Measurement and Evaluation in Education - MA-Edu - ED-804 E - English - 21072017 PDF

MEASUREMENT AND
EVALUATION IN EDUCATION
MA [Education]
Second Semester
EDCN 804E
[ENGLISH EDITION]
Directorate of Distance Education

TRIPURA UNIVERSITY
Reviewer
Dr Aradhana Mani
Assistant Professor, Amity Institute of Education, Noida
Authors:
Dr Harish Kumar and Santosh Kumar Rout: Units (1.2, 2.3-2.4, 2.5, 3.3, 4.8) © Dr Harish Kumar and Santosh Kumar Rout, 2016
Dr Manisha Dalabh: Units (1.3.1, 3.4-3.4.1, 3.4.3, 5.4-5.5) © Dr Manisha Dalabh, 2016
Dr Jasim Ahmad and Dr Aerum Khan: Units (1.4, 1.6, 2.2, 3.2, 4.3, 4.6) © Dr Jasim Ahmad and Dr Aerum Khan, 2016
JS Chandan: Unit (4.4, 4.6.1) © JS Chandan, 2016
CR Kothari: Unit (4.5, 4.7) © CR Kothari, 2016
Lokesh Koul: Unit (5.2, 5.3) © Lokesh Koul, 2016
Vikas Publishing House: Units (1.0-1.1, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7-1.11, 2.0-2.1, 2.4.1-2.4.2, 2.6-2.10, 3.0-3.1, 3.4.2, 3.5-3.9, 4.0-4.2, 4.9-4.13,
5.0-5.1, 5.6-5.10) © Reserved, 2016
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SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Measurement and Evaluation in Education
Syllabi Mapping in Book
Unit - I Unit 1: Measurement and Evaluation

Concept of Measurement and Evaluation, Different Types in Education: Overview
of Measuring Scales Need for Measurement and Evaluation (Pages: 3-46)
in Education, Placement, Diagnostic, Formative and
Summative Evaluation-Role of Teachers in an Evaluation
Programme, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
(Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor) - Specification of
Objectives Steps in the Process of Evaluation.
Unit - II
Major Tool and Techniques in Educational Evaluation, Unit 2: Major Tools and Techniques
Different Types of Tests-teacher made Vs. Standardized, in Educational Evaluation
Criterin-referenced vs. Norm-referenced Test, Essential (Pages: 47-73)
Qualities of Good Measuring Instrument.
Education Tests, Measurement of Achievement-
Construction of Achievement Test and Standardization,
Relative Merits and Demerits of Using Different Types of
Test Items, Diagnostic Test-construction and Usefulness.
Unit - III
Acquaintance with Psychological Tests in the Area of Unit 3: Psychological Testing
Intelligences, Attitude and Personality, Examination System- (Pages: 75-109)
current Strategies-examination Reforms-open Book
Examination-Semester System.
Unit - IV
Statistical Treatment of Data: Frequency Distribution and Unit 4: Statistics in Measurement
Graphic Representation of Data, Measures of Central and Evaluation-I
Tendency and Variability, Co-efficient of Correlation by Rank (Pages: 111-209)
Differences and Product Moment Methods, Percentile and
Percentile Rank, Skewness and Kurtosis, Normal Probability
Curve, Derived Scores (Z-Score, Standard Score and
T-Score).
Unit - V
Reliability-Concept, Determining Factors-Methods of Unit 5: Statistics in Measurement
Determining Different Reliability Coefficient, Validity- and Evaluation-II
Concept and Use-Types of Validity-Determination of (Pages: 211-248)
Validity Co-efficient-relation between Validity and Reliability,
Trends in Evaluation: Grading, Credit System, Cumulative
Record Card. Computer in Evaluation.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
UNIT 1 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION IN EDUCATION: OVERVIEW 3-46

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Concept of Measurement and Evaluation
1.3 Different Types of Measuring Scales
1.3.1 Need for Measurement and Evaluation in Education
1.4 Placement, Diagnostic, Formative and Summative Evaluation
1.5 Role of Teachers in an Evaluation Programme
1.6 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
1.6.1 Specification of Objective Steps in Evaluation Process
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Terms
1.9 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.10 Questions and Exercises
1.11 Further Reading
UNIT 2 MAJOR TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN 47-73

EDUCATIONAL EVALUATION
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 Different Types of Tests: Teacher-made vs. Standardized
2.2.1 Criterion-referenced vs. Norm-referenced Tests
2.2.2 Essential Qualities of Good Measuring Instruments
2.3 Education Tests
2.4 Measurement of Achievement
2.4.1 Construction of Achievement Tests and Standardization
2.4.2 Relative Merits and Demerits of Different Test Items
2.5 Diagnostic Test Construction and Usefulness
2.5.1 Types of Diagnostic Tests
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Terms
UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING 75-109

