32

Fluctuating Loads on Power Plants

32.1. Introduction. 32.2. Load Curves. 32.3. Different Terms and Definitions. 32.4. Effects of Variable Load
on Power Plant Design and Operation.

32.1. INTRODUCTION
The load required by the consumer does not remain constant with respect to time (hour, day or month)
and it fluctuates according to his requirements. The problem of variable load is vital one because each kilowatt-
hour energy is to be put on the transmission line at as low a production cost as possible. The cost of generation
and transmission is not only dependent on the improved operating conditions, such as turbine and generators
operating at their best efficiency or uniform rate of driving the boilers, but depends upon the first cost of
equipment which can be reduced by using simplified control and eliminating the various auxiliaries and
regulating devices.
The general arrangement of the electrical power generation, transmission and distribution system is
shown in Fig. 32.1. First the energy is sent to the substations which are located at the ends of the primary
distribution system. The energy from the substation is carried through the feeders to the distribution transformers
as shown in figure. Each transformer is connected to the systems of one or more'Customers by short low
voltage lines.
Each customer has a connected load which is the sum of all equipments located in the customer's
house. The connected load of transformer T is the sum of the connected loads of customers a, b and c.
The design of transformers, feeders, substation is fully dependent on the connected loads to the customers.
jf.2. LOAD CURVES
A consumer of electric power will use the power as and when required. The load will always be changing
with time and will not be constant.
 "A curve showing the load demand (variations) of consumer with respect to time is known as load
curve". If the time is in hours then the load curve is known as daily load curve. If the time is in days, the
load curve is known as monthly load curve and if the time is in months, the load curve is known as yearly
or annual load curve. The load curve shows how the load varies with respect to time. This type of load
curve is useful in predicting the annual requirements of energy and capacity of the power plant required
to take the peak load.
The load curve of a consumer is shown in Fig. 32.2. The area under the load curve gives total energy
consumed by the customer.
The energy consumption of the customer is given by an expression,
T24
E=J (kW). dt. Lk^
if the load curve is drawn on hourly basis.
The problem in designing the power plant is not only the energy consumed by the customer but the
way adopted to use it. The customers A and B consume the same amount of energy as shown in Fig. 32.3(a)
and Fig. 32.3 (b) but the nature of consumption is different. /

In the second case, the peak load is far greater than the first therefore the generating capacity of the
plant required to supply the load of B is greater than the capacity required to supply the load of A. The
plant designed for customer B is not only bigger in size but it also runs underload (part load) conditions
for majority of the period. Therefore the cost of energy supplied to B may be 100% greater than the cost
oi energy supplied to A even the total energy consumed by both customers is same.
Most of the complexities of present day modern power plants operation arise from the inherent variability
of the load demanded by the consumers according to the requirements with respect to time. For economical
and better operation of the power plant, constant magnitude load is always desirable as it allows the plant
to work at highest efficiency and requires simplified control and regulating devices.
The different types of customers (industrial, commercial, domestic) are supplied from generating plant.
The load curve of each customer is different from the other as per the activities of the customer. Few load
curves of different customers are shown in Fig. 32.4.
(a) The load curve shown in Fig. 32.4 (a) is typical of a residential community rather than just one
residence. During the early morning hours, the energy is required for lights, refrigerators, water heaters, oil
burners, and like. After the breakfast (at 9 A.M.) the demand decreases somewhat and fairly remains constan1
till about 4 P.M. required to run vacuum cleaners, radios, television sets ; and water heaters. The cookinj
appliances then cause a slight rise in demand at 4 P.M. After 4 P.M. the early sun-set of winter brings thi
lights into action and total load rapidly approaches its peak about 5 P.M. during the month of Decembei
The high demand occurs at about 8 P.M. Then the load drops fairly rapidly as the families retire or leav
home to seek entertainment outside.
 (b) The load curve shown in Fig. 32.4 (b) is typical of a one shift industrial community. In the early
morning hours, the demand is generally for lighting and auxilary drives for heating boiler plants as well
as some processes that require continuous energy supply such as refrigeration and electric furnaces. The
energy demand increases from 5 A.M. to 8 AM. as some of the factory machinery starts running for warming

