part- 2

part-2
1. Directional overcurrent relay
2. Distance relay
3. Differential relay
4. Fault area effect on impedance relay
5. Effect of power swing on distance relay
6. Protection of ring mains feeder
7. Overcurrent protection scheme
(a) Time graded
(b) Current graded
(c) Combination of time graded and current graded system
8. Carrier current protection

1
 part- 2

2.2.2.2 Induction Type Overcurrent Relay

Ann induction type overcurrent relay giving inverse time operation with a definite
minimum time characteristic is shown in figure2.10.. It consists essentially of an AC
energy metre mechanism with slight modification to give required characteristics.
The relay has two o electromagnets.
electromagnet The upper electromagnet has two o windi
windings, one of
these primary and is connected to the secondary of CTs in the line to be protected
and is tapped at intervals. The tapping
apping is connected to a plug setting bridge by which
number of turns in use can be adjusted. Thereby giving the desired current setting.
The plug bridge is usually arranged
arrang to give seven sections of tapping ping to g
give over
current range from 50% % to 200% in steps of 25%. If the relay is required to response
for earth fault the steps are arranged to give the range from 10 % to 70%. Adjustment
Ad
of current setting is made by inserting a pin between the spring-loaded
loaded jaw of the
bridge socket at the tap value required
required.. When the pin is withdrawn for the purpose of
changing the setting value while the relay in service.
service. The relay automatically adopts
higher setting, the CTss secondary is not open-circuited.
The second winding is energized by induction from the primary,
primary and is connected in
series with the winding on the lower magnet. By this arrangement
arrangement,, leakage fluxes of
upper and lower electromagnets
electrom are sufficiently displaced in space and phase to
setup a rotational
tional torque on aluminium disc suspended between the two magnets, as
in shaded
ded pole induction disc motor. This torque is controlled by the spiral spring
and also sometimes
times by a permanent magnet brake
bra on the disc.. The ttorque is given by
an expression
T = KI2rms – K2
where Irms is the current through the coil and K2 is the restraining torque of a spring.

Fig.2.10

2
 part- 2

The disc spindle carries a moving contacts which bridge two o fixed contacts (trip
circuit contacts)) when the disc has rotated through a pre-set angle. The angle can be
set to any value between 00 and 3600 and thereby giving desired time setting
setting. Since
the time required to rotate the disc through a pre
pre-set
set angle depends upon the torque
which vary as the current in the primary circuit therefore more the torque lesser will
be the time required. Soo the relay has inverse time characteristics.
In more recent designs, the definite minimum time characteristics is obtained by
saturating iron in the upper electromagnet so that there is practically no increas
increase in
flux after the current has reached a certain value
value.
The
he ratio of reset to pick up is inherently high in induction relay because their
operation does not involve any change in the air gap. it lies between 95% and 100%.
Characteristics curve: The currentt time characteristics of the relay has b been
illustrated in figure 4.12.. The curve gives
giv the relation between plug setting multiplier
(P.S.M.) along x-axis
axis and operating time along y-axis.
y

The P.S.M. is defined as the number of times the relay current is in excess of current
setting. From this
his curve operating time of relay from any current setting can be
obtained.
The actual operating time of relay from any desired value of current can be
determined as follow:
Let the CT of ratio x : y be used for connecting
connecting the relay. Percent current setting of
relay be Ir and time multiplier setting (T.M.S.) be t and If be the fault current.
current

If  y
lay current I r 
Relay
x
I r  100
Plug setting multiplier P.S .M . 
Re lay rated current  I p

Relay current is always taken as CT secondary current with which it is connected

3
 part- 2

I f  y  100
Hence P.S.M. 
x y Ip

Corresponding to above P.S.M. the operating time is determined from the current
time characteristic curve of relay actual operating time of the relay can be now
obtained by multiplying the operating time determined by time multiplier setting i.e.
t.
Example 4.1 It is given that fault current lavel at 33kv side is 2700 A; CT ratio at
33kv side is 200:1 and 132kv side is 100:1 refer figure 4.13. if both the relay R1 and
R2 are set for 100% plug settings
settings. Determine
etermine the operation time for both the relay
when time grading margin is 0
0.6 second is given and T.M.S. for the relay R1 is 0.15.

Solution :
2700  1
Re lay current I R1   13.5 A
200

4
 part- 2

I R  100
Plug setting multiplier P.S .M . 
Re lay rated current  I p
13.5  100
  13.5
1  100
(since R1 is set for100%)
For IDMT curvegiven in figure 4.12, theoperati
theoperating time
corresponding to PSM of 13.5 is 2.8sec.
 Actual operating time  0.15  2.8  0.42sec. Ans
2700  33
On 132kV side fault current I f   675 A
132
675  1
Re lay current I R 2   6.75 A
100
I R 2  100
Plug setting multiplier , P.S .M . 
Re lay rated current  I p
6.75  100
PSM   6.75
1  100
For IDMT curvegiven in figure 4.12, the operating time
corresponding to PSM of 6.75 is 4.2sec.
But this relay should operate 0.6sec. after the operation of R 1
Total operating time required  0.42  0.6  1.02sec. Ans
1.02
Hence, TMS for relay R2   0.25
4.2
2.2.2.3 Current Setting
Ann overcurrent relay can be used to clear the fault
current
nt of higher magnitudes, even by b its 'current
setting'. It can also be used at lower current say
50%, if the need arises, like in the case of ground
faults, where the relay is expected to clear the fault
even if magnitude of fault current reaches a
relatively lower value. This
his is achieved by
b tapping
in the current coil of relay.

