part- 2

part-2
1. Directional overcurrent relay
2. Distance relay
3. Differential relay
4. Fault area effect on impedance relay
5. Effect of power swing on distance relay
6. Protection of ring mains feeder
7. Overcurrent protection scheme
(a) Time graded
(b) Current graded
(c) Combination of time graded and current graded system
8. Carrier current protection

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2.2.2.2 Induction Type Overcurrent Relay

An induction type overcurrent relay giving inverse time operation with a definite
minimum time characteristic is shown in figure2.10. It consists essentially of an AC
energy metre mechanism with slight modification to give required characteristics.
The relay has two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet has two windings, one of
these primary and is connected to the secondary of CTs in the line to be protected
and is tapped at intervals. The tapping is connected to a plug setting bridge by which
number of turns in use can be adjusted. Thereby giving the desired current setting.
The plug bridge is usually arranged to give seven sections of tapping to give over
current range from 50% to 200% in steps of 25%. If the relay is required to response
for earth fault the steps are arranged to give the range from 10 % to 70%. Adjustment
of current setting is made by inserting a pin between the spring-loaded jaw of the
bridge socket at the tap value required. When the pin is withdrawn for the purpose of
changing the setting value while the relay in service. The relay automatically adopts
higher setting, the CTs secondary is not open-circuited.
The second winding is energized by induction from the primary, and is connected in
series with the winding on the lower magnet. By this arrangement, leakage fluxes of
upper and lower electromagnets are sufficiently displaced in space and phase to
setup a rotational torque on aluminium disc suspended between the two magnets, as
in shaded pole induction disc motor. This torque is controlled by the spiral spring
and also sometimes by a permanent magnet brake on the disc. The torque is given by
an expression
T = KI2rms – K2
where Irms is the current through the coil and K2 is the restraining torque of a spring.

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Fig.2.10
The disc spindle carries a moving contacts which bridge two fixed contacts (trip
circuit contacts) when the disc has rotated through a pre-set angle. The angle can be
set to any value between 00 and 3600 and thereby giving desired time setting. Since
the time required to rotate the disc through a pre-set angle depends upon the torque
which vary as the current in the primary circuit therefore more the torque lesser will
be the time required. So the relay has inverse time characteristics.
In more recent designs, the definite minimum time characteristics is obtained by
saturating iron in the upper electromagnet so that there is practically no increase in
flux after the current has reached a certain value.
The ratio of reset to pick up is inherently high in induction relay because their
operation does not involve any change in the air gap. it lies between 95% and 100%.
Characteristics curve: The current time characteristics of the relay has been
illustrated in figure 4.12. The curve gives the relation between plug setting multiplier
(P.S.M.) along x-axis and operating time along y-axis.

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The P.S.M. is defined as the number of times the relay current is in excess of current
setting. From this curve operating time of relay from any current setting can be
obtained.
The actual operating time of relay from any desired value of current can be
determined as follow:
Let the CT of ratio x : y be used for connecting the relay. Percent current setting of
relay be Ir and time multiplier setting (T.M.S.) be t and If be the fault current.

Relay current is always taken as CT secondary current with which it is connected

Corresponding to above P.S.M. the operating time is determined from the current
time characteristic curve of relay actual operating time of the relay can be now
obtained by multiplying the operating time determined by time multiplier setting i.e.
t.
Example 4.1 It is given that fault current lavel at 33kv side is 2700 A; CT ratio at 33kv
side is 200:1 and 132kv side is 100:1 refer figure 4.13. if both the relay R1 and R2 are
set for 100% plug settings. Determine the operation time for both the relay when
time grading margin is 0.6 second is given and T.M.S. for the relay R1 is 0.15.

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 part- 2

2.2.2.3 Current Setting

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 part- 2

An overcurrent relay can be used to clear the fault

current of higher magnitudes, even by its 'current
setting'. It can also be used at lower current say
50%, if the need arises, like in the case of ground
faults, where the relay is expected to clear the fault
even if magnitude of fault current reaches a
relatively lower value. This is achieved by tapping
in the current coil of relay.

For example, if an overcurrent relay is set at 200%

of its rating of 5 A, the relay will operate at 10 A
and if set at 50% the relay will operate for 2.5 A
and so on. This setting is called current setting.

The ratio of secondary current flowing through the relay coil, due to fault to pick up
current, is called plug setting multiplier.

For example, suppose a relay is connected to 400/5 CT, and set at 150% and if the
fault current on primary side is 2400 A P.S.M. can be calculated as

2.2.2.4 Time Setting

Time setting multiplier is a measure of adjusting the time of operation of a relay. In
an induction type relay, the angular distance by which the moving part of the relay
travels for closing the contacts can be adjusted to get different operating times. There
are 10 steps by which time can be set. The term Time Multiplier Settings (TMS or
TSM) is used for these steps of time settings.