prior to operation. By 8 A.M., the end " industry starts running and energy demand remains constant ur.,1!
shortly before noon. Load falls off as sume of the machines are shut-down during lunch hours. By 2 PJVi.
again, the load attains same level as at 8 A.M. Shortly before 4 P.M., the load starts to drop as the shift
of work ends. At 6 P.M. most of the machines are shut-down and load gradually tapers off until 10 A.M.
when the minimum demand is reached and continues till the start of next working day.
(c) The load curve shown in Fig. 32.4 (c) is typical of commercial loads of shops and offices. The
lighting in the shops and offices starts at 6 A.M. for cleaning and sweeping and it reaches peak at 10 A.M.
when the offices and shops start. The load remains constant more or less during 10 A.M. to 4 P.M. It further
increases during 4 to 6 P.M. as more lights are required due to cloudy sky. Then the load rapidly falls during
7 P.M. to 12 night as the offices remain closed. The same load (night lights in shops and offices) remains
during 12 night to 6 A.M.
{d) The load curve shown in Fig. 32.4 (d) is typical of a traction load. From the midnight till 3 A.M.,
the demand tapers off as the service reaches its minimum level and continues until about 5 A.M. As the
early factory workers start for their work, the required train services increase rapidly and the consequent
load continuously rises as the factory workers are followed by office workers, school children and early
shoppers. The peak load reaches at about 9.30 A.M. The load after 10 A.M. rapidly diminishes as some
of the trains return to the yards. The minimum day-load is reached during the noon hours and then rises
 continuously until the evening rush hours are in full swing with most of the workers go back to their homes.
The load (after 6 P.M.) then falls rapidly. After midnight, the load again follows the cycle described.
(e) The load curve shown in Fig. 32.4 (e) is typical of a street lighting load. Street lighting is the
only form of load that does not exhibit peak demands. Normally all lights are made on and are turned off
almost simultaneously. The total demand remains more or less constant during the hours of darkness. The
turning on and turning off of lights are usually synchronised with the time of sun-set and sun-rise respectively.
Hence the road lights will be functioning for a much shorter time during summer time than winter.
(/) A typical water pumping load curve is shown in Fig. 32.4 (/).
In practice, the true appearance of load curve will not be so smooth as plotted in Fig. 32.4. The lighting
load is smoothest curve owing to the constant nature of the energy requirements whereas the traction load,
spot welding and stamping curves exhibit violent fluctuations as high demand during starting and no demand
during stopping. For loads of wide fluctuations, the plotting of instantaneous readings is generally meaningless
and usual practice is to read the integrating metres every hour and plot the difference in readings as an equivalent
constant load for corresponding periods on the curve. This gives the stepped shaped curve. Such loads take
wide and erratic swings and need special treatment of generator governing systems.
The demand load curve of a power plant is generally found out by adding all the loads mentioned above.
Some special events change the nature of load curves of different requirements. Few of them are listed
below :
(1) An, important political broadcast ; football game or cricket match may bring many TV sets and
radio sets into operation that normally would be idle. This raises a municiple system load above normal
but it seldom happens.
(2) Cloudy weather and sudden thunder showers generally requires more lighting in shops, offices
and requires extraordinary peak, but normally they are not used. On systems having summer time peaks,
this demand might coincide with the annual peak therefore extra capacity may be needed to meet this situation.
Normal winter time peaks usually result from early darkness coinciding with existing high industrial loads.
f%y The changes in atmospheric temperature influence the electric loads. A drop in temperature requires
electric heating or starting of electric motors that drive burners and air suppliers to generate the steam. A
rise in temperature increases the electric loads like refrigerators and fans.
\Ly Wind has also notabie effect on the requirement of electric power. More wind raises the cooling rate
of buildings and so creates demand for more heating energy. In many cases, the effect of wind is more
pronounced than the change in atmospheric temperature.
It is therefore necessary to consider the effects of the factors mentioned above for calculating the required
generating capacity of the power plant in addition to the different types of loads mentioned earlier.
The effect of addition of different types of loads is to reduce the fluctuations of load required by the
number of consumers and supplied by a single power plant.
Load Duration Curve. Load duration curve is simply a rearrangement of daily load curve with loads
set-up in descending order of magnitude. The areas under the load duration curve and corresponding load
curve are equal and measure kW-hr of energy for that period.
To get the load duration curve from chronological load curve, we cut the daily load curve into many
many vertical strips and then arrange them in descending order. The graphical method for constructing load
duration curve from the load curve is described as shown in Fig. 32.5.
For plotting the load duration curve, makes the abscissa at any load ordinate equal to the length of
the abscissa intercepted by that load ordinate on the load curve. Thus the intercept is one point at the maximum
demand (kW„WT) and it is plotted at zero hours as shown in Fig. 32.5 {b). At load kWj, the intercept is
a\ hours and is plotted at a\ hours on the load duration curve. At load kW2, the intercepts are (b\ + h)
 hours and is plotted accordingly as shown in figure. At minimum load kW^v, ; the intercept covers the entire
period of 24 hours and plotted accordingly.