For example, if an overcurrent relay is set at 200%

of its rating of 5 A, the relay will operate at 10 A
and if set at 50% the relay will operate for 2.5 A
and so on. This
his setting is called current setting
setting.

The ratio
atio of secondary current flowing through the relay coil, due to fault to pick up
current, is called plug setting multiplier.
multiplier

CT sec ondary current inthe relay coil

P.S .M . 
Pick  up current of the relay
CT primary current during (fault current)

Relay current setting  CT ratio

5
 part- 2

For example, supposeose a relay is connected to 400/5

400/ CT, and nd set at 1150% and if the
fault current on primary
ary side is 2400 A P.S.M. can be calculated as

Pick  up value  5  15  7.5 A

Fault current onthe primary  2400 A
CT ratio  400 / 5  80
2400
 PSM  4
7.5  80

2.2.2.4 Time Setting

Time setting multiplier is a measure of adjusting the timeme of operation of a relay. In
an induction type relay, the angular distance by which the moving part of the relay
travels for closing
sing the contacts can be adjusted to get different
ent operating times. There
are 10 steps
ps by which time can be set. The term Time Multiplier Settings (TMS or
TSM) is useded for these steps of time settings.

If at a particular value
lue of current or plug setting multiplier (PSM), the operating time
is 4 secs.
ecs. with TMS = 1, the operating time for the same current
current with TMS = 0.5
will be 4*0.5=
0.5= 2 secs only. The time-current
time current characteristic for different values of
TMS is shown in Fig.2.15.

6
 part- 2

Problem on PSM and TMS

Problem 1 : The current rating of relay
rel is 5 A and set at 150%,
0%, T.M.S. = 0.4; CT ratio
400/5, fault current 60000 A. Determine the operating time of relay. At TMS = 1 the
operating time at various PMS are shown in figure 2.15
5 and in the table below
PSM 2 4 5 8 10 20
Operating time in seconds 10 5 4 3 2.8 2.4

Solution
CT Ratio  400 / 5  80
Re lay setting current  5  1.5  7.5 A
Primary Fa ult C urrent
 PSM 
Relay Current Setting  CT Ratio
6000
  10
7.5  80
For PSM 10, the operating time from the table at TMS = 1, is 2.8 sec. But TMS =0.4
as per the problem.
Hence, with TMS = 0.4 the operating
o time will be 2.8 X 0.4 = 1.1 2 seconds
The
he operation of the relay commences when the operating to torque exceed the
restraining torque.. If current is the actuating quantity for a relay
relay, the operating
current is more than the restraining
restrai current as in case of a balance beam type relay,
the operating characteristics of the relay can be indicated as below:
below

7
 part- 2

2.3 Directional Earth Fault Relay or Directional Overcurrent Relay

A directional over current relay comprises of two elements viz directional element and
over current element. In directional elements, upper electromagnet is energized by
voltage V and lower magnet by current I. Whenever in the over current elementelement, the
upper magnet is energized by current I and lower magnet gnet by the E.M.F. induced in
another winding, which is shorted
s through the contactss of directional element. AAt the
instant of fault in proper direction, first
f rst of all, directional element operates which
causes the shorted
orted coil of the lower magnet of ov overcurrent
urrent element (relay)
(relay). The
overcurrent relay then starts measuring the magnitude of I and operate
operates when current
exceed the pick-up level.

8
 part- 2

For reverse direction of fault with respect to relay locations, the directional element
does not operate, hence over-current relay will also not operate though fault level is
more than the pickup level (because its lower coil remain open).

2.4 Distance Relays

Introduction: Distance relays are used Source
X
for protection of the transmission lines. Xn
Xn -line
They measure the impedance and Z
reactance from relay location up to the
Z = Impedance of Line
fault point. Since these quantities (Z, X)
are function of distance of fault from
relay location, so these relays are termed
LOAD
as distance relays.

Classifications of Distance Relays:

The principal types of distance relays are
(a) Impedance relay
(b) Reactance relay
(c) Admittance relay (MHO relay)

2.4.1 Impedance Relay

(i) Plane Impedance Relay
An impedance relay is a voltage restrained overcurrent relay. This is a device which
measures distance by comparing the fault current with the voltage across the fault
loop. It is simple in this case to have an amplitude comparator and the balanced beam
type structure is most commonly used.

9
 part- 2

To the C. B.
trip coil
K3 I
V

Restrain Operating

Fig.2.1
To realise the characteristics of an impedance relay, the current is compared with
voltage at relay location. The current produces a positive torque (operating torque) and
the voltage produces negative torque. The equation for the operating torque of an
electromagnet relay can be written as ( where K1, K2, and K3 are constants, K3 being the
torque due to control spring)

Operating Torque = K1 I 2
Restaing Torque = K 2V 2 + K 3
Net Torque, Tnet = K1 I 2 - K 2V 2 - K 3
At balance
Tnet = 0
K1 I 2 = K 2V 2 + K 3 (Char.of relay) (i)
K 3 is normally neglected
K1 I 2 = K 2V 2

(a) Characteristic Of The Impedance Relay On The V-I Plane

The equation (i ) is similar to
I  mV  K3
whenV is small
I  K3
OB is not straight line ( spring is not neglected)
At balance,K1 I 2 = K 2V 2
Neglecting Spring Effect
K2
I V
K1
For operations of The Relay
K1 I 2 > K 2V 2 Fig.2.2
K2
I V
K1

Fig.2.2 shows the operating characteristic of an impedance relay in terms of voltage and
current (on V-I plane). In case of an electromagnetic relay, the characteristic is slightly
10
 part- 2

bent near the origin due to the effect of control spring. In case of microprocessor based
or static relay, the characteristic will be a straight line.