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 Psychological Testing in the Area of Intelligences
3.3 Attitude and Personality Tests
3.3.1 Attitude
3.3.2 Personality Tests
3.4 Examination System: Current Strategies
3.4.1 Examination Reforms
3.4.2 Open Book Examination
3.4.3 Semester System
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Terms
3.9 Further Reading
UNIT 4 STATISTICS IN MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION-I 111-209

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Statistical Treatment of Data
4.2.1 Interpretation of Data
4.3 Frequency Distribution and Graphic Representation of Data
4.3.1 Presentation of Data in Sequence: Grouping, Tabulation and Graphical Representation
4.4 Measures of Central Tendency and Variability
4.5 Co-efficient of Correlation
4.6 Percentile and Percentile Rank
4.6.1 Skewness and Kurtosis
4.7 Normal Probability Curve
4.8 Derived Scores (Z-score, Standard Score and T-score)a
4.9 Summary
4.10 Key Terms
UNIT 5 STATISTICS IN MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION-II 211-248

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit Objectives
5.2 Reliability: Concept and Determining Factors
5.2.1 Methods of Determining Different Reliability Coefficient
5.3 Validity: Concept and Uses
5.3.1 Determining Validity Co-efficient
5.3.2 Relation between Validity and Reliability
5.4 Trends in Evaluation: Grading, Credit System, Cumulative Record Card
5.4.1 Issues and Problems
5.5 Computer in Evaluation
5.5.1 Multimedia in Education
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key Terms
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Quality of education has become very important in today’s competitive environment.
NOTES
There is definitely a need to adapt to change in the educational processes in order
to improve. Educational measurement requires the establishment of a strong
feedback loop with evaluation being a continuous process and not just left until the
end of the program of study.
Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of
some physical object are determined. When used in the context of learning, it
would refer to applying a standard scale or measuring device to an object, series
of objects, events or conditions, according to practices accepted by those who
are skilled in the use of the device or scale. On the other hand, evaluation is a
complex and less understood term. Inherent in the idea of evaluation is ‘value’. It
involves engaging in some process that is designed to provide information that will
help us make a judgment about a given situation. Generally, any evaluation process
requires information about the situation in question.
This book Measurement and Evaluation in Education introduces the
concept of testing and evaluation to its readers. This book is crucial in explaining
how, even though different evaluation scales have been designed, the success is
not entirely determined by the efficiency of the test. More often than not, the right
test administered to the right individual makes all the difference. The way in which
tests are constructed and comprehended is crucial to the process of evaluation.
Different tests are designed to examine different attributes of intelligence and its
evaluation is contingent on how well these tests have been understood. In other
words, the lucidity of a test, inclusive of the kind of questions, is an important
factor in determining its success and accuracy.
The book is divided into five units. It has been designed keeping in mind the
self-instruction mode (SIM) format and follows a simple pattern, wherein each
unit of the book begins with Introduction followed by Unit Objectives to the topic.
The content is then presented in a simple and easy-to-understand manner, and is
interspersed with Check Your Progress questions to test the understanding of the
topic by the students. A list of Questions and Exercises is also provided at the end
of each unit, and includes short-answer as well as long-answer questions. Key
Terms and the Summary section is a useful tool for students and are meant for
effective recapitulation of the text.
Self-Instructional Material 1
Measurement and
UNIT 1 MEASUREMENT AND Evaluation in

Education: Overview
EVALUATION IN
NOTES
EDUCATION: OVERVIEW
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Concept of Measurement and Evaluation
1.3 Different Types of Measuring Scales
1.4 Placement, Diagnostic, Formative and Summative Evaluation
1.5 Role of Teachers in an Evaluation Programme
1.6 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Terms
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The process of measurement is an essential component of the learning system.

Measurement has more administrative utility in education than evaluation. An
evaluation process is useful in modifying and improving learning system and
instructional procedure. The process of measurement is more precise and objective
in approach, when compared to evaluation.
Measurement is always done of a quality, attribute or variable of a thing or a
person. Psychologists and educationists are mainly concerned with variables and
attributes. The process of measurement converts the variables into variety which is
used for drawing inferences. For example, intelligence is quantified in terms of IQ
and achievement variable is measured in terms of scores.
This unit deals with the nature of measurement and evaluation in education.
It also discusses the role of teachers in the evaluation programme as well as the
taxonomy of educational objectives.
1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

• Identify different measurement scales
• Discuss the nature of educational measurement and evaluation
Measurement and • Describe the types and techniques of evaluation
Evaluation in
Education: Overview • Explain the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain and how their
objectives are formulated and assessed
NOTES
1.2 CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENT AND
EVALUATION
Let us begin by discussing the concept of measurement and measurement sales.