Any point of the load duration curve is a measure of the number of hours in a given period during
which the given load has prevailed.
Load duration curve offers the advantage of summarising loads for a day, week, month or year. This
is advantageous for power plant design as in one simple curve, a whole year can be summarised showing
peak demand, the variations in demand down to minimum, the length of the time they existed and total energy
involved.
The construction of load duration curve from load curve is exactly similar to the construction of flow
duration curve from hydrograph as described in chapter 1.
32.3. DIFFERENT TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Before considering the methods of load prediction required for the design of power plant, some terms
used in connection with power supply must be defined.
^jS Connected Load. The connected load is the sum of ratings in kW of the equipments installed in the
consumer's premises. The connected loads in the premises of a consumer are shown in Fig. 32.6.

The total connected load in the consumer's premises

= 60 + 500 + 60 + 60 + 100 + 500 + 100 + 60 = 1440 watts.
Maximum Demand. The maximum demand is the maximum load which a consumer uses at any time.
It is always less than connected load or equal to connected load. When all the equipments fitted in the
consumer's house run to their fullest extent simultaneously then the maximum demand becomes equal to
connected load. Generally maximum demand is always less than connected load as all the equipments never
fun simultaneously and never run at full load. Say ironing is done in day time but the bulbs are off and
radio and fan are running, then the simultaneous maximum demand
= 60 + 500 + 60 = 620 watts.
Say the heater is used in evening time during winter and all bulbs are on as well as the radio is running,
then the maximum demand
= 500 + 60 + 60 + 100 + 100 + 60 = 880 watts.
The maximum demand of a consumer depends upon the time of day as well as his habits.
y/iX) Demand Factor. It is defined as the ratio of maximum demand to connected load.
^\ For the above mentioned example, the demand factors for day time and evening time are given by

The maximum value of the demand factor is unity.

The demand factors for different types of loads are listed in the table given as follows :
Each device will reach its own maximum demand at some time during its operation but the demand
factor measures the extent to which it contributes toward the maximum demand of a group of devices of
which it is a part.
Type of Load Capacity or Type Demand
Factor
Residence Lighting < 0.25 kW 1.00
< 0.50 kW 0.60
> 1 kW 0.50
Restaurant 0.70
Office 0.70
Commercial Lighting Theatre 0.60
" Small Industry 0.60
School 0.55
Hotel 0.50
General Power Services 0—10 H.P. 0.75
10—20 H.P. 0.65
20—100 H.P. 0.55
> 100 H.P. 0.50

Average Load. A typical load curve is shown in Fig.

32.7. The average load is calculated dividing the area under
the load curve (energy in kW hr) by the time period (24 hours)
considered to draw the load curve.

As explained earlier in Fig. 32.3, two load curves may

represent the same kW-hr production, yet the unit cost of
 production for one may be more than the other. Some information other than the magnitude of kW-hr energy
produced is needed to describe an operating condition. The relationship between the peak load and average
load over the time specified is needed to describe an operating condition of the power plants.
If the plant runs continuously at an average load, it generates the same amount of energy Uiai the actual
load curve shows.
^/ (2) Load Factor. It is defined as the ratio of average load to the peak or maximum load determined

by the consumer.

The load factor can also be given by

The load factor is always less than unity.