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If at a particular value of current or plug setting multiplier (PSM), the operating time
is 4 secs. with TMS = 1, the operating time for the same current with TMS = 0.5
will be 4*0.5= 2 secs only. The time-current characteristic for different values of
TMS is shown in Fig.2.15.

Problem on PSM and TMS

Problem 1 : The current rating of relay is 5 A and set at 150%, T.M.S. = 0.4; CT ratio
400/5, fault current 6000 A. Determine the operating time of relay. At TMS = 1 the
operating time at various PMS are shown in figure 2.15 and in the table below
PSM 2 4 5 8 10 20
Operating time in seconds 10 5 4 3 2.8 2.4

For PSM 10, the operating time from the table at TMS = 1, is 2.8 sec. But TMS =0.4
as per the problem.
Hence, with TMS = 0.4 the operating time will be 2.8 X 0.4 = 1.1 2 seconds
The operation of the relay commences when the operating torque exceed the
restraining torque. If current is the actuating quantity for a relay, the operating
current is more than the restraining current as in case of a balance beam type relay,
the operating characteristics of the relay can be indicated as below:

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 part- 2

2.3 Directional Earth Fault Relay or Directional Overcurrent Relay

A directional over current relay comprises of two elements viz directional

element and over current element. In directional elements, upper electromagnet
is energized by voltage V and lower magnet by current I. Whenever in the over
current element, the upper magnet is energized by current I and lower magnet
by the E.M.F. induced in another winding, which is shorted through the contacts
of directional element. At the instant of fault in proper direction, first of all,
directional elements operates which closes the shorted coil of the lower magnet
of overcurrent element (relay). The overcurrent relay then starts measuring the
magnitude of I and operates when current exceed the pick-up level.

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For reverse direction of fault with respect to relay location, the directional
element does not operate, hence over-current relay will also not operate though
fault level is more than the pickup level (because its lower coil remain open).

2.4 Distance Relays

Introduction: Distance relays are

used for protection of the
transmission lines. They measure the
impedance and reactance from relay
location up to the fault point. Since
these quantities (Z, X) are function of
distance of fault from relay location,
so these relays are termed as
distance relays.

Classifications of Distance Relays:

The principal types of distance relays are
(a) Impedance relay
(b) Reactance relay

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(c) Admittance relay (MHO relay)

2.4.1 Impedance Relay

(i) Plane Impedance Relay
An impedance relay is a voltage restrained overcurrent relay. This is a device
which measures distance by comparing the fault current with the voltage
across the fault loop. It is simple in this case to have an amplitude comparator
and the balanced beam type structure is most commonly used.

Fig.2.1

To realise the characteristics of an impedance relay, the current is compared

with voltage at relay location. The current produces a positive torque (operating
torque) and the voltage produces negative torque. The equation for the
operating torque of an electromagnet relay can be written as ( where K1, K2, and
K3 are constants, K3 being the torque due to control spring)

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(a) Characteristic of The Impedance Relay on The V-I Plane

Fig.2.2

Fig.2.2 shows the operating characteristic of an impedance relay in terms of

voltage and current (on V-I plane). In case of an electromagnetic relay, the
characteristic is slightly bent near the origin due to the effect of control spring.
In case of microprocessor based or static relay, the characteristic will be a
straight line.

(b) Characteristic of Impedance Relay on The Z-Plan

Fig.2.3

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When characteristic the impedance relay is plotted on R-X Plane as shown in

Fig.2.3 which is a circle with origin being its centre, signifying that a simple
impedance relay would operate for any value of impedance lying within the
circle. The characteristic also depicts that the relay is not directional and it is
essential to provide a directional relay along with an impedance relay.

(c) Characteristic of Impedance Relay on Y-Plan

Fig.2.4
It indicates that the relay will operate
for any value of admittance lying
outside the circle.

(ii) Offset Impedance Relay (Modified Impedance Relay)

The characteristics of simple impedance relay can be modified and shifted

anywhere in the Z-plane by adding of voltage drop IZ0 in the voltage coil.

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2.4.2 Reactance Relay (Directional Restrained O/C Relay)

A reactance relay measures the reactance of the line at the relay location, and is not
affected by variation in resistance, hence its performance remains unaffected by arc
resistance of the fault. In case of a fault on the protected line, the measured reactance
is the reactance of the line between relay location and the fault point.

