5.

1 : MITOSIS

The necessity for cell division in living organisms.

 Cell division
 Helps to heal the wound
 There are two types of cell divisions ;
i. Mitosis
ii. Meiosis

What is Mitosis?

 is a type of cell division which involves the division of the nucleus to produce two
daughter cells, each containing the same number and same kind of chromosomes as
parent cell.
 occurs in all somatic cells (all body cells except the reproductive cells).
 Somatic cells contain two sets of chromosomes, one derived from the female parent
and the other from the male parent.
 two sets of chromosomes : diploid cells [ 2n ]
 single set of unpaired chromosomes : haploid cells [ n ]
 All gametes are haploid.
 each somatic cell divides to produce two new diploid cells identical to the parent cell.
 The significance of mitosis :
a. In multicellular organisms – mitosis produces new cells for growth, repair
and replace cells that are dead or damaged.
b. In unicellular organisms – mitosis is a form of asexsual reproduction to
increase the number of organisms.
c. Ensures that the offsprings / new cells are genetically identical to the
parent.
d. Preserves the diploid number of chromosomes.

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The Cell Cycle

 Contains of two major phases :

i. Interphase

ii. Mitotic phase ( M phase )

 During the M phase, there is mitotic cell division which includes both mitosis and

cytokinesis (also known as cytoplasmic division.)

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 Figure 5.1.1 : Cell Cycle

 Interphase

 Divided into three subphases :

1. G1 phase (1st gap)

2. S phase (synthesis)

3. G2 phase (2nd gap)

 During G1 and G2 phases, the cell grows by producing protein and

cytoplasmic organelles.

 In the S phase, synthesis of DNA occurs. The chromosomes are duplicated

and DNA has replicated to form two identical sister chromatids joined

together by centromere.

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 During interphase, the chromosomes are not visible but appear as thread-like

structures called chromatin.

 In general, interphase -phase where the cell prepares for cell division.

- involves synthesis of protein and organelles, growth,

replication of DNA, cell differentiation and storage of energy.

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5
 Figure 5.1.2 : Interphase

 The M phase ( mitosis and cytokinesis )

 Consist of two major parts :

1. Mitosis

 Can be further subdivided into four phases ;

i. Prophase

ii. Metaphase

iii. Anaphase

iv. Telophase

 The phases are not discrete events but a continuous process.

 Mitosis divides the nucleus and distributes its chromosomes to

the daughter nuclei.

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 Prophase

　 Metaphase

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 Anaphase

Telophase

Figure 5.1.3 : The stages of mitosis.

i. Prophase
 Centrioles move apart to opposite poles.
 The chromosomes coil up, condense and shorten.
 Each chromosomes appear – two identical chromatids called sister
chromatids attached together at the centromere.
 The nuclear membrane breaks down.
 The nucleolus disappears.
 The spindle fibres begin to form.

ii. Metaphase
 The chromosomes move to the cell’s equator.
 The chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell with the centromeres
attached to the spindle fibres.
 Each chromatid of the chromosomes faces its own pole.

iii. Anaphase
 The centromere of each chromosome divides into two.
 The sister chromatids of each chromosome separate and move to opposite
poles of the cell.
 The spindle fibres pull the centromere towards each pole with the chromatid
arms trailing behind.

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  When the chromatids reach their respective poles, the chromatids become
independent chromosomes.

iv. Telophase
 Final stage of mitosis.
 There are two sets of chromosomes, one at each pole.
 The chromosomes are not visible and appear as thread-like structure.
 The spindle fibres begin to disappear.
 The nuclear membranes begin to form around both sets of chromosomes. Two
daughter nuclei are formed; one at each pole.
 The nucleolus reappears in each daughter nucleus.
 Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) occurs at the end of telophase.
 The plasma membrane contricts around the equator of the cell dividing the
cytoplasm into two daughter cell

2. Cytokinesis

 Division of the cytoplasm.

 Occurs towards the end of telophase.

 In animal cell- actin filaments in the cytoplasm contracts

to pull a ring of the plasma membrane inwards, forming

groove called a CLEAVAGE FURROW [ photograph 5.1].

The cleavage furrow pinches at the equator of the cell and

deepens progressively until the cell is separated into two

daughter cells.

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Photograph 5.1.1 : Cytokinesis in an animal cell

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 In plant cell- a cleavage furrow does not form. Instead,

membrane-enclosed vesicles fuse to form a cell plate. The

cell plate grows outwards until its edges fuse with the

plasma membrane of the parent cell. New cell walls and

plasma membranes are formed from the contents of the

plate, which eventually divide the cell into daughter cells

[figure 5.1.5]. At the end of cytokinesis, cellulose fibres

are produced by the cells to strengthen the new cell walls.

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12
 Figure 5.1.5 : Cytokinesis in plant cell

The Importance of Controlled Mitosis

 The cell cycle is controlled by genes (basic unit of inheritance) in the chromosomes

and therefore control the process of mitosis.