The power plants which are used Nature of load
to take Load
the base load run on a high load factor and the factor
plants which
are used to take
Residential load the peak load run on low load factors.
The load factors for different types of consumers are listed in the table given below :
This includes lights, heaters, TV and radio sets, air-conditioners and refrigerators, 10—15%
electric cookers and water heaters and small pumping sets.
Commercial load
This includes the lighting in shops and used for advertising and electrical 25—30%
equipments in restaurants and markets.
Industrial load
Small scale industries (below 25 kW). 30—50%
Medium and large scale industries (100—500 kW) 60%
Heavy industries ( > 500 kW). 80%
Municipal load
This includes road lights and traffic signals. 25%
Low load factor is an indication of high cost of electric production as the power plant is not used
to its full capacity for the whole period (24 hours) considered. For the low production cost of the electric
energy, it is always desirable to run the plant to its full capacity for the maximum period of operation to
give high load factor. Therefore the base load plants (very high capacity) run at high load factor (nearly
unity) and peak load plants are allowed to run at low load factors to reduce the overall production cost.
(3) Diversity Factor. The needs of the consumers are their maximum demands and their energy
consumptions during a day. It is always necessary to provide the generating capacity equal to their maximum
demands to fulfill their needs and the energy supplied should be charged as minimum as possible. This is
only possible if the load factor of all consumers combinely approaches to unity. This is not possible in practice
owing to variable load characteristics when a number of consumers with different load requirements at different
times during the day are to be supplied. An attempt should be made to supply these loads in such a way
to smoothen the load curve of the system and obtain as high a load factor as possible and practicable.
The time distribution of maximum demands for similar types of consumers is measured by the diversity
factor. The diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the maximum demands of the individual consumers
and the simultaneous maximum demand of the whole group during a particular time.

As the total maximum demand required at any time during the day is less than the sum of the maximum
demands due to diversity, the total load factor of the system increases and which is desirable for the economic
operation of the power plant.
Diversity helps in obtaining better conditions for power supply. The power supply engineer persuades
the consumers to encourage loads in some places (on already existing load curve) and to discourage them
in other places in such a way that the total maximum demand is reduced. This helps to supply more energy
with less plant capacity and at a cheaper rate as the power factor of the system improves.
The diversity factor of a group of consumers is always greater than unity. Diversity factors for residential
consumers are usually highest at about 5, whereas large industrial consumers may have values of diversity
factory as low as 1.3. Since diversity exists between individual maximum demands, the proportion contribution
to the system maximum demand by the consumer is always less than his maximum demand.
The diversity factors for different types of consumers are listed in the table -given below :
Density Factor

Elements of system Residence Commercial General Large

load load power users
0>

Between consumers 2.00 * 1.46 1.44 —

Between transformers 1.30 1.30 1.35 1.05
Between feeders 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.05
Between substations 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.14
Consumer to transformer 2.00 • 1.46 1.44 —
Consumer to feeder 2.60 1.90 1.95 1.15
Consumer to substation 3.00 2.19 2.24 1.32
Consumer to generator 3.29 2.41 2.46 1.45
High diversity factor is always desirable for the economic operation of the plant because the load factor
increases with an increase in diversity factor. It is to be noted that the consumer's actual maximum demand
divided by diversity factor of the consumer will determine his effective demand at the generator. Thus to
determine the effective demand of a consumer on the generator, multiply his connected load by the demand
factor and divide the product by the diversity factor.

The peak demand of a system is made up of the individual demands of the devices that happen to
be functioning at the time of the peak. At the time of the system peak demand, the demand of a particular
group of similar consumers is seldom at the maximum value that it may reach at some other time of the
year. This diversity is measured by peak diversity factor.

When peak diversity factor is not given, the students are advised to take as unity.
 4. Plant capacity factor. The load and diversity factors do not give any idea about the reserve capacity
required in the station. Therefore, two following factors are introduced. Capacity factor is defined as the
ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could have been produced during the
same period.
Thus the annual capacity factors would be the annual kW-hrs produced divided by the kW of the plant
capacity times hours of the year.

The capacity factor shows how near the plant runs to its full rating. When there are several plants
on a system, the most, efficient (base load plant) runs close to unity capacity factor as a base load plant
and least efficient acts as a peaking plant. The difference between load and capacity factors is an indication
of reserve capacity.
The high values of demand factor, load factor, diversity factor and capacity factor are always desirable
for economic operation of the plant and to produce the energy at a cheaper rate.
5. Plant use factor. It is defined as the ratio of energy produced in given time to maximum possible
energy that could have been produced during the actual number of hours of operation. It shows the extent
to which the plant capacity is used to meet the peak demand.