Concept of Measurement
Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some
physical object are determined. When used in the context of learning, it refers to:
applying a standard scale or measuring device to an object, a series of objects, a
events or conditions, according to practices accepted by those who are skilled in the
use of the device or scale.
E.L. Thorndike stated that ‘anything that exists at all, exists in some quantity;
and anything that exists in some quantity is capable of being measured’. Measurement
of any kind is a matter of determining how much or how little, how great or how
small, how much more than or how much less than. The Encyclopedia of
Educational Research explains measurement in more refined terms; to measure
means ‘to observe or determine the magnitude of a variant’.
Measurement answers the question of ‘how much’. In our day-to-day life,
we measure the height, weight, miles travelled, etc., the tailor measures the dimensions
of an individuals body to prepare dress according to required size, the shopkeepers
weigh different commodities like rice, wheat, sugar, fruits, vegetables etc. We have
a wrong notion that measurement takes place only with tapes and scales. The ranking
of contestants in a debate competition can be considered as measurement, rating of
human behaviour comes under measurement. Hence, measurement may be defined
as, ‘the assignment of one of a set of numbers to each of a set of persons or objects
according to certain established rules’.
James M. Bradfield defined measurement as ‘the process of assigning symbols
to the dimension of phenomenon in order to characterize the status of phenomenon
as precisely as possible’. J.P. Guilford defined measurement as the ‘assignment of
numerals to objects or events according to certain rules’. According to Norman E.
Gronlund, ‘measurement results are some score or numerical value and quantitative
descriptions of the pupils’.
Measurement involves the process of quantification. Quantification indicates to what
extent a particular attribute is present in a particular object. It has been observed
that measurement in any field always involves three essentials:
(i) Identification and definition of quantity, attribute or variable that is to be
measured.
(ii) Determining the set of operations by which the attribute or variable may be
made perceivable.
4 Self-Instructional Material
(iii) Establishing a set of procedure for translating observations into quantitative Measurement and
Evaluation in
statement of degree, extent or amount. Education: Overview
Types of measurement
Measurement is of two types: (i) physical measurement and (ii) mental measurement/ NOTES
psychological measurement/educational measurement.
(i) Physical measurement: Physical measurement is the measurement of the
object which has absolute existence. For example, we measure the height of
individuals, the weight of rice, etc. Here, we directly measure the height or
weight of an individual and all the measuring tools of physical measurement
start from zero. Physical measurement is always accurate and quantitative,
and there are some set of tools for physical measurement all over the world.
(ii) Mental measurement: Mental measurement is also known as ‘educational
measurement’ or ‘psychological measurement’. It is always relative and
there is no absolute zero in case of mental measurement. For example, for
measuring the intelligence of a person we have to take the help of intelligence
tests which are subjective in nature. Through his response, we can know
the level of intelligence of the person concerned. Mental measurement is
both qualitative and quantitative in nature, and there are no fixed tools for
such measurement i.e., the same set of tools may not be applied to different
types of persons.
The application of the principles of measurement in the field of education is
known as ‘educational measurement’. In the educational system, measurement is
the quantitative assessment of performance of the students in a given test. It can be
used to compare performance between different students and to indicate the strengths
and weaknesses of the students. It helps in classifying students into homogenous
group, to assign educational and vocational guidance and to provide remedial measures
to the low achievers. Measurement is a tool in the hands of educational psychologists
to study human behaviour. Educational psychologists take the help of different valid
and reliable psychological tests to know the level of different traits within an individual.
The different kinds of such tests are: intelligence test, achievement test, attitude
test, aptitude test, interest inventory, personality test, etc. The methods used for
these tests are: observation, interview, checklist, rating scale, examinations, cumulative
record card and anecdotal records etc.
In the teaching–learning situation, teachers should be competent enough to measure
the student’s achievement, intelligence, attitude, aptitude etc. To develop competency
among the teachers in educational measurement, Ebel has suggested the following
measures:
(i) Know how to administer a test properly, efficiently and fairly.
(ii) Know how to interpret test scores correctly and fully, but with recognition of
their limitations.
(iii) Know how to select a standardized test that will be effective in a particular
situation.
(iv) Know how to plan a test and write the test questions, to be included in it.
Measurement and (v) Know the educational uses as well as the limitations of educational tests.
Evaluation in
Education: Overview (vi) Know the criteria by which the quality of a test should be judged and how to
secure evidence relating to these criteria.
NOTES Characteristics of good measurement tool
To measure the psychological traits with validity and reliability, the measuring
instrument or tests should be far away from the aspects like personal errors, variable
errors, constant errors and interpretative errors. The important characteristics of a
good measuring tool is as follows:
(i) Should be valid: Validity of a test refers to its truthfulness. It refers to the
extent to which a test measures what it actually wishes to measure. Suppose
we want to know whether a Numerical Reasoning Test is valid. If it really
measures the reasoning ability, the test can be said to be valid.
(ii) Should be reliable: Reliability means the consistency of a measuring
instrument (how accurately it measures). It refers to the faithfulness of the
test. To express in a general way, if a measuring instrument measures
consistently, it is reliable. For example, a test is administered on English to the
students of class VI. In this test, Ram scores 50. After a few days, the same
test is administered and Ram scores 50. Here, the test is reliable because
there is consistency in the result.
(iii) Should be objective: Objectivity of a test refers to two aspects: (a) item
objectivity (i.e., objectivity of the items), and (b) scoring objectivity (i.e.,
objectivity of scoring). By ‘item objectivity’ we mean that the items of the