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When plotted on R-X plane, the characteristic is represented by straight line parallel
to horizontal axis R as shown in Fig.
It will operate when measured value of the reactance is less than the predetermine
value of K1/K2. It is non-directional relay as it will also operate for negative value of
reactance. The negative value of X means that the fault is behind the relay location i.e.
in reverse direction. A directional unit having a circular characteristics (Mho) is used
in conjunction with reactance relays.

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2.4.3 Admittance Or MHO Relay (Voltage Restrained Directional

Relay)
The MHO characteristics on R-X
diagram is a circle passing through
origin. Characteristics is directional
and operate in one direction only.

Fig : Characteristics of MHO relay on Z-

Plane

Fig : Characteristics of MHO relay on Z-

Plane

Characteristics of MHO Relay on Y Plane

From the above equation (i)

Since it is similar to rcosθ=a, if θ=τ , Y=k2/k1

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A mho relay measure components of admittance. But when plotted on

impedance plane (R-X Plane) is a circle, passing through the its origin. It is
inherently a directional relay as it detects the fault only in forward direction.
This is obvious from its circular characteristic passing through the origin as
shown in Fig. It is called admittance relay. It is also called a MHO relay because
its characteristics is a straight line when plotted on G-B-plane (Y-Plane).

2.5 Effect of Fault Area On Impedance Diagram

Figure shows the effect of fault resistance on the impedance diagram

vectorially. If a fault occurs at B without resistance, the relay located at A
will measure an impedance as AB. If there is an Arc resistance RF of Rarc . It
will be added to AB vectorially. Now the relay at A will measure the
impedance AC. The horizontal lines show the value of fault resistance for
faults at different point of the line AB. The area ABCD is called the fault
area.

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Figure :Effect of fault area on an impedance diagram

A fault may occur at F the relay may begins to operate. The fault impedance
now increases due to the arc resistance, the total impedance seen by relay
will be sum of the line impedance up to the fault and arc impedance. This
may more than the impedance setting of the relay in which operation will
stop.

2.6 Effect of Arc Resistance On The Protection Of Distance

Relays
The arc resistance affects the performance of different types of distance relay
to different extents. Figure shows the characteristics of a MHO, reactance and
impedance relay on the R-X- diagram to protect the same line. If a fault occurs

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at the point F with arc resistance R1 , the MHO relay fails to operate but the
impedance and reactance relay will operate. If the value of the arc resistance is
R2 , the MHO and impedance relays fail to operates but the reactance relay will
operate.

This shows that the MHO relay is most affected, the impedance relay is
moderately affected and the reactance relay is least affected by arc resistance.
As the reactance relay measure only reactance it is not at all affected by arc
resistance.

2,7 Selection Of Distance Relays

The effect of arc resistance and power swing (surge) plays an important role in
the selection of distance relays for particular distance protective scheme. As
the reactance relay remain unaffected by arc resistance, it is preferred for
ground fault relaying. The reactance relay is also used for phase fault relay in
case of short line.

As reactance relay are affected by power surge more than impedance and MHO
relays. They are not suitable for long lines. The effect of power surge stays for
a longer period in case of long lines and hence the relay which is least affected
by power surge is preferred for the protection of long lines. The MHO unit is

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less affected by power surge than the impedance and reactance relay and
hence it is best suited for protection of long line against phase fault.

An impedance relay is moderately affected by both power surge as well as arc

resistance so it is better suited for medium line for phase fault relaying. There is
no sharp dividing line which can decide the choice of a distance relay for a
particular application. This discussion simply describes the basic principle.
Practical experience also plays an important role in the selection of distance
relay for a particular situation.

The reactance relay may operate even in healthy condition if the power factor of
the load is very near to unity. Since decrease in reactance, hence relay will
operate.

2.8 Effect Of Power Surges (Power Swing) On The Performances Of Distance Relay

Consider a transmission line which connects two generating stations as shown

in figure. The current flowing through the transmission line depends upon the
phase difference between the voltage generated at the two ends of the line. The
phase difference is equal to the rotor angle. The phase angle between the
generated voltages changes during disturbances which may arise because of
removal of a fault or a sudden change in the load. During disturbances, the rotor

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of the generator swings around the final study state value. When the rotor
swings, the rotor angle changes and the current flowing through the line also
changes. Such currents are heavy and they are known as power surges. So as
long as the phase angle between the generated voltage goes on changing, the
current seen by the relay is also changing. Therefore, the impedance measured
by the relay also varies during power swings. Thus, a power surge seen by the
relay appears like a fault which is changing its distance from the relay location.
The characteristics of some important distance relays and power surge are
shown on the R-X diagram. It is evident from the figure that the relay
characteristics occupying greater area on the R-X diagram remains under the
influence of power surges. The mho relay having the least area on R-X diagram
is least affected. The impedance relay characteristics has more area than the
mho relay but lesser area than the reactance relay. Therefore, while it is more
effective than the mho relay, it is affected less than the reactance relay. In other
word, it is moderately affected. The reactance relay occupying the largest area
is most affected.