As the plant use factor approaches 1, it indicates the need for additional capacity of the plant.
The plant capacity is always designed greater man peak load to take the loads coming in future and
to take many unpredicted loads or the load of some special events as cloudy weather, wind velocity, hurricanes
and flood damages and so on.
The high value of plant use factor indicates that the plant is used most efficiently. A low utilization
factor means the plant is used only for standby purposes on a system comprised of several stations or the
capacity has been installed well in advance of need.
In some inter-connected system, the use factor may exceed unity (1.1 to 1.2) which indicates that loads
have been carried in excess of the rated capacity of the equipment. This means, the plant carries 10 to 20%
more load than its rated nameplate capacity as the equipments are always designed to take nearly 10 to 20%
more load than rated.
The different factors are indicated on the diagram as shown in Fig. 32.8.

\\
 No doubt, the annual plant capacity factor (particularly thermal and nuclear) decreases with the age
of the plant as the efficiency of the components decreases with an increase in age.
The relation between the capacity factor and use factor in terms of times is given below

The effect of age on the plant capacity factor of a thermal plant is shown in Fig. 32.9 and the effect
of plant capacity factor on the production cost is shown in Fig. 32.10.

32.4. EFFECT OF VARIABLE LOAD ON POWER PLANT DESIGN AND OPERATION

The necessity of supplying a variable load influences the characteristics and method of use of power
plant equipments. The generation of power must be regulated according to the demand and governing is
necessary to achieve the same. Another requirement of a power plant is a quick response to the load.
In all variable load problems, the major problem is, the generator (and prime mover) must be able
to take varying load as quick as possible without the change in voltage and frequency. When the load on
the generator increases, the first effect is to slow down the rotor and prime-mover and therefore to reduce
the frequency. With the decrease in speed of the prime-mover which is due to the increase in load on generator,
the governor must act, admitting more fuel in case of thermal plants and more water in case of hydel plant,
enough to bring the speed back to normal and pick up the load. The frequency stabilizers are used to maintain
the frequency constant which may change due to response of the equipments.
The raw materials used in thermal power plant are fuel, air and water and to produce variable power
from the thermal power plant according to requirement is to vary the raw material correspondingly. With
an increase in load on the plant, the governor admits more steam and maintains the turbine speed. The governor
response to this point has followed rapidly the change of load but beyond this point, changes are not so
rapid. Because, the steam generator operates with unbalance between heat transfer and steam demand long
enough to suffer a definite decrease of steam pressure. With fluctuating steam demand, it becomes very
difficult to secure good combustion and steady steam pressure because efficient combustion requires the
co-ordination of so many services. The co-ordination between the different components and processes is
not as simple as supplying of more raw materials, but the reason being that there is certain time lag present
in combustion and heat transfer that is not present in electrical generators.
The design of thermal plants for variable loads is always more difficult than diesel or hydraulic plants
and it is always desirable to allow the thermal plant to operate as base load plant.
It is always necessary in case of power plants to keep the reserve capacity to meet the peaking loads.
This reserve is particularly required for an individual or isolated plant. This reserve capacity always increases
the charges of electrical energy supplied. Therefore, it is always desirable to keep the reserve capacity as
small as possible.
 (b) If the load above 60 MW is supplied by a stand-by unit of 20 MW capacity, the energy generated
= 20 x 4 + 10 x 2 = 80 + 20 * 100 MW hrs.
Time during which stand-by unit remains in operation
= 6 hours (from the load curve)

Problem 323. The peak load on a power station is 30 MW. The loads having maximum demands
of 25 MW, 10 MW, 5 MW and 7 MW are connected to the power station. The capacity of the power station
is 40 MW and annual load factor is 50%. Find
(a) Average load on the power station, (b) Energy supplied per year, (c) Demand factor, (d) Diversity
factor.

Problem 32.4. The maximum load on a thermal power plant of 60 MW capacity is 50 MW at an

annual load factor of 60%. The coal consumption is 1 kg per unit of energy generated and the cost of coal
is Rs. 600 per ton of coal. Find (a) annual revenue earned if the energy is sold at Re. 1 per kW-hr. (b) The
capacity of the plant. ;
 Sol.