test must need a definite single answer. If the answer is scored by different
examiners the marks would not vary. Ambiguous questions, lack of proper
direction, double barrelled questions, questions with double negatives, essay-
type questions must be avoided because they lack objectivity. By ‘objectivity
of scoring’ we mean that by whomsoever scored, the test would fetch the
same score. Thus, mostly the objective-type questions should be framed to
maintain the objectivity of the test.
(iv) Should be usable and practicable: ‘Usability’ refers to the practicability of
the test. In the teaching–learning situation, by usability we mean the degree
to which the test (or the measuring tool) can be successfully used by teachers
and school administrators.
(v) Should be comprehensive and precise: The test must be comprehensive
and precise. It means that the items must be free from ambiguity. The directions
to test items must be clear and understandable. The directions for
administration and for scoring must be clearly stated so that a classroom
teacher can easily understand and follow them.
(vi) Should be easy in administering: If the directions for administration are
complicated, or if they involve more time and labour, the users may lag behind.
For example, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is a good test, but its
administration is very difficult.
(vii) Should be economical: A measurement tool should be less time consuming. Measurement and
Evaluation in
The cost of the test must be reasonable so that the schools/educational Education: Overview
institutions can afford to purchase and use it.
(viii) Should be easy in scoring: The scoring procedure of the test should be
clear and simple. The scoring directions and adequate scoring key should be NOTES
provided to the scorer so that the test is easily scored.
(ix) Should be easily available: Some standardized tests are well-known all
over India, but they are not easily available. Such tests have less usability. It
is desirable that in order to be usable, the test must be readily and easily
available.
(x) Should have good and attractive get up/appearance: The quality of papers
used, typography and printing, letter size, spacing, pictures and diagrams
presented, its binding, space for pupil’s responses etc., need to be of very
good quality and attractive.
Nature of Educational Measurement and Evaluation
Evaluation is an act or process that assigns ‘value’ to a measure. When we are
evaluating, we are making a judgment as to the suitability, desirability or value of a
thing. In the teaching–learning situation, evaluation is a continuous process and is
concerned with more than just the formal academic achievement of students.
Evaluation refers to the assessment of a student’s progress towards stated objectives,
the efficiency of the teaching and the effectiveness of the curriculum. Evaluation is
a broad concept dealing not just with the classroom examination system; but also
evaluating the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain of students. The success
and failure of teaching depends upon teaching strategies, tactics and aids. Thus, the
evaluation approach improves the instructional procedure. Glaser’s basic model of
teaching refers to this step as a ‘feedback function’.
J.M. Bradfield defines evaluation as ‘the assignment of symbols to
phenomenon in order to characterize the worth or value of the phenomenon usually
with reference to some social, cultural and scientific standards’. Wright Stone stated,
‘evaluation is a relatively new technical term introduced to designate a more
comprehensive concept of measurement than is implied in conventional test and
examination’. Hanna defined evaluation as ‘the process of gathering and interpreting
evidence on change in the behaviour of all students as they progress through school’.
Evaluation takes place with the help of tests and measurements. In a classroom
situation, teachers first use classroom tests to evaluate students according to their
different traits. After getting the answer papers, teachers provide some numerals to
the answer papers, this step is known as measurement. So measurement deals with
only the quantitative description. After the measurement step, the teachers arrange
the students as first, second, third etc., according to their achievements. This step is
evaluation. So evaluation is a philosophical and subjective concept. It includes both
quantitative and qualitative descriptions, and value judgment.
Therefore, Evaluation = Quantitative Description (Measurement) and/or
Qualitative Description (Non-measurement) + Value Judgments.
Measurement and Characteristics of evaluation
Evaluation in
Education: Overview The characteristics of evaluation are as follows:
• It is a systematic process.
NOTES • It measures the effectiveness of learning that experiences provide.
• It measures how far the instructional objectives have been achieved.
• It uses certain tools like tests, observation, interview etc.
• It is a continuous process.
• It is a subjective judgment.
• It is philosophical in nature.
• It includes quantitative description, qualitative description and value judgment.
• It gets data from measurement.
• It not only determines the magnitude, but also adds meaning to measurement.
• It involves values and purposes.
Evaluation from educational angle
Anything that needs to be evaluated has certain aims and objectives, and through
evaluation we assess how far these objectives have been fulfilled. From an educational
angle, we can evaluate many aspects which are the part and parcel of an educational
system such as:
(i) Evaluation of a school site (with reference to its location, building, hygienic
condition, strength of students and teachers etc.).
(ii) Evaluation of a school programme (school syllabus, cocurricular activities,
guidance programmes etc.).
(iii) Evaluation of teaching methods (with reference to aims, purposes, suitability
and efficacy).
(iv) Evaluation of total programme of instruction (with reference to cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domain).
(v) Evaluation of school administration; discipline, control, management and
organization.
(vi) Evaluation of textbooks and other course materials.
(vii) Evaluation of students’ growth etc.
The steps involved in an evaluation process take place in a hierarchy. These steps
are:
• Evaluating
• Planning of appropriate learning experiences
• Selecting appropriate teaching points
• Specification of desired student behaviour
• Identification and definition of specific objectives
• Identification and definition general objectives
Measurement and
Evaluation in
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Education: Overview
1. Define measurement.
2. What do you understand by objectivity of a test? NOTES
3. How does J.M. Bradfield define evaluation?
1.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEASURING SCALES
‘Scaling’ in social sciences refers to the process of measuring. Scaling techniques