Directional unit operates, it closes the open contacts of secondary winding of

the over-current unit. Thus, a directional feature is attributed to the over-
current relay. The over current unit may be of either a wattmeter or shaded pole
type. In shaded pole type, the opening is made in shading coil which is in this
case a wound coil instead of an ordinary copper strip.

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2.9 Differential Relay

A differential relay is that relay which operates when the phase difference of two or
more similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value. Almost any type of
relay, when connected in a particular way, can be made to operate as differential
relay.
In figure 4.18 an arrangement of an overcurrent relay connected to operate as
differential relay is shown. In this arrangement, a pair of current transformers are
connected on either end of the element to be protected and secondary winding of CTs
are connected in series so that they carry induced current in the same direction.
Normally when there is no fault or there is external fault the current in two CTs
secondary are equal and relay operating coil, therefore does not carry any current.
Whenever there is internal fault current in the two secondary of CTs fitted on either
end will be different and the relay operating coil will be energized by the current
equal to their difference and complete the trip circuit to operate the circuit breaker.

This system is adopted for the protection of feeders, alternator and transformers. The
CTs of two equal ratio are employed when use either at two ends of an alternator
winding or at two ends of feeder with no tapping. While using this system for
protection of transformer connection must be made for different currents
determined approximately by transformer turns ratio. Such a system used for
alternator (single phase) is shown in figure 4.18.

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There are two drawbacks of this differential relay; (i) Exactly identical CTs are
required which is very difficult in practice and (ii) Even both CTs are identical but
they will not remain identical in saturation (external fault condition). To overcome
the above drawbacks, the differential scheme is modified, which is called as Merz-
Price percentage differential protection scheme in which besides the operating coil,
another called retraining coil is employed. The operating coil is connected to the
midpoint of the retraining coil.
Relay operating coil is fed from tapping on restraining coil as shown in figure 4.19(a).
The differential current required to operate this relay is a variable quantity of owing
to the effect of restraining coil. The differential current in the operating coil is (i1–i2)
and the equivalent current in the restraining coil is proportional to (i1+i2)/2 since the
operating coil is connected to the midpoint of restraining relay (The total numbers of
ampere turns becomes the sum of ampere turns its two halves i.e. i1. (N/2)+I2.(N/2
if N are the number of turns in retraining).
The ratio of differential current to average retraining current is a fix percentage.
Hence the relay is also called percentage differential relay. As the restraining coil also
called biased coil which provides additional flux, the relay using this, is also termed
as biased differential relay. The operating characteristics of such a relay are shown in
figure 4.20. Here the slight effect of control spring at low currents is also shown.

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Voltage Balance Differential Relay:

This is an alternative arrangement of obtaining a differential protective gear. In this
arrangement, two current transformer are fitted at either end of each phases but
secondary of current transformer are connected so that EMFs in both oppose i.e.
current only flow through the operating coil when there is any difference of induced
voltage in secondary of two CTs. In normal condition i.e. when there is no fault in the
system equal current flow at two different end (i1 =i2) so induced voltages in
secondary of CTs are equal so no current will flow through the operating coil but
whenever fault occurs current will differ at the two ends so induced EMFs in the
secondary of CTs will differ and circulating current will flow through the operating
coil which will close the trip circuit.

To provide for capacity current, the relay used may be overcurrent type which should
operate only when difference of current on both sides exceed certain value.
In this system, no restraining coil or balancing resistance or overload coil is required.
Though this method is more reliable than current balance or circulating current
system but has great disadvantage that CTs do not carry current so acts as an open
circuited and insert high impedance in the circuit. This method may be employed for
protection of feeders, alternators and transformer. For use of Transformers the turn-
ratio of a transformer must be kept in view.

2.10 Protection of Parallel Feeders

Figure shows an overcurrent protective scheme for parallel feeders. At the

sending end of the feeders (at A and B) non-directional relays are required. The
symbol ↔ indicates a non-directional relay. At the other end of feeders (at C &

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D), directional overcurrent relays are required. The arrow mark of directional
relays placed at C & D indicate the relay will operate if the current flows in the
direction shown by the arrow. If a fault occur at F, the directional relay D trips
as the direction of current is reversed. The relay at C does not trip as the
current flow in the normal direction. The relay at B trips for fault at F. Thus, the
faulty feeder is isolated and the supply of healthy feeder is maintained.

