Chapter 8:

Cellular
Respiration
 Cellular Reproduction
“All cells come from cells”
- Life in humans begins a a single
cell

Asexual reproduction takes place

when a single-celled organism splits
into two individuals without the
participation of a sperm and egg

Sexual reproduction concerns the

union of a sperm and egg to make a
zygote
- Confers genetic variations

Cellular reproduction involves 2

processes: growth and cell division
- A cell duplicates its contents
(organelles, DNA) during growth
- During cell division, cellular
contents and DNA of the parent
cell are distributed to the daughter
cells
Chromatin to Chromosome
Chromatin consists of strands of During cellular reproduction , the chromatin is
further condensed multiple times into large
DNA that are organized around loops that produce a greatly compacted
histone proteins chromosome
- Chromatin is wound around a
A duplicated chromosome is composed of 2
core of 8 histones to make a identical halves called sister chromatids held
bead or nucleosome together by a centromere
- Chromatin forms a zigzag that
is folded into loops The number of chromosomes is characteristic of
each species
- A human cell has 46 chromosomes
There are 2 meters of DNA in a
human cell
Q: What apparent problem can you
see from this fact?

DNA replication allows a cell to

copy its DNA and pass a full copy
to each daughter cell

DNA and associated proteins are

packaged into a set of
chromosomes and condensed
 The Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is a repeated sequence Mitotic phase: cell division occurs during
of events in eukaryotes that involves the M stage
cell growth and nuclear division M stands for mitosis, a type of
It consists of an interphase stage nuclear division
(G1, S, G2) and a mitotic (M) phase The end result is that daughter nuclei
will be identical to the parent cell and
to each other
Interphase: most of the cell cycle is
spent here Cytokinesis occurs and the daughter
cells will have the same number and
G1 phase: A cell will double its kinds of chromosomes
organelles (esp. mitochondria and
ribosomes) and gathers material
for DNA replication
- G0: Cell division is arrested and
the cell exist as in “post-mitotic” or
quiescent state
o S phase: synthesis of DNA for
DNA replication
• The chromosomes are replicated
o G2 phase: The cell will synthesize
proteins, such as microtubules,
needed for cell division
 The Basis of Mitosis
The duplicated nuclear contents of the
parent cell are distributed equally to
the daughter cells

Every cell in an organism has an even

number of chromosomes because the
parent cell contributed half of the
chromosomes to the new individual
A chromatid is a single DNA
double helix
The chromatid is duplicated to
make a sister chromatid with the
same sequence of base pairs
The sister chromatids are held
together by a centromere
Spindle fibers from the
centrosome pull the chromatids
apart during cell division
In the first stage of mitosis,
centrosomes separate and move
to opposite sides of the nucleus
and form poles of spindle fibers

There are 4 phases: prophase,

metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
Phases of Mitosis
Phases of mitosis
Cytokinesis in Animal and
Plant Cells
Cytokinesis is a division of the cytoplasm
that usually follows mitosis in most cells
but not all cells

In animal cells, a cleavage furrow or an

indention of the membrane is formed
between the two daughter nuclei at the
end of anaphase
The contractile ring, a band of actin
filaments, forms a circular
constriction between the two cells
until they are 2 independent
daughter cells

In plant cells, furrowing is not allowed

due to the rigid cell wall
Instead, a small, flattened disk
appears between the two daughter
plant cells
Vesicles produced by the Golgi fuse
to the disk forming a cell plate
The cell plate expands until it reaches
the plasma membrane and fuses with
it
 Cell Cycle Checkpoints
G1 checkpoint: is the most significant
because the cell is committed to divide
once it passes this checkpoint
If the cell does not pass this
checkpoint,
1. It could enter G0 where it
continues to perform its normal
functions but does not divide
2. Initiate DNA repair if DNA is
damaged
3. Death by apoptosis
(programmed death)

o G2 checkpoint: the cell verifies that

DNA has replicated and mitosis can
proceed

o M checkpoint: pauses between

metaphase and anaphase to allow the
proper attachment of chromosomes to
spindle fibers
o This also ensures that the
chromosomes will be distributed
accurately to the daughter cells
Internal and External Signals
Internal and external signals controlled Telomere are repeating DNA base
the checkpoints of the cell cycle sequence at the end of the
- A signal can be stimulatory or chromosomes that act like protective
inhibitory caps against degradation of DNA

Kinases are enzymes that remove Each time a cell divides, some portion
phosphate from ATP and add it to of a telomere is lost
another molecule
- S-kinase and S-cyclin The cell will die by apoptosis when the
- M-kinase and M-cyclin telomeres become too short

Growth factors stimulate cells to go

through the cell cycle, even those in G0
- EGF, hormones (estrogen)

Contact inhibition prohibits cells to grow

and divide when they come into close
contact with other cells
- Contact inhibition prevents cell
overgrowth by halting the cell cycle
 Apoptosis
Apoptosis is programmed cell
death
- The cell go through a series of
events that brings about its
destruction

Both the cell cycle and apoptosis

are normal parts of growth and
development

Apoptosis and cell division are

opposing forces and they keep the
number of cells in the body at an
appropriate level

Apoptosis can be used to shape

an organism or to destroy
abnormal cells
Characteristics of Cancer Cells
Carcinogenesis is the development of Characteristics:
cancer
1. Cancer cells lack
- Cancer occurs when the cell cycle differentiation
is not regulated properly 2. Cancer cells have abnormal
nuclei
- Cancer may take decades to 3. Cancer cells do not undergo
develop before the tumor is visible apoptosis
Cancers are classified according to 4. Cancer cells form tumors
their location: 5. Cancer cells undergo
metastasis and promote
- Carcinomas are cancers of the angiogenesis
epithelial tissue that lines organs
- A benign tumor is usually
contained with a capsule
- Sarcomas are cancers of muscle or and is not invasive
connective tissue (bone or
cartilage) - A malignant tumor is one
that has become invasive
and may spread tumor cells
- Leukemias are cancers of the
blood - Metastasis is the spread of
cancer cells from its origin
to the the rest of the body
 Cancer Treatment and
Prevention
Cancer treatments are aim to either remove the The risk of cancer can be reduced by
tumor or to interfere with the ability of the avoiding smoking, sunbathing,
cancer cells to reproduce excessive alcohol comsumption, and
by adopting a better diet
Solid tumors are easily removed and early
detection leads to better prognosis Cigarette smoking accounts for about
30% of all cancer deaths
Chemotherapy and radiation therapy damage - 90% of lung cancer
DNA or interfere with the completion of mitosis
- Radiation uses high-energy beams to kill Skin cancers are sun-related.
specific cells within a tumor
- Chemotherapy is used to kill cancer cells Protective diet:
that have spread throughout the body • Increase consumption of foods
- Vinblastine and Taxol rich in vitamins A and C
- Both types of treatments are also - Because these vitamins are
antioxidants, they will prevent
damaging to other normal cells the formation of free radicals
that can damage DNA
Hormonal therapy interferes with the cancer • Avoid salt-cured or pickled foods
cells’ reception of an external signal to divide
• Include vegetables from the
- Tamocifen cabbage family