are deployed in the service of estimating different individual levels of extraversion,
or level of satisfaction. Comparative and non-comparative methods of scaling are
the most common manifestation in the social sciences. With comparative scaling,
items are directly compared with each other. For instance, ‘Do you prefer beverage
A or Beverage B?’ In this case both beverages will be leading brands in the industry
and the obtained feedback will allow market researches develop meaningful insight
into the nature of market preferences. In non comparative scaling, each item will be
subject to scaling independently of others. Questions formed under this will be more
subjective in nature. For instance, it will ask an individual to state the exact reason
for preferring one beverage over another.
Functions of Measurement
Lee J. Cronbach (1949) classified all applications of mental measurement under the
following three main functions:
(i) Prognosis function: The first function of measurement is the prognosis
function. Tests reveal differences among people’s performance at this
movement. All decisions involve prediction when psychological test is
mentioned, for example, the IQ test that is given to students in school to
predict their academic performance. The measurement provides the extent
of a variable which has the specific purpose of predicting future behaviour.
The prognosis function has an administrative function such as classification,
selection, promotion and gradation of students. The college students ask
counsellors to help them choose the best curriculum or job. Thus, guidance
and counselling services are also based upon the prognosis function of
measurement i.e., the effectiveness of method, instruction and treatment
evaluated on the basis of student, achievement.
(ii) Diagnosis function: The second major function of measurement is diagnosis.
The prognosis function reveals the level of student with regard to certain
characteristics, whereas the diagnosis function identifies the weakness of the
student-learning. The remedial instruction can be prepared on the basis of
diagnosis. It also implies the prediction, but there is considerable justification
in listing diagnosis as a separate function of measurement. The diagnostic
function establishes the cause–effect relationship, but prediction implies the
simple relationship. The instructional procedure can be improved by this
function of psychological measurement. Self-Instructional Material 9
Measurement and (iii) Research function: The third major function of measurement is verification
Evaluation in
Education: Overview of scientific hypotheses of research. The use of measurement for research
purposes, however, is not much when compared to prediction and diagnosis.
This is because a measurement is usually considered a completely valid
NOTES measure of certain human characteristics. An investigator must treat test
scores in this experiment as an accurate quantification of real and useful
variable. Measurement provides a more objective and dependable basis for
comparison than rough impressions. Thus, the valid generalizations are made
on the basis of accurate measurement.
Methods of Measurement
For both physical and mental measurement, some tools and methods are necessary.
The variation of method may be due to the nature of variable and purpose of
measurement.
The methods of measurement are as follows:
(i) Tests: A test consists of a set of questions to be answered or tasks to be
performed. Tests are used to assess the ability or trait in question.
Psychological and educational tests are standardized procedure to measure
quantitatively or qualitatively one or more than one aspect or trait by means
of a sample of verbal or nonverbal behaviours. Items of a test are placed
in increasing order of difficulty and its procedure of administration is
standardized to ensure maximum objectivity. The psychological tests are
used to know the ability of the students, to diagnose the weakness, to predict
the future progress, and to provide educational and vocational guidance.
The different types of tests are: achievement tests, intelligence tests, attitude
tests, aptitude tests, personality tests, creativity tests etc.
(ii) Inventories: Different inventories are used for different traits. Interest
inventories are used to measure interest; personality inventories are used to
measure certain traits on personality etc.
(iii) Observation: There are certain traits like honesty, punctuality, persistence,
truthfulness etc., which can hardly be measured objectively via tests. So
here, observation is an important technique of measurement. The observation
may be participant observation or non-participant observation for accurate
and scientific observation. One may use observation schedule and other
instruments.
(iv) Interview: Interview is a face-to-face interaction between one interviewee
and one interviewer or more than one interviewers. There are certain things
which an individual does not want to express and they can be only assessed
through interviews. The interview schedules may be used and the interviewer
through a better personal support, and in congenial atmosphere, can succeed
to bring out the inner feelings of the interviewee through carefully planned
interviews.
(v) Checklist: A checklist consists of a series of items which needs response
from the respondent. The presence or absence of an item may be indicated
by ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ (by a ‘√’ or ‘X’ against the items). Checklists are popularly Measurement and
Evaluation in
employed for appraisal of studies, school buildings, textbooks, outcomes, Education: Overview
instructional procedures etc.
(vi) Rating scales: Psychological traits are relative concepts. So it is very difficult
to make watertight compartments between them. Sometimes, the degree of NOTES
a trait is necessary on the part of the rater. Rating scale is used to evaluate
the personal and social conduct of the learner. We take the opinion of teachers
or parents or friends or judges on a particular quality or trait of a pupil along
a scale. The rating scale may be of 5 points, 7 points, 9 points or 11 points. For
example, to assess particular trait, we can use a 5 point scale as: very good,
good, average, below average, and poor. The trait in question is marked by
the judges in any one of the five categories. Rating scales can be used to
evaluate: personality traits, tests, school courses, school practices, and other
school programmes.
(vii) Attitude scales: Attitude refers to the bent of mind or feelings of an individual
towards an object, an idea, an institution, a belief, a subject or even a person.
Attitude scales are used to measure this trait objectively with accuracy.
(viii) Projective techniques: Projective techniques are very ambiguous and
subjective in nature. Through projective techniques, the subconscious and
pre-conscious mind of an individual is reflected. For example, with the help of
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), we measure the personality of individuals.
Anecdotal record card and cumulative record cards are also used for
educational measurement and evaluation.
The process of evaluation consists of the following three aspects:
(i) Quantitative measurements
(ii) Qualitative assessment
(iii) Teachers’ opinion
(i) Quantitative measurement
We often do the quantitative measurement of the performance of students through
tests. It usually is the case that more time is spent on teaching a unit than testing it.
The achievement of the students usually depends on the nature of tests such as
teacher-made tests, standardized tests, etc. But the achievement also depends on
the physical and mental health of the student, the level of their preparation and
motivation during the tests. The marks obtained by the students in different subjects
in terminal examinations and expressed in percentage of marks obtained as the
aggregate is an example of applying quantitative measurement. This kind of
measurement provides information about the overall achievement level of pupils, but
does not help us in understanding the individual performance of a child and difficulties
faced by him or her. Therefore, quantitative measurement has its limitations and
thus it needs to be supplemented by qualitative assessment.
Measurement and (ii) Qualitative assessment
Evaluation in
Education: Overview The qualitative assessment description implies observation by teachers and records
maintained by them pertaining to various facets of student personality and performance
in the school. The systematic record of statement by teachers about the special
NOTES
achievement or exceptional ability in non-scholastic area or exceptional behaviour
of students is one of the illustrations of the qualitative assessment description.
(iii) Teachers’ opinion
Teachers form opinions about the students on the basis of conclusions drawn by
them from quantitative measures and a qualitative description of the behaviour of
students. The opinion of a teacher arrived at on the basis of qualitative and quantitative
measurement gives a comprehensive picture of the students’ progress. Though it is
an evaluation in an informal setting, yet it conveys information about the students’
performance on some vital issues.
Importance of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
It does not suffice in the modern era that one is good only in academics. There are
lots of opportunities for the students who somehow could not perform satisfactorily
in academics. These activities need to be evaluated at a regular basis and are classified
into scholastic and non-scholastic areas. In order to check the level of achievement
and performance both in scholastic and non-scholastic areas, it is imperative that
continuous and comprehensive evaluation should be practised in schools.
Evaluation on a regular basis should be used to monitor individual progress
and to show the achievement level of each student in scholastic and non-scholastic
areas throughout the year. With the help of such an evaluation, it can be assessed
whether the objectives mentioned in the curriculum have been achieved or not. The
objectives are set in order to improve not only cognitive domain in the students but
also to the affective and psychomotor domains. This is so because these domains
are complementary to each other and the absence of any one of these can create a
sense of lack in the life of an individual.
The assessment of the achievement and performance in all the three domains
is ‘comprehensive’ evaluation. The students’ education is a continuous process which
is a result of their continuous learning both in formal and informal settings. They go
through various experiences such as teaching, learning, practical observations, self
study, etc. The expected behavioural changes in children are reinforced by their
direct involvement and self-learning. Objective records of such changes are required
to be maintained from time to time. They form a major part of continuous evaluation.
It is obvious that evaluation of behavioural modifications observed in the students’
personalities are to be undertaken continuously. These modifications may be related
to the development of intellect, emotions and practical skills.
The evaluation in school should aim at assessing these modifications, stated
in terms of behavioural objectives, continuously and comprehensively through formal
or informal techniques. The techniques to be used may be in the form of a written
examination or observation tests, group work or individual assignments. Provision Measurement and
Evaluation in
has to be made for their periodic evaluation. In the course of the teaching–learning Education: Overview
process, it is of paramount importance to aim for a continuous and comprehensive
evaluation that uses formal or informal assessment. These assessments may be
based on observations that are made taking into account the pupil’s overall progress NOTES
by asking them oral or written questions individually or in a group.
The national curriculum framework of school education prescribes social
and qualities that all children need to develop regardless of their academic aptitude.
In other words, even if the student is not able to compete academically, he or she
can explore other capabilities such as arts, humanities, sports, athletics, and music
etc. Excelling in any field can increase the students’ confidence manifold and may
even inspire them to put in more efforts into the curricular studies. Students, with
the help of this revolutionary evaluation system, can finally understand that their
competition is with themselves and not with the others.
Not just children, even teachers benefit from this kind of evaluation since
they are encouraged to take important decisions regarding the learning process,
efficiency, ensuring quality, and accountability.
Continuous and comprehensive evaluation helps to empower teachers in the following
ways:
• They get pointers on how to improve the evaluation procedure.
• They can formulate ways to help students master competencies in which the
students are falling behind through planned remedial steps
• They can select and deploy media such as audio visual aids for teaching in
classrooms, especially subjects which cannot be understood purely with
theoretical learning.
To sum up, following are the reasons why continuous and comprehensive evaluation
is important to improve the overall education system in India:
• For making sure that learning in schools is not just about rote methods
• For ensuring that the examination system is more flexible and tests capabilities
of a wider range
• For making sure the curriculum enriches the individual as a whole besides
promoting academic learning
• For ensuring that classroom knowledge is relevant to life outside as well
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