If non-directional relays are used at C

and D both relay placed at C & D will
trip for a fault at F. This is not desired
as the healthy feeder is also tripped.
Due to this very reason relays at C and
D are directional overcurrent relays. For
faults at feeders, the direction of current
at A and B does not change and hence
relays used at A and B are non-
directional.

2.11 Protection of Ring Mains

Figure(a) shows an overcurrent scheme for the protection of ring feeder. Figure
(b) is another way of drawing the same scheme. Compared with radial feeders,
the protection of ring feeder is costly and complex. Each feeder requires two
relays. A non-directional relay is required at one end and a directional relay at
another end. The operating time for relays is determined by considering a
grading, first in one direction and then in the other direction as shown in figure
5.16.

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 part- 2

If a fault occurs at F1 as shown in figure (a) the relay at C’ and D’ will trip to
isolate the faulty feeder. The relay at C will not trip as fault current is not
flowing in its tripping direction though its operating time is same as that of C’.
Similarly, the relay at B and D will not trip as the fault current are not in their
tripping direction though their operating time is less than the operating time of
B’ and D’ respectively. figure (b)shows an alternative way of drawing a same
scheme. In this figure, load, though present are not shown on buses A, B and D
so as the make the figure simple to understand. If a fault occurs at F2 the relay
at A’ and D will trip. Figure (c) shows a scheme evolving even greater number of
feeders.

2.12 Directional Earth Fault Relay

For the protection against ground fault only one directional overcurrent relay is
required. Its operating principle and construction is similar to the directional
overcurrent relay discussed earlier. It contains two elements a directional
element and an IDMT element. The directional elements has two coils. One coil
is energized by current and other by voltage. The current coil of the directional

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element is energized by residual current and the potential coil by residual

voltage as shown in figure. This connection is suitable for a place where the
neutral point is not available. If the neutral point of an alternator or transformer
is grounded, the connection are made in Fig (b) if the neutral point is grounded
through a VT the voltage coil of directional earth fault relay may be connected
to the secondary of VT. The IDMT element has a plug setting up 20% to 80%.

A special five limbs VT which can energize both the earth fault relay as well as
the phase fault relay as shown in figure may be used.

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 part- 2

2.13 Overcurrent Protective Scheme

Overcurrent protective scheme are widely used for the protection of distribution
lines. A radial feeder may be sectionalised and two or more overcurrent relays
may be used, one relay for protection of each section of the feeder as found in
figure. If a fault occur beyond C, circuit breaker at substation C should trip.
The circuit breaker at A and B should not trip as far as the normal operation is
concerned. If the relay at C fails to operate, the circuit breaker at B should trip
as a backup protection. Similarly, if a fault occurs between B and C the circuit
breaker at B should trip. The circuit breaker at A should not trip. But in the case
of failure of relay and/or the circuit breaker at B, the circuit breaker at A should
trip. It is seen that the relay must be selective with each other. For proper
selectivity of the relay one of the following scheme can be employed depending
on the system conditions:

(i) Time graded system

(ii) Current graded system

(iii) A combination of time and current grading

(i) Time-Graded System: In this scheme, definite time overcurrent relay used.
When a definite time relay operates for a fault current, it starts a timing unit
which trip the circuit breaker after a pre-set time, which is independent of the
fault current. The operating time of the relay is adjusted in increasing order
from the far end of the feeder as shown in figure. The difference in the time
setting of two adjacent relays is usually kept at 0.5 second. This difference is
to cover the operating time of the circuit breaker and errors in the relay and
CT. With fast circuit breaker and modern accurate relays, it may be possible to
reduce this time further to 0.4 s or 0.3 second.

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When a fault occurs beyond C, all relays come into action as the fault
current follows through all of them. The least time setting is for the relay
placed at C. So, it operates after 0.5 second and the fault is cleared. Now
the relays at A and B are re-set. If the relay or current circuit breaker at C
fails, the fault remains uncleared. In this situation after 1 second, the relay
at B will operate and circuit breaker at B will trip. If the circuit breaker at B
also fail to operate, after 1.5 second , circuit breaker A will trip.
The drawback of this scheme is that for faults near the power source, the
operating time is more. If a fault occurs near the power source, it involves a
large current and hence it should be cleared quickly. But this scheme takes
a longest time in clearing the heaviest fault, which is undesirable because a
heaviest fault is the most destructive.
This scheme is suitable for a system where the impedance (distance)
between substation is low. It means that the fault current is practically the
same if the fault occur on any section of the feeder. This is true for a
system in which the source impedance Zs is more than the impedance of
protect section ZL. If the neutral of system is grounded through a resistance
or an impedance, Zs is high and Zs/ (Zs + ZL) is not sufficiently lower than
unity. In this situation the advantage of inverse time characteristics cannot
be obtained. So, the definite relays can be employed which are cheaper
than IDMT relays. Definite time relays are a popular in Central Europe.