Problem 32.5. A thertnal power plant consists of two 60 MW units each running for 8000 hours and
one 30 MW unit running for 2000 hours per year. The energy produced by the plant is 876 x JO6 kWh
per yexir. Determine plant load factor and plant use factor. Consider maximum demand is equal to plant
capacity. * '

Problem 32.6. A power plant supplies the loads having maximum demands of 40 MW, 50 MW and
30 MW respectively. The load factor of the plant on the basis of annual load curve is 60% and the diversity
factor of the load is 1.2. Determine (a) the maximum load on the power plant, (b) the capacity of the power
plant required to take the loads, and (c) annual energy supplied by the power plant.
 Problem 32.7. On the basis of annual operation, the use factor and capacity factor of a central plant
are 0.5 and 0.4 respectively. Find the number of hours of its operation during the year.

Problem 32.8. A diesel power plant consists of two units of 500 kW capacity each and one unit of
200 kW capacity. The pel used has a calorific value of 40,000 UAg and the fuel consumption is 0.25 kg/kWh.
Determine the quantity of fuel required for a month of 30 days and its cost if the fuel cost is Rs. 4000 per
tonne. Also find the overall efficiency of the plant.
Take plant capacity factor on monthly basis • 50%.
 Problem 32.9. An yearly load duration curve of a gas turbine
power plant is a straight line from 45,000 kW to 5,000 kW. The
load is taken by a.power plant which consists of two units of 20,000
kWeach and one unit of10,000kW. Determine (a) load factor and
(b) capacity factor of the plant.

Problem 32.10. A load duration curve for a industrial load is served by hydro-thermal plants follows
a straight line. The maximum and minimum loads are 30 MW and 10 MW respectively. The hydel-plant
is available at the time of minimum regulating flow is just enough to take a peak load of 72 MWhper day.
On investigation, it is found economical to pump water from lower reservoir to higher reservoir using the
excess power from steam plant during off peak period allowing steam plant to run at 100% load all the
times. Determine the capacities of hydel and] steam plants required for the purpose. ,,
, i
')',r ^Assume efficiency ^ "'
Solution. The load duration curve for the combined system is shown in Fig. Prob. 32.10. Let OA is
(he capacity of thermal plant. CGB is the energy available in low flew period and FED is the energy available
during off-peak period. BGFA is the corresponding energy supplied from pump storage plant.
 .,.(0)

Substituting y= 12 x from equation (b) into equation (a), we get .. - ft-f st ia.o.k
1.47 x 2 + 48 x- 800 = 0 > ,
• •••• .-. • - ' •>••> ..-.• • • • • . j - ' a v j {v.ruvs '• '. J
Solving the above equation
x (hydel plant capacity) = 7 MW
; f
Steam plant capacity = 30 - 7 = 23 MW. {'< * •'"•'-'"
Problem 32.11. 77ie commercial, street-lighting and industrial loadsaresupplied'by a porterl plant
as given below :
All the loads given are in kW.
Find (a) Load factors of each type of load.
(b) Diversity factor of the system. ! < ; ? > n •->•••* J
(c) Load factor of the system.
Time in hours Residential load Street lighting load Industrial load Total load
0—1 80 60 .' " ,| 400 540
1—2 80 60 ; 400 " 540
2—3 80 66 ! ' 4 0 0 •">"• 540
3—4 80 60 400 k I 540
4—5 80 60 \ 400 .540
5—6 100 60 300 460
6—7 120 i—r • 200 320
7—8 120 — 200 320
8—9 120 I •'* '— 1000 1120
9—10 120 — 1000 1120
10—11 40 ; •,:< « : . i i i ^ ' . : 1000 1040
11 — 12 40 '"— 1000 1040
12—13 40 400 440
13 — 14 40 - I — • \ .•: 1000 n 1040
14—15 40 '— 1000 1040
15—16 40 ' .'. —'. , .'"''-, 1000 1040
16—17 40 . ^ 1000 1040
17—18 140 .'•' ->'•' .J*r\- > •>."% 400 540
18—19 160 60 200 320
19—20 160 60 400 620
20—21 160 60 400 • 620
21—22 160 60 '400 620
22—23 80 60 400 540
13
23—24 80 60 400 540
 SoMKw. The individual load curves and the load curve for the total load are drawn as shown in Fig
Prob. 32.10.
Total energy consumed by the residential load during 24 hours
- 8 0 x 5 + 100x1 + 120x4 + 4 0 x 7 + 140x1 + 160x4 + 8 0 x 2
« 400 + 100 + 480 + 280 + 140 + 640 + 160 « 2200 kW-hrs.