4. What is scaling?
5. What is a test?
Measurement and
Evaluation in 1.4 PLACEMENT, DIAGNOSTIC, FORMATIVE AND
Education: Overview
SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
NOTES Evaluation is a process of judgement of value or worth of a process or product,

which may be the achievement, aptitude, interest, skill or other aspects of student’s
personality or the method of teaching and learning. There are many types of
evaluation. These include formative, summative, placement and diagnostic evaluation.
(i) Formative Evaluation
The evaluation which is done during the teaching–learning process to assess the
ongoing termed formation of knowledge and understanding of students is called as
formative evaluation. It answers the following pertinent questions regarding the
process and product of teaching and learning:
• Whether the objectives of teaching a particular topic or content or course
or curriculum are being achieved?
• Whether student’s cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains are
forming properly?
• Whether learners’ scholastic and non-scholastic areas of personality are
developing properly?
• Learners’ progress is satisfactory or not?
• Whether the predetermined objectives of any on-going educational program
are being fulfilled?
The formative evaluation is a monitoring type of evaluation which is used to
monitor the progress of students during the class, course or session. After formative
evaluation, feedback is given to students, so that they can proceed accordingly. The
formative evaluation is aimed at improving the quality of teaching-learning process.
(ii) Placement Evaluation
Through placement evaluation, the entry behaviour of the student is assessed. In
this case, the students are given admission to new courses according to their
intelligence, attitude, motivation, aptitude etc. This type of evaluation questions:
• Does the student possess the knowledge and skills needed to begin the planned
instruction?
• To what extent has the student already developed the understanding and
skills that are the goals of the planned instruction?
• To what extent do the student’s interests, work habits and personality
characteristics indicate that one mode of instruction might be better than
other?
The goals of placement assessment are to determine for each student the Measurement and
Evaluation in
position in the instructional sequence and the mode of instruction that is most beneficial. Education: Overview
For example, the B.Ed. entrance test is conducted to give admission to the students’
in B.Ed. course. This type of evaluation is called ‘placement evaluation’.
NOTES
(iii) Diagnostic Evaluation
It is concerned with the persistent learning difficulties that are left unresolved by the
corrective prescriptions of formative assessment. It aims at identifying or diagnosing
the weaknesses of students in a given course of instruction. Diagnostic evaluation
involves the use of specially prepared diagnostic tests and various observational
techniques. The aim of diagnostic assessment is to determine the causes of persistent
learning problems of students and to formulate a plan for remedial action. When a
teacher finds that in spite of the use of various alternative methods and techniques,
the student still faces learning difficulties, he takes recourse to a detailed diagnosis.
This type of evaluation includes vision tests, hearing tests and other tests used to
determine how the student approaches a reading assignment, as well as it examines
whether the student relies on pictures, sound, context clues, skip over unfamiliar
words, etc.
(iv) Summative Evaluation
As the name indicates, summative evaluation is done at the end of a course semester,
or a class or topic. It is meant to evaluate the quality of the final product and to find
out the extent to which the instructional objectives have been achieved.
No remedial teaching is given after summative evaluation. The process of
certification is done on the basis of the results of summative evaluation. Results of
this evalauation reflect the effectiveness of the curriculum transaction process.
Important examples of summative evaluations are annual exams, semester end exams
and terminal exams. This is much more concerned with judging about the final
product. The important tools of summative evaluation are achievement test, rating
scales, project evaluation by experts, interviews, viva-voce examination, etc. The
characteristic features of summative evaluation are as follows:
• This evaluation is conducted at the end of a topic, class, chapter, unit or
course of instruction.
• Evaluation results give the final progress of the students in a class, in a
topic, in a unit, in a course or in any educational programme.
• Summative evaluation results are used for preparing merit list, finalizing
position, taking decisions of pass/fail/promotion and awarding degrees or
diplomas.
Difference between formative and summative evaluation
Take 1.1 summarizes the difference between formative and summative evaluations.
Measurement and Table 1.1 Difference between Formative and Summative Evaluations
Evaluation in
Education: Overview
Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation
1. Conducted during the process of teaching 1. Conducted at the end of the process of
NOTES and learning, during the class, during the teaching and learning, e.g., at the end of
semester or a session. class, at the end of semester, at the end of
2. Determines the level of achievement in a session, etc.
small task learned in a short duration. 2. Determines the level of achievement in a
3. Conducted regularly during the class, major task learned in a longer duration.
course or session. 3. Conducted at the end of the course or
4. Gives limited generalization. session or programme.
5. Limited content area and ability 4. Gives broad generalizations

