceability limit states are defined symbolically by the
following expressions:

a) Characteristic (rare) combination

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 Chapter Two: Limit State Design 12


S d  S  G k , j  Qk ,1    o,i Qk ,i
i 1

b) Frequent combination


S d  S  G k , j  1,1Qk ,1    2,i Qk ,i
i 1

c) Quasi-permanent combination


S d  S  G k , j    2 ,i Q k , i
i 1

Note: - For serviceability limit state, the partial factors (serviceability) G and Q are taken as
1.0 except where specified otherwise.
- The notation is as given in the previous section.

For building structures the characteristic (rare) combination may be simplified to the
following expressions, which may also be used as a substitute for the frequent combination.

c) Design situations with only one variable action Qkl

 G kj  Q kl
j 1

d) Design situations with two or more variable actions, Qki

 G kj  0.9  Q ki
j 1 i 1

Where simplified prescriptive rules are given for serviceability limit states, detailed
calculations using combinations of actions are not required.

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