(b) Characteristic Of Impedance Relay On The Z-Plan

Z Plane means R  X Plane or R  X diagram
K1 I 2 = K 2V 2 Fig.2.3

K1 V

K2 I
K1 X
Z Z  R 2  X 2  tan 1 ( )
K2 R
K1
Z  cons tant
K2
Z   cons tan t , which is a equation of circle.
For the Operation
K1 I 2 > K 2V 2
K1
Z
K2
when characteristic the impedance relay is plotted on R-X Plane as shown in Fig.2.3
which is a circle with origin being its centre, signifying that a simple impedance relay
would operate for any value of impedance lying within the circle. The characteristic also
depicts that the relay is not directional and it is essential to provide a directional relay
along with an impedance relay.

(c) Characteristic of Impedance Relay on Y-Plan

Y  Plan or G  B Plane
K1 1
K1 I 2 = K 2V 2 Z 
K2 Y
K2
K1 I 2 > K 2V 2 Y
K1
I 2 K2

V 2 K1
K2
Y
K1
It indicates that the relay will operate for Fig.2.4
any value of admittance lying outside the
circle.

(ii) Offset Impedance Relay (Modified Impedance Relay)

The characteristics of simple impedance relay can be modified and shifted anywhere in
the Z-plane by adding of voltage drop IZ0 in the voltage coil.

11
 part- 2

Operating Quantity  I
Rest raing Q uantity  V  IZ0
(Z0 is the external impedance)
At balance
.. To the trip coil
of C. B.
I
K1 I 2 = K 2 (V - IZ0 )2 V-IZo
Dividing by I 2
V
K1 = K 2 ( - Z0 ) 2  K 2 ( Z - Z0 ) 2 _
I
K1 Z
( Z - Z0 ) 
K2 +

+ . V ._ + . I ._

Z-Zo

Z
(K1/K2)1/2

o R

2.4.2 Reactance Relay (Directional Restrained O/C Relay)

A reactance relay measures the reactance of the line at the relay location, and is not
affected by variation in resistance, hence its performance remains unaffected by arc
resistance of the fault. In case of a fault on the protected line, the measured reactance
is the reactance of the line between relay location and the fault point.

12
 part- 2

Operating Torque = K1I 2 I

Restraing Torque = K2VIcos(  -  )
Net Torque, τ

Tnet = K1I 2 - K2 VI cos(  -  )- K3 (neglected) V
At balance 
Tnet = 0
IV
K1I 2 = K2VIcos(  -  )= 0
(Characterictics Equationof Relay)
 is kept equal to 900
K1I 2 - K2VIcos(  - 900 )= 0
K1I 2 - K2VIsin = 0
Characteristic on Z - plane
K1I 2 - K2VIsin = 0
Dividing above Equation by I 2
V
K1 - K2 sin = 0
x
I
K
Zsin = 1 Area of operation of Relay
K2
K1/K2
K
X= 1
K2 R
 Zsin  X & Zcos  R
For theOperationof the Re lay
K1 - K2 Zsin  0
K1 > K2 Zsin
K1
> Zsin
K2
K
X 1
K2

When plotted on R-X plane, the characteristic is represented by straight line parallel
to horizontal axis R as shown in Fig. It will operate when measured value of the
reactance is less than the predetermine value of K1/K2 . It is non-directional relay as
it will also operate for negative value of reactance. The negative value of X means
that the fault is behind the relay location i.e. in reverse direction. A directional unit
having a circular characteristics (Mho) is used in conjunction with reactance relays.

13
 part- 2

2.4.3 Admittance Or MHO Relay (Voltage Restrained Directional Relay)

Output Quantity = K1VIcos(  -  ) The MHO characteristics on R-X diagram
Restraining Quantity = K 2V 2 is a circle passing through origin.
Characteristics is directional and operate
Net Torque,Tnet = K1VIcos(  -  ) - K 2V 2
in one direction only.
For Operation of the Re lay,
X
Tnet  0, Therefore, K1VIcos(  -  ) - K 2V 2  0
This is Re lay Characteristic Equation
Dividing above Equation byV 2
I
K1 cos(  -  ) - K 2  0
V 
I R
K1 cos(  -  )= K 2
V
K Fig : Characteristics of MHO relay on Z-Plane
Z  1 cos(  -  ) (i)
K2
Above Equation is the Equation of Circle

Fig : Characteristics of MHO relay on Z-Plane

Characteristics of MHO Relay on Y Plane

From the above equation (i)
K1Ycos(  -  )= K 2
K
Ycos(  -  )= 2 (This is an eq uation of straight line)
K1
since it is similar to rcosθ=a, if θ=τ , Y=k2/k1
A mho relay measure components of admittance. But when plotted on impedance
plane (R-X Plane) is a circle, passing through the its origin. it is inherently a directional
relay as it detects the fault only in forward direction. This is obvious from its circular
characteristic passing through the origin as shown in Fig. It is called admittance relay. It
is also called a MHO relay because its characteristics is a straight line when plotted on
G-B-plane (Y-Plane).