are covered. 5. Large content areas and abilities are
covered.
External Evaluation
The evaluation procedure in which the evaluators or examiners are invited from
outside is called external evaluation. The teachers who are teaching a particular
group of students are not involved in the evaluation of their students. Hence, the
teachers and the examiners are different; they are never common. The teacher
who is teaching a particular group of students or class is not the examiner of the
same group of students. Their performances or achievements are judged or evaluated
by outside teachers.
External evaluation includes all board examinations, viva conducted by expert from
outside, annual examinations in schools in which paper comes from outside and not
set out by the teachers of the same school, etc.
The significance of external evaluation is that it eliminates the element of bias from
the evaluation system.
Internal Evaluation
Internal evaluation is the evaluation in which the teacher and the examiner are the
same person. The same teacher teaches a particular subject and himself or herself
sets the paper and evaluates the achievement of the students. No external expert is
invited in this type of evaluation.
Class test, unit test, weekly test, monthly test, quarterly test, etc. are the examples
of internal evaluation
Significance
• It helps in finding out students’ progress.
• Remedial teaching can be organized for weaker students.
• Teachers himself or herself comes to know about his/her own and their
students’ weak areas.
• It helps in building strong foundation of students.
Measurement and
Evaluation in
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Education: Overview
6. What are the goals of placement assessment?