 Each type of cell has its own timing and rate of cell division.

 This ability of the cell to divide at its own rate and timing is called controlled

mitosis.

 Mitosis that occurs as a controlled process is crucial to normal growth,

development and maintenance for the perpetuity of living things.

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Uncontrolled Mitosis in Living Things

 May be caused by too much exposure to ultraviolet rays, certain viruses and

certain chemicals in the food and air that are carcinogens

(cancer-causing agents).

 Uncontrolled mitosis occurs- the cells concerned divide unregulated and very fast.

 The number of abnormal cells produced increase very quickly, forming a mass of

abnormal cells called tumour.

 A tumour that remains at the original site is called a benign tumour.

 A tumour that is invasive and impairs the fuctions of other organs is called a

malignant tumour.

 An invidual with with malignant tumour is to said to have cancer.

 Cancer cells
 May spread through the blood in the circurlatory system or lymph vessels in
the lymphatic system to form more tumours.

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Application of Knowledge on Mitosis in Cloning

 The main purpose of applying the knowledge of mitosis in agriculture is to increase

the quantity of the products.

 Mitosis is also used to improve the quality, to produce new species and to ensure

uniformity in the traits of the plants.

 Application of knowledge on mitosis is widely used in cloning.

 Cloning
 Process of artificially creating a new invidual that is genetically identical
to an existing invidual.
 The new invidual is called a clone.
 The new individuals have the same genetic material as the parent.
 In plants
 Technique of cloning includes tissue culture
 Uses the apex of root and shoot apices of young leaves and
flower parts to produces clones.
 Are placed in culture medium mixed with hormones such
as auxin.
 Tissue culture :
 Technique in reproduction- involves the transfer of tissues
or cell from an organisms.
 In animals
 carried out by replacing the nucleus of an unfertilised egg cell with the
nucleus from a diploid cell.
 The offspring is produced by mitosis from a diploid cell and not by
fusion of gametes.
 Advantages of cloning :

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 a. Increases the rate of production and quality of the products.
b. Ensures the continuity of hereditary traits from the parent to the
clones.
c. Can be carried out any time of the year.
 Disadvantages of cloning :
a. If clone is infected with a disease or attacked by pests, then all the
clones will be affected and die. This will lead to the extinction of
the species.
b. Carried out under controlled environment. If the external
environment changes, then the clones will be destroyed.
c. Prevents natural selection.

5.2 : MEIOSIS

What is meiosis ?

 A form of cell division that produces four haploid gametes.

 Reduces the chromosome number by half.

 Each gamete receives one member from each pair of homologous chromosomes and

is genetically different from one another.

 Occurs in :

 Testes in male [human]

 Ovaries in female [human]

Reproductive organs
 Anthers and ovaries of flower [plant]

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Figure 5.2.1 : The human cycle life

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 The significance of meiosis :

a. To allow trait inheritance in offsprings.

b. To maintain diploid number in each generation.
c. To ensure the production of haploid gametes in sexual
reproduction.
d. To produce genetic variation among offsprings.
 Consist of two nuclei divisions :
1. Meiosis I [the 1st meiotic division]

2. Meiosis II [ the 2nd meiotic division]

 Each meiotic division consists of four phases ( table 5.1 ) :

Meiosis I Meiosis II
Prophase I Prophase II
Metaphase I Metaphase II
Anaphase I Anaphase II
Telophase I Telophase II

 During interphase :
a. Chromosomes are not visible and appear as thread-like structures called
chromatin.
b. Each chromosome replicates to form two sister chromatids joined
together at the centromere.
c. The centriole also replicates.

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Meiosis I

 Homologous chromosomes are separated into two haploid daughter cells.

 Reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid.

 Theres four phases of meiosis I :

i. Prophase I

a. Chromosomes begin to condense.

b. They become shorter, thicker and clearly visible.

c. Homologous chromosomes pair together to form bivalents through a

process called synapsis.

d. Each bivalent is visible under the microscope as four part structure –

tetrad.

 Consists of two homologous chromosomes each made up of

two sister chromatids

e. Non-sister chromatids exchange segments of DNA in a process known

as crossing over-results in a new combination of genes on a

chromosomes.

f. The points at which segments of chromatids cross over are called

chiasmata [chiasma ; singular]

g. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate.

h. Spindle fibres are formed.

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 ii. Metaphase I

a. Paired homologous chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell.

b. One chromosome of each pair faces each pole at the cell.

c. The chromatids of each chromosome are attached to the spindle fibres

at their centromeres.

iii. Anaphase I

a. The paired homologous chromosomes separate from one another

and move to opposite poles of the cell.

b. The spindle fibres pulled one chromosome of each homologous pair to

each pole.

c. Each chromosome moves with its centromere heading towards the pole

and the two sister chromatids trailing behind.

iv. Telaphase I

a. The chromosomes from each paired homologous chromosomes reach

the poles of the cell.

b. Each pole has a haploid chromosome set.

c. The spindle fibres disappear.

d. Mucler membranes and nucleoli reform.

e. Cytokinesis occurs. The plasma membrane constricts at the equator of

the cell to form two haploid daughter cells.