(ii)Current Graded System: In a current-graded scheme, the relays are set

to pick-up at progressively higher values of current towards the source.

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The relays employed in this scheme are high set (high speed) instantaneous
overcurrent relays. The operating time is kept the same for all relays used
to protect different sections of the feeder, as shown in Fig.2. The current
setting for a relay corresponds to the fault current level for the feeder
section to be protected.
Ideally, the relay at B should trip for faults anywhere between B and C. But
it should not operate for faults beyond C. Similarly, the relay at A should
trip for faults between A and B. The relay at C should trip for faults beyond
C. This ideal operation is not achieved due to the following reasons.

Fig 2

(a) The relay at A is not able to differentiate between faults very close to B
which may be on either side of B. If a fault in the section BC is very close
to the station B, the relay at A ‘understands’ that it is in section AB. This
happens due to the fact that there is very little difference in fault currents
if a fault occurs at the end of the section AB or in the beginning of the
section BC.
(b) The magnitude of the fault current cannot be accurately determined as all
the circuit parameters may not be known.
(c) During a fault, there is a transient condition and the performance of the
relays is not accurate.

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Consequently, to obtain proper

discrimination, relays are set to protect
only a part of the feeder, usually about
80%. Since this scheme cannot protect
the entire feeder, this system is not used
alone. It may be used in conjunction with
I.D.M.T. relays, as shown in Figure. The
performance of instantaneous relays is
affected by the dc component of
transients. The error introduced by the
dc offset component causes the relay to
overreach.
Higher the X/R ratio of the system, greater is the problem. A dc filter is
used to overcome this problem. In the USA, an instantaneous relay, employing
induction cup type construction is used for this purpose as it is less sensitive to
the DC offset component. This arrangement also provides a high reset to pick-
up ratio, more than 90%. The current-graded scheme is used where the
impedance between substations is sufficient to create a margin of difference in
fault currents. For such a system Zs is smaller compared to Zl. The advantage of
this system as compared to the time-graded scheme is that the operating time
is less near the power source.

(iii) Combination of Current and Time-Grading: This scheme is widely used

for the protection of distribution lines. I.D.M.T. relays are employed in this
scheme. They have the combined features of current and time-grading.
I.D.M.T. relays have current as well as time setting arrangements. The
current setting of the relay is made according to the fault current level of
the particular section to be protected. The relays are set to pick up
progressively at higher current levels, towards the source. Time setting is
also done in a progressively increasing order towards the source. The
difference in operating times of two adjacent relays is kept 0.5 s.

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An inverse time-current characteristic is desirable where Zs is small

compared with Zl. If a fault occurs near the substation, the fault current is I
= E/Zs. If a fault occurs at the far end of the protected section, the fault
current I = E/(Zs+ Z1). If Z1 is high compared to Zs, there is an appreciable
difference in the fault current for a fault at the near end and for a fault at
the far end of the protected section of the feeder. For such a situation, a
relay with inverse-time characteristic would trip faster for a fault near the
substation, which is a very desirable feature. Inverse time relays on solidly
grounded systems have an advantage. Definite-time characteristic is
desirable where Zs is large compared to Z1. An I.D.M.T. characteristic is a
compromise. At lower values of fault current, its characteristic is an
inverse-time characteristic. At higher values of fault current, it gives a
definite-time characteristic.
Though I.D.M.T. relays are widely used for the protection of distribution
systems and some other applications, in certain situations very inverse and
extremely inverse relays are used instead of I.D.M.T. relays.

Problem 2: An earth fault develops at point F on the feeder shown in the Fig.
and the fault current is 16000 A. The IDMT relays at points A and B are fed via
800/5 A CTs: The relay at B has a plug setting of 125% and time multiplier
setting (TMS) of 0.2. The circuit breakers take 0.20 s to clear the fault, and the
relay error in each case is 0.15 s. For a plug setting of 200% on the relay A,
determine the minimum TMS on that relay for it not to operate before the circuit
breaker at B has cleared the fault. A relay operating time curve is same as
shown in Fig.