14
 part- 2

2.5 Effect of Fault Area On Impedance Diagram

Figure shows the effect of fault resistance on the impedance diagram vectorially. If a
fault occurs at B without resistance, the relay located at A will measure an
impedance as AB. If there is an Arc resistance RF of Rarc it will be added to AB
vectorially. Now the relay at A will measure the impedance AC. The horizontal lines
show the value of fault resistance for faults at different point of the line AB. The area
ABCD is called the fault area.
X
Rarc= RF

Relay Xn-line F(Fault point)

Fault region

Figure :Effect of fault area on an impedance diagram

A fault may occur at F the relay may begins to operate. The fault impedance now
increases due to the arc resistance, the total impedance seen by relay will be sum of
the line impedance up to the fault and arc impedance. This may more than the
impedance setting of the relay in which operation will stop.

15
 part- 2

2.6 Effect of Arc Resistance On The Protection Of

Distance Relays
The arc resistance affects the performance of different types of distance relay to
different extents. Figure shows the characteristics of a MHO, reactance and impedance
relay on the R-X- diagram to protect the same line. If a fault occurs at the point F with
arc resistance R1 , the MHO relay fails to operate but the impedance and reactance relay
will operate. If the value of the arc resistance is R2 , the MHO and impedance relays fail to
operates but the reactance relay will operate.
This shows that the MHO relay is most affected, the impedance relay is moderately
affected and the reactance relay is least affected by arc resistance. As the reactance relay
measure only reactance it is not at all affected by arc resistance.

X
Reactance char.

F
MHO Relay R1
. .RArc resistance
2

o
0
R
e
a y nc
el a
R p ed
Im

2,7 Selection Of Distance Relays

The effect of arc resistance and power swing (surge) plays an important role in the
selection of distance relays for particular distance protective scheme. As the reactance
relay remain unaffected by arc resistance, it is preferred for ground fault relaying. The
reactance relay is also used for phase fault relay in case of short line.
As reactance relay are affected by power surge more than impedance and MHO relays.
They are not suitable for long lines. The effect of power surge stays for a longer period
in case of long lines and hence the relay which is least affected by power surge is
preferred for the protection of long lines. The MHO unit is less affected by power surge
than the impedance and reactance relay and hence it is best suited for protection of long
line against phase fault.

16
 part- 2

MHO char.
X
Reactance char.

F
MHO Relay

o
0
R

e
a y nc
el a
R p ed
Im

An impedance relay is moderately affected by both power surge as well as arc

resistance so it is better suited for medium line for phase fault relaying. There is no
sharp dividing line which can decide the choice of a distance relay for a particular
application. This discussion simply describes the basic principle. Practical experience
also plays an important role in the selection of distance relay for a particular situation.
The reactance relay may operate even in healthy condition if the power factor of the
load is very near to unity. Since decrease in reactance, hence relay will operate.
2.8 Effect Of Power Surges (Power Swing) On The Performances Of
Distance Relay
Consider a transmission line which connects two generating stations as shown in figure.
The current flowing through the transmission line depends upon the phase difference
between the voltage generated at the two ends of the line. The phase difference is equal
to the rotor angle. The phase angle between the generated voltages changes during
disturbances which may arise because of removal of a fault or a sudden change in the
load. During disturbances, the rotor of the generator swings around the final study state
value. When the rotor swings, the rotor angle changes and the current flowing through
the line also changes. Such currents are heavy and they are known as power surges. So
as long as the phase angle between the generated voltage goes on changing, the current
seen by the relay is also changing. Therefore, the impedance measured by the relay also
varies during power swings. Thus, a power surge seen by the relay appears like a fault
which is changing its distance from the relay location. The characteristics of some
important distance relays and power surge are shown on the R-X diagram. It is evident
from the figure that the relay characteristics occupying greater area on the R-X diagram
remains under the influence of power surges. The mho relay having the least area on R-
X diagram is least affected. The impedance relay characteristics has more area than the
mho relay but lesser area than the reactance relay. Therefore, while it is more effective
than the mho relay, it is affected less than the reactance relay. In other word, it is
moderately affected. The reactance relay occupying the largest area is most affected.

17
 part- 2

Directional unit operates, it closes the open contacts of secondary winding of the over-
current unit. Thus, a directional feature is attributed to the over-current relay. The over
current unit may be of either a wattmeter or shaded pole type. In shaded pole type, the
opening is made in shading coil which is in this case a wound coil instead of an ordinary
copper strip.

2.9 Differential Relay

A differential relay is that relay which operates when the phase difference of two or
more similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value. Almost any type of
relay, when connected in a particular way, can be made to operate as differential
relay.
In figure 4.18 an arrangement of an overcurrent relay connected to operate as
differential relay is shown. In this arrangement, a pair of current transformers are
connected on either end of the element to be protected and secondary winding of CTs
are connected in series so that they carry induced current in the same direction.
Normally when there is no fault or there is external fault the current in two CTs
secondary are equal and relay operating coil, therefore does not carry any current.
Whenever there is internal fault current in the two secondary of CTs fitted on either
end will be different and the relay operating coil will be energized by the current
equal to their difference and complete the trip circuit to operate the circuit breaker.

18
 part- 2

This system is adopted for the protection of feeders, alternator and transformers. The
CTs of two equal ratio are employed when use either at two ends of an alternator
winding or at two ends of feeder with no tapping. While using this system for
protection of transformer connection must be made for different currents
determined approximately by transformer turns ratio. Such a system used for
alternator (single phase) is shown in figure 4.18.