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Figure 5.2.2 : The stages in Meiosis I

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Meiosis II

 The sister chromatids of each daughter cell are saperated.

 Also has four stages same like meiosis I :

i. Prophase II
a. Centriole duplicates and moves to opposite pole.
b. Each chromosomes consists of two sister chromatids attached together
by centromere.
c. Nuclear membranes and nucleoli disingtegrate.
d. Spindle fibres form again.
ii. Metaphase II
a. The chromosomes line up at the equator with sister chromatids facing
opposite pole.
iii. Anaphase II
a. The centromeres holding the sister chromatids together split.
b. Chromatids separate.
c. Spindle fibres pull each chromatid to opposite poles.
iv. Telophase II
a. Chromatids reach the poles and become new chromosomes.
b. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus form again at each cluster of
chromosomes.
c. Chromosomes become extended and not visible.
d. Cytokinesis occurs and four haploid daughter cells are formed.

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Figure 5.2.3 : The Stages in Meosis II

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The Comparison Between Meisosis I And Meisosis II

Meiosis I Meiosis II

Similarities

 Both processes consist of four, that is prophase, metaphase,

anaphase and telophase.
 Both processes involve division of nucleus and division of
cytoplasm.

 Synapsis occur Differences

 No synapsis
 Crossing over occurs  No crossing over
 Metaphase I- paired homologous  Metaphase II- each chromosome
chromosomes line up at the equator with sister chromatids line up at the
equator.
 Anaphase I- paired homologous  Anaphase II- the sister chromatids
chromosomes separate and move to separate and move to opposite poles.
opposite poles.
 At the end of meiosis I, two haploid  At the end of meiosis II, four
cells are formed. haploid cells are formed.

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 The Comparison Between Meiosis and Mitosis

Meiosis Mitosis

Similarities..

 Both processes are division of cells

 In both processes, the chromosome replicates only once.

Differences..
Aspect...
 In reproductive organs Place occur  In somatic cells
 Parent cell divides Number of divisions  Parent cell divides once
twice
 Produces four haploid Number of daughter cells  Produces two diploid
daughter cells daughter cells
 Synapsis occurs during Synapsis of homologous  Synapsis does not occur
prophase I chromosomes
 Cytokinesis occurs Number of cytokinesis  Cytokinesis occurs once
twice
 Crossing over occurs Crossing over of chromatids  Crossing over does not
during prophase I of homologous chromosomes occur
 Each daughter cell has Number of chromosomes in  Each daughter cell has
half the number of daughter cells the same number of
chromosomes of the chromosomes as the
parent cell (n) parent cell (2n)
 Daughter cells are Genetic composition of  Daughter cells are
genetically non- daughter cells genetically identical to
identical to the parent the parent cell
cell and to each other
 Occurs once during DNA replication  Occurs during
interphase before interphase before
meiosis I mitosis begins
 Produces gametes, Role in the animal body  Produces cells for
results in genetic growth, maintenance
variation among the and repair of body
gametes, reduces tissues
chromosomes number

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 by half

The Uniqueness of Diploid Number of Chromosomes

in Organisms

 Each species of plant or animal has its own specific number of chromosomes in

diploid number.

 Diploid number of chromosomes in organisms ensures that the chromosomes can

exist in pairs.

 Chromosomes

 Same length
Would pair together and formed a pair
 Same centromere position homologous chromosomes
 Same staining patterns

 In eac pair of homologous chromosomes, one chromosome is from the father

(paternal chromosome) and the other is from the mother (maternal chromosome).

 Hence, in a human’s somatic cell (diploid cell) with 46 chromosomes, there are two

sets of 23 chromosomes, a maternal set and paternal set.

 Another uniqueness of diploid number of chromosomes in organisms-being diploid,

gametes that are haploid can be produced during meiosis. Through sexual

reproduction, the number can be maintained again.

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5.3 : Appreciating the Movement of Chromosomes during

Mitosis and Meiosis

 Whether organisms reproduce through mitotic cell division or meiotic cell division,

the ultimate aim is to ensure continuity of life on Earth.

 Mitosis and meiosis are regulated in a precise manner so that they do not go awry.

 The movement of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis must be precise.

 Cell division which goes wrong results in genetic diseases such as cancer and Down’s

Syndrome.

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Bibliography

i. Gan W. Y, Biology Form 4, 2005, Bakaprep Sdn.Bhd.

ii. Betsy T. L. H, Essential Biology SPM, 2011, Pearson Malaysia Sdn.Bhd

iii. http://www.sglearnonline.com/mitosis-and-meiosis.html

iv. http://www.scribd.com/doc/38842162/Mitosis-Notes

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