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 part- 2

Solution: The primary current in both relays is 16,000 A

CT ratio = 800/5 = 160
Thus, secondary current=Primary current/CT ratio
= 16,000/160 = 100 A
For relay at B,
Current setting = 125% of 5 A = 1.25 × 5 A
= 6.25 A
PSM =Secondary current/Relay current setting=100/6.25 = 16
From the curve in Fig., the operating time at PSM of 16 for a TMS of 1 =2.5 s
Since TMS of relay at B = 0.2,
Operating time of B = 0.2 × 2.5 s = 0.50 s
Discrimination time = time for breaker at B + twice relay error
= 0.20 + 2 × 0.15 = 0.50 s
This is because one relay may run rapidly while the second runs slowly.
Moreover,
the relay at A does not reset until the breaker at B has interrupted the fault
current.
Any overshoot of the relay A has been neglected.
Hence time for relay at A = operating time for B + discrimination time
= 0.50 s + 0.50 s = 1.00 s
Secondary current in A = 100 A
For relay at A, current setting = 200% of 5 A= 2 × 5 A = 10 A
Thus, PSM =100/10 = 10
From the curve in Fig., the operating time at PSM of 10 for a TMS of 1 =3.0 s.
But actual time required = 1.00 s
Hence required TMS for relay at A = 1.00/3.0= 0.33
i.e., the minimum value of TMS of relay at A must be 0.33.

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 part- 2

2.14 Carrier Current Protection

In modern high-power electrical system, it is necessary to have quick acting

protections on long transmission lines. The requirement to be met by such
protections are fully satisfied by the circulating current differential protection
with its high-sensitivity, quick action and independence upon the settings of the
adjoining section protections. Not with standing this, going to the need for
installing interconnecting conductors(cables) are already pointed out in previous
articles, circulating current differential protections are confined to line up to 8
or 15 KMs long.
It is, however, possible to make use of the main line conductors as the
interconnecting conductors of a circulating current differential protection. The
need for special interconnecting conductor (cable) then disappear and it hence
becomes possible to setup a circulating current differential protection on
transmission lines of any length. This is the basics of what are called carrier
current protections. The essential difference between carrier current protection
and the voltage balance (translay) pilot wire protection is that in the former, only
the phase angle of the current at the two ends of a line are compared instead
of actual current as in the letter case and this phase angle decides whether the
fault is internal or external.
To make possible the transmission of commercial frequency (50 Hz) load
current and at the same time use the main line conductors as the
interconnecting conductors of the differential protection, it is necessary to use
a current of higher frequency in order to be able to transmit current impulses
from one end of the line to other. High frequency signals in the range of 50 kHz
to 400 kHz, commonly known as the carrier, are transmitted over the
conductors of the protected line. To inject the carrier signal and to restrict it
within the protected section of the lines suitable coupling apparatus and line
traps are used at both ends of the protected section. This obviously makes this
protection scheme quite expensive and justifies its application only in
transmission lines of110 KV and above. The schematic diagram of carrier current

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 part- 2

protection is given in figure. The main elements of the carrier channel are (i)
transmitter (ii) receiver (iii) coupling equipment and (iv) line trap.

Here we need not to go through the details of carrier current transmitter or

receiver, all we need to know is that when a voltage of positive polarity is
impressed on the control circuit of transmitter, it generates a high frequency
output voltage. This output voltage is impressed between one phase conductor
of transmission line and the earth as illustrated schematically in figure.
Each carrier current receiver receives carrier current from its local
transmitter as well as from the transmitter at the distance and of the line. In
effect, the receiver converts the received carrier current into a DC voltage that
can be used in a relay or other circuit to perform any desired function. The
voltage is zero when carrier current is not being received.
Line trap unit is inserted between the bus-bar and connection of coupling
capacitor to the line. It is parallel LC network tuned to resonance at the high-
frequency. It hence presents a high impedance to high frequency carrier current
but a relatively low impedance (less than 0.1 ohm) to the power frequency 50 Hz
current. Traps are employed to confine the carrier current to the protected
section so as to avoid interference with or from other adjacent carrier current
channel and also to avoid loss of carrier current signal in adjoining power circuit
for any reason whatsoever, external short circuit being a principal reason.
Consequently, carrier current can flow only along the line section between the
trap.

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 part- 2

The coupling capacitor (CC) connects the high-frequency (carrier)

equipment to one of the line conductor and simultaneously serves to isolate the
carrier equipment from the high-power line voltage. It presents a relatively low
reactance to high frequency current (about 150 ohms at 500 KHz) and a high
reactance to power frequency (about 1.5 mega ohm at 50 Hz). To reduce
impedance further low inductance is connected in series with the coupling
capacitor to provide a resonance at carrier frequency.
It is thus evident that commercial frequency current will be able to follow
only through the line conductors while the high-frequency carrier current will
circulate when the receiver transmitter operates over the line conductor fitted
with the high frequency traps, through the coupling capacitor and through
ground (the return conductor).
There are different method of carrier current protection and basic forms of
carrier protection are: (i) directional comparison protection and (ii) phase
comparison protection.