There are two drawbacks of this differential relay; (i) Exactly identical CTs are
required which is very difficult in practice and (ii) Even both CTs are identical but
they will not remain identical in saturation (external fault condition). To overcome
the above drawbacks, the differential scheme is modified, which is called as Merz-
Price percentage differential protection scheme in which besides the operating coil,
another called retraining coil is employed. The operating coil is connected to the
midpoint of the retraining coil.
Relay operating coil is fed from tapping on restraining coil as shown in figure 4.19(a).
The differential current required to operate this relay is a variable quantity of owing
to the effect of restraining coil. The differential current in the operating coil is (i1–i2)
and the equivalent current in the restraining coil is proportional to (i1+i2)/2 since the
operating coil is connected to the midpoint of restraining relay (The total numbers of
ampere turns becomes the sum of ampere turns its two halves i.e. i1. (N/2)+I2.(N/2
if N are the number of turns in retraining).
The ratio of differential current to average retraining current is a fix percentage.
Hence the relay is also called percentage differential relay. As the restraining coil also

19
 part- 2

called biased coil which provides additional flux, the relay using this, is also termed
as biased differential relay. The operating characteristics of such a relay are shown in
figure 4.20. Here the slight effect of control spring at low currents is also shown.

Voltage Balance Differential Relay:

This is an alternative arrangement of obtaining a differential protective gear. In this
arrangement, two current transformer are fitted at either end of each phases but
secondary of current transformer are connected so that EMFs in both oppose i.e.
current only flow through the operating coil when there is any difference of induced
voltage in secondary of two CTs. In normal condition i.e. when there is no fault in the
system equal current flow at two different end (i1 =i2) so induced voltages in
secondary of CTs are equal so no current will flow through the operating coil but
whenever fault occurs current will differ at the two ends so induced EMFs in the
secondary of CTs will differ and circulating current will flow through the operating
coil which will close the trip circuit.

To provide for capacity current, the relay used may be overcurrent type which should
operate only when difference of current on both sides exceed certain value.

20
 part- 2

In this system, no restraining coil or balancing resistance or overload coil is required.

Though this method is more reliable than current balance or circulating current
system but has great disadvantage that CTs do not carry current so acts as an open
circuited and insert high impedance in the circuit. This method may be employed for
protection of feeders, alternators and transformer. For use of Transformers the turn-
ratio of a transformer must be kept in view.

2.10 Protection of Parallel Feeders

Figure shows an overcurrent protective scheme for parallel feeders. At the sending end
of the feeders (at A and B) non-directional relays are required. The symbol ↔ indicates
a non-directional relay. At the other end of feeders (at C & D), directional overcurrent
relays are required. The arrow mark of directional relays placed at C & D indicate the
relay will operate if the current flows in the direction shown by the arrow. If a fault
occur at F, the directional relay D trips as the direction of current is reversed. The relay
at C does not trip as the current flow in the normal direction. The relay at B trips for
fault at F. Thus, the faulty feeder is isolated and the supply of healthy feeder is
maintained.
If non-directional relays are used at C and D
both relay placed at C & D will trip for a fault
at F. This is not desired as the healthy feeder
is also tripped. Due to this very reason relays
at C and D are directional overcurrent
relays. For faults at feeders, the direction of
current at A and B does not change and
hence relays used at A and B are non-
directional.

2.11 Protection of Ring Mains

Figure(a) shows an overcurrent scheme for the protection of ring feeder. Figure (b) is
another way of drawing the same scheme. Compared with radial feeders, the protection
of ring feeder is costly and complex. Each feeder requires two relays. A non-directional
relay is required at one end and a directional relay at another end. The operating time
for relays is determined by considering a grading, first in one direction and then in the
other direction as shown in figure 5.16.

21
 part- 2

If a fault occurs at F1 as shown in figure (a) the relay at C’ and D’ will trip to isolate the
faulty feeder. The relay at C will not trip as fault current is not flowing in its tripping
direction though its operating time is same as that of C’. Similarly, the relay at B and D
will not trip as the fault current are not in their tripping direction though their
operating time is less than the operating time of B’ and D’ respectively. figure (b)shows
an alternative way of drawing a same scheme. In this figure, load, though present are
not shown on buses A, B and D so as the make the figure simple to understand. If a fault
occurs at F2 the relay at A’ and D will trip. Figure (c) shows a scheme evolving even
greater number of feeders.

2.12 Directional Earth Fault Relay

For the protection against ground fault only one directional overcurrent relay is
required. Its operating principle and construction is similar to the directional
overcurrent relay discussed earlier. It contains two elements a directional element and
an IDMT element. The directional elements has two coils. One coil is energized by
current and other by voltage. The current coil of the directional element is energized by
residual current and the potential coil by residual voltage as shown in figure. This
connection is suitable for a place where the neutral point is not available. If the neutral
point of an alternator or transformer is grounded, the connection are made in Fig (b) if
the neutral point is grounded through a VT the voltage coil of directional earth fault
relay may be connected to the secondary of VT. The IDMT element has a plug setting up
20% to 80%.

22
 part- 2

A special five limbs VT which can energize both the earth fault relay as well as the phase
fault relay as shown in figure may be used.