Total energy consumed by street lighting load

« 6 0 x 12 - 720 kW-hrs.

Total energy consumed by the industrial load

- 4 0 0 x 5 + 3 0 0 x 1 + 2 0 0 x 2 + 1000 x 4 + 400 x 1 + 1000 x 4 + 400 x 1
+ 200x1+400x5
- 2000 + 300 + 400 + 4000 + 400 + 4000 + 400 + 200 + 2000
« 137W kW-hn.

Simultaneous maximum demand • 1040 kW

Sum of individual maximum demand
« 160 + 60 + 1000 « 1220 kW
 This shows that the load factor of the system is higher than the individual load factors.
Problem 32.12. A power plant has the following annual factors. Load factor = 70%. Capacity
factor = 50%. Use factor = 60%
Maximum demand is 20 MW. Find *
(a) Annual energy production. - -
(fc) Reserve capacity over and above peak load.
(c) Hours during which the plant is not in service per year.

Problem 32.13. A consumer has installed a load of 1500 MW. His demand pattern for a day is as
follows : Midnight to 5 a.m. = 50 kW, 5 a.m. to 8 a.m. = No demand, 8 a.m. to 12 noon = 1200 kW, 12 noon
to 4 p.m. = 1000 k\V and 4 p.m. to midnight = 500 kW.
Calculate the load factor and his monthly bill assuming a two part tarrif as Rs. 40 kW and Rs. 1.5kWh.
Solution. The load curve is drawn as shown in Fig. Prob. 32.13 for the given load pattern.
 Problem 32.14. A power station has annual factors as follows : Load factor « 0.6, capacity factor as 0.4
and use factor = 0.45. The maximum demand from the power station = 20 MW. Determine
(a) Annual energy produced (b) Reserve capacity over and above peak load (c) Number of hours per
year during which plant is not working.
 Problem 32.15. The following loads are connected to a power plant:
Type
Type of
of load
load Max. demand
Max. demand(MW)
(MW) Diversity factor
Diversity factor Demand
Demand factor
factor
Domestic
Domestic 15
15 1.25
1.25 0.70
0.70
Commercial
Commercial 25
25 1.20
1.20 0.90
0.90
Industrial 50 1.30 0.98
Industrial 50 1.30 0.98

If the overall diversity factor is 1.5, determine (a) The maximum demand and (b) Connected load of
each type.

Problem 32.16. A thermal power station has maximum demand of 500 MW. The annual load
factor = 0.5 and capacity factor = 0.4 for the station. Find the reserve capacity of the plant.
 Problem 32.16A. A 1000 MWpower plant delivers 1000 MWfor 2 hours, 500 MW for 6 hours and
shut down for the rest of the day. The plant is also shut-down for 60 days annually. Find the annual load
factor of the plant.

Loading the Power Plants

Problem 32.17. A 1000 MW thermal power plant delivers 1000 MWfor 2 hours, 500 MWfor 6 hours,
300 MW for 8 hrs and shut down for the rest of each day. It is also completely shut-down for 50 days in
a year for maintenance. Determine the annual load factor for the plant.

Problem 32.17A. A generating power plant supplies the following loads to various consumers as listed
below :
Industrial = 750 MW, Commercial = 350 MW
Domestic power = 10 MW and Domestic light = 50 MW
If the maximum demand on the station is 1000 MW and energy generated is 50 x 105 MWh per year,
determine (a) Diversity factor (b) Annual load factor

Problem 32.18. A 24-hour load curve of a power plant is sinusoidal with maximum and minimum
demand of 6000 MW and 2000 MW respectively. If the plant capacity is 7000 MW, find (a) Average load
on the plant (b) Plant load factor and (c) Plant capacity factor. (P.U. May, 1997)
Solution. The load-curve for the given condition is shown in Fig. Prob. 32.18.
The load (L) variation with respect to time is given by
 The given conditions are satisfied by the above
equation used for load variation during 24-hours.
The average load on the plant is given by

Problem 32.19. The load in a particular factory reaches maximum at 12 noon and that is 5 MW.
The load at 6 A.M. becomes zero and it also becomes zero at 6 p.m. The load curve during 12 hours follows
half elliptical curve. Find out the following :
(0 Load factor of the factory.
(ii) Energy consumed by the factory during 12 hrs.
(Hi) Plant capacity factor if the plant capacity is 7 MW.