2.14.1 Directional Comparison Protection

The protection operates on the basis of comparison of fault power flow

directions at the two ends of the protected line. Operation takes place only
when the flow of power at both end of line is in the bus-to-line direction, a
condition which will evidently only arise in the event of a fault on the protected
section of line. With directional comparison relaying, the carrier pilot informs the
equipment at one end of the line how to directional relay at the other end
response to a short circuit.

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 part- 2

The conditions for internal and external fault are illustrated in figure. The
relay at both ends of the protected section responds to fault power flowing
away from the bus (tripping direction). For faults in the protected section, power
flow in the tripping direction at both ends. For external fault power flow will be
in opposite directions. A simple signal through carrier pilot is transmitted from
one end to another during faults.
The pilot scheme can be employed for transmitting either blocking or
permitting signal. This possible carrier protections are of two types viz, carrier
blocking scheme and carrier permitting scheme.
In a carrier blocking protection scheme, the presence of carrier prevents or
block operation of the protection. Carrier is therefore, transmitted only upon the
occurrence of a fault and it employed to prevent tripping in the event of an
external fault. In carrier permitting a scheme, the presence of carrier permits
operation of protection. The carrier blocking scheme is more reliable than
carrier permitting scheme. This is because if failure in the carrier permitting
signal equipment will mean a failure in isolating the fault, where as a failure in
carrier blocking signal equipment isolates the section on which no-fault exist.
However, such false operation is preferable to the failure to clear a faulted
section.
In a carrier blocking protection scheme normally no pilot signal is
transmitted from any terminal. Should a short circuit occur in an immediately
adjacent line section, a pilot signal is transmitted from any terminal where short
circuit current flows out of the line (i.e. in the non-tripping directional). While
any station is transmitting a pilot signal tripping is block at all other stations.
But should a short circuit occur on the protected section of the line, no pilot
signal is transmitted and tripping occurs at any terminal where short circuit
current flows. Therefore, the pilot is blocking pilot since the reception of a pilot
signal is not required of permitting tripping.

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 part- 2

Directional comparison protection scheme (carrier blocking type) is

illustrated in figure. The operation of the directional element provide on each
breaker is indicated by the arrow and Non-operation by the letter O.
Occurrence of fault activates relay on each of the breakers near the fault. This
relay unless blocked from operation cause tripping of breakers. The blocking
signal is controlled by the directional relay on each breaker and is transmitted
from one end of a protected section to the other by carrier. If a directional
element determined the fault is external to the protected section a signal is
transmitted blocking the protection of breaker at both ends of section. In case
the directional element at both ends determined that fault is in the protected
section, no blocking signal is transmitted from either end, and both breaker trip.
The sequence of the event of for a fault at F is made clear by illustration in
figure.
At breaker 1 the directional elements show that the fault may be in the
section 1-2. This breaker trips if no blocking signal is received. No blocking
signal is transmitted to breaker 2. At breaker 2 the directional elements show
that the fault is not in section 1-2. A carrier signal is transmitted that block
tripping of both breakers 1 and 2.
At breaker 3 and 4 the directional elements so that the fault may be in
section 3-4. No blocking signal is transmitted and after a very short time delay
(1 to 3 cycles) both the breaker 3 and 4 trip.

2.14.2 Phase Comparison Carrier Protection

Phase comparison relaying equipment uses its pilot to compare the phase
relation between current entering in the protected zone and current leaving the
protected zone. The current magnitudes are not compared. Phase comparison

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 part- 2

protection provides only main or primary protection, backup protection must be

provided in addition.

Figure shows schematically the principal elements of the equipment

provided at both end of a two-terminal transmission line, employing a carrier
current pilot. As in AC wire pilot protection, the transmission line CTs feed a
network that transform the CT output current into a single-phase sinusoidal
output voltage. This voltage is applied to a carrier current transmitter and to a
comparer. The output of carrier current receiver is also applied to the comparer.
The comparer controls the operation of an auxiliary relay for triping the
transmission line circuit breaker. These elements provide means for transmitting
and receiving carrier current signal for comparing at each end of the relative
phase relation of the transmission line current at both ends of the line.

For examining the relation between the network output voltage at both ends
of the line and also the carrier current signals that are transmitted during
external and internal fault conditions refer to figure. For an external fault at
point D in figure, the network output voltages at section A and B (wave a and c)
0
are 180 out of phase. This is because the connections of CTs at the two
stations are reversed. Since an AC voltage is used to control the transmitter
carrier current is transmitted only during the half cycle of the voltage wave
when the polarity is positive. The carrier current signal transmitted from station

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 part- 2

A and B(wave b and d) are displaced in time, so that there is always carrier
current signal being sent from one end or another end.

39