2.13 Overcurrent Protective Scheme

Overcurrent protective scheme are widely used for the protection of distribution lines.
A radial feeder may be sectionalised and two or more overcurrent relays may be used,
one relay for protection of each section of the feeder as found in figure. If a fault occur
beyond C, circuit breaker at substation C should trip. The circuit breaker at A and B
should not trip as far as the normal operation is concerned. If the relay at C fails to
operate, the circuit breaker at B should trip as a backup protection. Similarly, if a fault
occurs between B and C the circuit breaker at B should trip. The circuit breaker at A
should not trip. But in the case of failure of relay and/or the circuit breaker at B, the
circuit breaker at A should trip. It is seen that the relay must be selective with each

23
 part- 2

other. For proper selectivity of the relay one of the following scheme can be employed
depending on the system conditions:
(i) Time graded system
(ii) Current graded system
(iii) A combination of time and current grading

(i) Time-Graded System: In this scheme, definite time overcurrent relay used. When
a definite time relay operates for a fault current, it starts a timing unit which trip the
circuit breaker after a pre-set time, which is independent of the fault current. The
operating time of the relay is adjusted in increasing order from the far end of the
feeder as shown in figure. The difference in the time setting of two adjacent relays is
usually kept at 0.5 second. This difference is to cover the operating time of the circuit
breaker and errors in the relay and CT. With fast circuit breaker and modern accurate
relays, it may be possible to reduce this time further to 0.4 s or 0.3 second.

When a fault occurs beyond C, all relays come into action as the fault current
follows through all of them. The least time setting is for the relay placed at C. So, it
operates after 0.5 second and the fault is cleared. Now the relays at A and B are re-
set. If the relay or current circuit breaker at C fails, the fault remains uncleared. In
this situation after 1 second, the relay at B will operate and circuit breaker at B will
trip. If the circuit breaker at B also fail to operate, after 1.5 second , circuit breaker
A will trip.
The drawback of this scheme is that for faults near the power source, the operating
time is more. If a fault occurs near the power source, it involves a large current and
hence it should be cleared quickly. But this scheme takes a longest time in clearing
the heaviest fault, which is undesirable because a heaviest fault is the most
destructive.
This scheme is suitable for a system where the impedance (distance) between
substation is low. It means that the fault current is practically the same if the fault
occur on any section of the feeder. This is true for a system in which the source
impedance Zs is more than the impedance of protect section ZL. If the neutral of
system is grounded through a resistance or an impedance, Zs is high and Zs/ (Zs +
ZL) is not sufficiently lower than unity. In this situation the advantage of inverse
time characteristics cannot be obtained. So, the definite relays can be employed
which are cheaper than IDMT relays. Definite time relays are a popular in Central
Europe.

24
 part- 2

(ii)Current Graded System:

System In a current-graded
graded scheme, the relays are set to
pick-up
up at progressively higher values of current towards the source. The relays
employed in this scheme are high set (high speed) instantaneous overcurrent
relays. The operating time is kept the same for all relays used to protect different
sections of the feeder, as shown in Fig.2. The The current setting for a relay
corresponds to the fault current level for the feeder section to be protected.
Ideally, the relay at B should trip for faults anywhere between B and C. But it
should not operate for faults beyond C. Similarly, the relay at A should trip for
faults between A and B.B The relay at C should trip for faults beyond C. This ideal
operation is not achieved due to the following reasons.

Fig 2

(a) The relay at A is not able to differentiate between faults very close to B which
may be on either side of B. If a fault in the section BC is very close to the station
B, the relay at A ‘understands’ that it is in section AB.. This happens due to the
fact that there
re is very little difference in fault currents if a fault occurs at the end
of the section AB or in the beginning of the section BC.
(b) The magnitude of the fault current cannot be accurately determined as all the
circuit parameters may not be known.
(c) During a fault, there is a transient condition and the performance of the relays is
not accurate.
Consequently, to obtain proper
discrimination, relays are set to protect only
a part of the feeder, usually about 80%.
Since this scheme cannot protect the entire
feeder,
der, this system is not used alone. It may
be used in conjunction with I.D.M.T. relays,
as shown in Figure. The performance of
instantaneous relays is affected by the dc
component of transients. The error
introduced by the dc offset component
causes the relay
lay to overreach.
Higher the X/R ratio of the system, greater is the problem. A dc filter is used to
overcome this problem. In the USA,
USA an instantaneous relay, employing induction cup
type construction is used for this purpose as it is less sensitive tto the DC offset
component. This arrangement also provides a high reset to pick-up
pick up ratio, more than
90%. The current-graded
graded scheme is used where the impedance between substations is
sufficient to create a margin of difference in fault currents. For such a ssystem Zs is

25
 part- 2

smaller compared to Zl. The advantage of this system as compared to the time
time-graded
scheme is that the operating time is less near the power source.

(iii) Combination of Current and Time-Grading:

Time This scheme is widely used for
the protection of distribution
ribution lines. I.D.M.T. relays are employed in this scheme.
They have the combined features of current and time-grading.
time grading. I.D.M.T. relays have
current as well as time setting arrangements. The current setting of the relay is
made according to the fault cur current
rent level of the particular section to be protected.
The relays are set to pick up progressively at higher current levels, towards the
source. Time setting is also done in a progressively increasing order towards the
source. The difference in operating times
times of two adjacent relays is kept 0.5 s.
An inverse time-current
current characteristic is desirable where Zs is small compared
with Zl. If a fault occurs near the substation, the fault current is I = E/Zs. If a fault
occurs at the far end of the protected secti
section, the fault current I = E/(Zs+ Z1). If Z1 is
high compared to Zs, there is an appreciable difference in the fault current for a
fault at the near end and for a fault at the far end of the protected section of the
feeder. For such a situation, a relay with wit inverse-time
time characteristic would trip
faster for a fault near the substation, which is a very desirable feature. Inverse time
relays on solidly grounded systems have an advantage. Definite-time
Definite time characteristic
is desirable where Zs is large compared to Z1. An I.D.M.T. characteristic is a
compromise. At lower values of fault current, its characteristic is an inverse
inverse-time
characteristic. At higher values of fault current, it gives a definite definite-time
characteristic.
Though I.D.M.T. relays are widely used for the the protection of distribution
systems and some other applications, in certain situations very inverse and
extremely inverse relays are used instead of I.D.M.T. relays.

Problem 2: An earth fault develops at point F on the feeder shown in the Fig. and the
fault
ult current is 16000 A. The IDMT relays at points A and B are fed via 800/5 A CTs: The
relay at B has a plug setting of 125% and time multiplier setting (TMS) of 0.2. The
circuit breakers take 0.20 s to clear the fault, and the relay error in each case is 0.15 s.
For a plug setting of 200% on the relay A,, determine the minimum TMS on that relay for
it not to operate before the circuit breaker at B has cleared the fault. A relay operating
time curve is same as shown in Fig.

Solution: The primary current in both relays is 16,000 A

CT ratio = 800/5 = 160
Thus, secondary current=Primary current/CT
current ratio
= 16,000/160
16,000 = 100 A
For relay at B,
Current setting = 125% of 5 A = 1.25 × 5 A

26
 part- 2

= 6.25 A
PSM =Secondary current/Relay current setting=100/6.25 = 16
From the curve in Fig., the operating time at PSM of 16 for a TMS of 1 =2.5 s
Since TMS of relay at B = 0.2,
Operating time of B = 0.2 × 2.5 s = 0.50 s
Discrimination time = time for breaker at B + twice relay error
= 0.20 + 2 × 0.15 = 0.50 s
This is because one relay may run rapidly while the second runs slowly. Moreover,
the relay at A does not reset until the breaker at B has interrupted the fault current.
Any overshoot of the relay A has been neglected.
Hence time for relay at A = operating time for B + discrimination time
= 0.50 s + 0.50 s = 1.00 s
Secondary current in A = 100 A
For relay at A, current setting = 200% of 5 A= 2 × 5 A = 10 A
Thus, PSM =100/10 = 10
From the curve in Fig., the operating time at PSM of 10 for a TMS of 1 =3.0 s.
But actual time required = 1.00 s
Hence required TMS for relay at A = 1.00/3.0= 0.33
i.e., the minimum value of TMS of relay at A must be 0.33.

2.14 Carrier Current Protection

In modern high-power electrical system, it is necessary to have quick acting protections
on long transmission lines. The requirement to be met by such protections are fully
satisfied by the circulating current differential protection with its high-sensitivity, quick
action and independence upon the settings of the adjoining section protections. Not
with standing this, going to the need for installing interconnecting conductors(cables)
are already pointed out in previous articles, circulating current differential protections
are confined to line up to 8 or 15 KMs long.
It is, however, possible to make use of the main line conductors as the
interconnecting conductors of a circulating current differential protection. The need for
special interconnecting conductor (cable) then disappear and it hence becomes possible
to setup a circulating current differential protection on transmission lines of any length.
This is the basics of what are called carrier current protections. The essential difference
between carrier current protection and the voltage balance (translay) pilot wire
protection is that in the former, only the phase angle of the current at the two ends of a
line are compared instead of actual current as in the letter case and this phase angle
decides whether the fault is internal or external.
To make possible the transmission of commercial frequency (50 Hz) load current
and at the same time use the main line conductors as the interconnecting conductors of
the differential protection, it is necessary to use a current of higher frequency in order
to be able to transmit current impulses from one end of the line to other. High frequency
signals in the range of 50 kHz to 400 kHz, commonly known as the carrier, are
transmitted over the conductors of the protected line. To inject the carrier signal and to
restrict it within the protected section of the lines suitable coupling apparatus and line
traps are used at both ends of the protected section. This obviously makes this
protection scheme quite expensive and justifies its application only in transmission

27
 part- 2

lines of110 KV and above. The

The schematic diagram of carrier current protection is given
in figure. The
he main elements
element of the carrier channel are (i) transmitter
itter (ii) receiver (iii)
coupling equipment and (iv) line trap.

Here wee need not to go through the details of carrier current transmitter or
receiver, all we need to know is that when a voltage of positive polarity is impressed on
the control circuit of transmitter,
transmitter it generates a high frequency output voltage. This
output voltage is impressed between one phase conductor of transmission line and the
earth as illustrated schematically in figure.
figure
Each
ach carrier current receiver receives carrier current from its local transmitter as
well as from the transmitter at the distance and of the line. In effect effect, the receiver
converts the received carrier current into a DC voltage that can be used in a relay or
other circuit to perform any desired function. The voltage is zero when carrier current
is not being received.
Line
ine trap unit is inserted between the bus
bus-bar
bar and connection of coupling capacitor
to the line. It is parallel LC network tuned to resonance at the high
high-frequency.
frequency. IIt hence
presents a high impedance to high frequency carrier current but a relatively low
impedance (lessless than 0.1 ohm
ohm) to the power frequency 50 Hz current. Traps are
employed to confine the carrier current to the protected section so as to avoid
interference with orr from other adjacent carrier
carrier current channel and also to avoid lloss
of carrier current signal in adjoining power circuit for any reason whats
whatsoever, external
short circuit being a principal reason. Consequently,
Consequently carrier current can flow only along
the line section between the trap.
tra
The
he coupling capacitor (CC) connects the high-frequency (carrier
carrier) equipment to
one of the line conductor and simultaneously serves serve to isolate the carrier equipment
from the high-powerpower line voltage. It prpresents
esents a relatively low reactance to high
frequency current (aboutabout 150 ohms at 500 KHz) and a high reactance to power
frequency (about
about 1.5 mega ohm at 50 Hz). To reduce impedance further low inductance
is connected in series with the coupling capacitor to provide a re resonance
sonance at carrier
frequency.
It is thus evident that commercial frequency current will be able to follow only
through the line conductors while the high high-frequency
frequency carrier current will circulate
when the receiver transmitter operates over the line conductor fitted with the high
frequency traps, through the coupling capacitor and through ground (the return
conductor).

28
 part- 2

There
here are different method of carrier current protection and basic forms of carrier
protection are: (i) directional comparison protection and (ii) phase comparison
protection.

2.14.1 Directional
ional Comparison Protection
The
he protection operates on the basis of comparison of fault power flow directions
at the two ends of the protected line. Operation takes place only when the flow of power
at both end of line is in the bus-to-line
b direction, a condition
ndition which will evidently only
arise in the event of a fault on the protected
protect section of line. With directional comparison
relaying, the carrier pilot informs the equipment at one end of the line how to
directional relay at the other end response to a short circuit.

The
he conditions for internal and external fault are illustrated in figure
figure. The relay at
both ends of the protected section responds to fault power flowing away from the bus
(tripping direction). For or faults in the protected section,
s power flow w in the tripping
direction at both ends. For or external fault power flow will be in opposite directions. A
simple signal through carrier ier pilot is transmitted from one end to another during faults
faults.
The
he pilot scheme can be employed for transmitting either blocking
blocking or permitting
signal. This possible carrier protections are of two types viz, carrier blocking scheme
and carrier permitting
ting scheme.
scheme
In a carrier blocking protection scheme,
scheme the presence of carrier prevents or block
operation of the protection.. Carrier is therefore, transmitted only upon the occurrence
of a fault and it employed to prevent tripping in the event of an external fault. In carrier
permitting a scheme, the presence of carrier permits operation of protection. The
carrier blocking scheme is more reliable than carrier permitting sschemecheme. This is because
if failure in the carrier permitting signal equipment will mean a failure in isolating the
fault, where as a failure in carrier blo blocking signal equipment isolates the section on
which no-fault exist.. However,
However such false operation is preferable to the failure to clear a
faulted section.
In a carrier blocking protection scheme normally no pilot signal is transmitted
from any terminal. Should a short circuit occur in an immediately adjacent line sec section,
a pilot signal is transmitted from any terminal where short circuit current flows out of
the line (i.e. in the non-tripping
tripping directional).
directional . While any station is transmitting a pilot
signal tripping is block at all other stations. But should a short cir circuit occur on the
protected section of the line,
line no pilot signal is transmitted and tripping occurs at any
terminal where short circuit current flows. Therefore,
Therefore the pilot is blocking pilot since
the reception of a pilot signal is not required of permitting
permittin tripping.

29
 part- 2

Directional comparison protection scheme (carrier blocking ing type

type) is illustrated in
figure. The operation of the directional element provide on each breaker is indicated by
the arrow and Non-operation
operation by the letter O. Occurrence of fault activates
vates relay on each
of the breakers near the fault. This relay
rel y unless blocked from operation cause tripping
of breakers. The blockinging signal is controlled by the directional relay
relay on each breaker
and is transmitted from one end of a protected section to the the other by cacarrier. If a
directional element determined the fault is external to the protected section a signal is
transmitted blocking the protection of breaker at both end ends of section. In case the
directional element at both ends determined that fault is in the protected section section, no
blocking signal is transmitted from either end, and both breaker trip. The sequence of
the event of for a fault at F is made clear by illustration in figure.
At breaker 1 the directional elements show that the fault may be in the section 1-2.
This breaker trips if no blocking signal is received.
received No o blocking signal is transmitted to
breaker 2. At breaker 2 the directional elements show that the fault is not in section 1 1-2.
A carrier signal is transmitted that block tripping of both breakers 1 and 2. 2
Att breaker 3 and 4 the directional elements so that the fault may be in section 3 3-4.
Noo blocking signal is transmitted and after a very short time delay (1 1 to 3 cycles) both
the breaker 3 and 4 trip.

2.14.2 Phase Comparison Carrier Protection

Phase comparison relayying
ing equipment uses its pilot to compare the phase relation
between current entering in the protected zone and current leaving
l ving the protected zone.
The current magnitudes are not compared. Phase comparison protection provides only
main or primary protection, backup protection must be provided in addition.
Figure shows schematically the principal elements of the equipment provided at
both end of a two-terminal
terminal transmission line,
line employing a carrier current pilot. As in AC
wire pilot protection, the transmission line CTs feed a network that transform the CT
output current into a single--phase
phase sinusoidal output voltage. This voltage is applied to a
carrier current transmitter and to a comparer. The output of carrierr current receiver is
also applied to the comparer
arer. The comparer controls the operation of an auxiliary relay
for triping the transmission line circuit breaker. These elements provide means for
transmitting and receiving carrier current signal for comparing at each end of the
relative
ative phase relation of the transmission line current at both ends of the line.

30
 part- 2

For examining the relation between the network output voltage at both end ends of the
line and also the carrier current signals
signal that are transmitted during external and
internal fault conditions refer to figure. For an external fault at point D in figure, the
network output voltages at section A and B (wave a and c) are 1800 out of phase
phase. This is
because the connections of CTs at the two stations are reversed. Since an AC voltage is
used to control the transmitter carrier current is transmitted only during the half cycle
of the voltage wave when the polarity is positive. The carrier current signal transmitted
from station A and B(wave b and d) are displaced in time, so that there is always carrier
current signal being sent from one end or another end.

31