7. What is the aim at diagnostic evaluation? NOTES
1.5 ROLE OF TEACHERS IN AN EVALUATION

PROGRAMME
Teaching remains central to both learning and assessment. There is an interrelatedness

between teaching objectives (ends), learning experiences (means) and assessment
(evidence of what is taught and learnt). Assessment is the process of determining
the following:
(i) The extent to which an objective is achieved.
(ii) The effectiveness of the learning experiences provided in the classroom.
(iii) How well the goals of teaching have been accomplished.
In assessment, one has to know where students were at the beginning if we
are to determine what changes are occurring. It involves obtaining a record of the
changes in pupil by using appropriate methods of appraisal; judging how good the
changes are in the light of the evidence obtained and ensuring change is ushered in
teaching technology and also in learning technology.
Thus, assessment comes in at the planning stage when teaching objectives
are identified. At every point of learning, it is an attempt to discover the effectiveness
of the learning situation in evoking the desired changes in students.
Assessment is integrated with the whole task of teaching and learning and its
purpose is to improve learning and not merely to measure its achievement. In its
highest sense, it brings out the factors that are inherent in student growth such as
proper attitudes and habits, manipulative skills, appreciations and understanding in
addition to the conventional acquisition of knowledge.
It has been rightly observed, ‘The definition of assessment places it in the
stream of activities that expedite the educational process; these activities can be
reduced to four essential steps: identification of educational objectives, determination
of the experiences students must have to attain these objectives, knowing the pupils
well enough to design appropriate experiences and assessing the degree to which
pupils attain these objectives.’
Objectives provide the starting point on which are based all the learning
experiences are based, which in turn are the material of assessment. Our teaching
objectives are the changes we wish to produce in the child. The changes that must
take place through education are represented in:
1. The knowledge children acquire.
2. The skills and abilities children attain.
Measurement and 3. The interest children develop.
Evaluation in
Education: Overview 4. The attitudes children manifest.
If education imparted is effective, then the child will behave differently from
NOTES the way he did before he came to school. The pupil knows something of which he
was ignorant before. He understands something which he did not understand before.
He can solve problems he could not solve before. He can do something which he
could not do before. He revises his attitudes desirably towards things.
These objectives must involve points of information, the skills and attitudes to
be developed and interests that could be created through the particular topic or
subject taken up for work in the classroom. A statement of classroom objectives:
1. Serves as a basis for the classroom procedures that should provide for suitable
experiences to the children.
2. Serves as a guide in seeking evidence to determine the extent to which the
classroom work has accomplished what it set out to do.
A learning experience is not synonymous with the content of instruction or
what the teacher does. Learning results from the active reaction of the pupil to the
stimulus situation which the teacher creates in the class. A pupil learns what he
does. He is an active participant in what goes on in the class. Changes in a pupil’s
way of thinking and developing concepts, attitudes and interests have to be brought
about gradually. No simple experience will result in the change. Many experiences,
one reinforcing another, will have to be provided. They may have to be repeated in
increasing complexity or levels in meaningful sequence extended over a period of
time. A cumulative effect of such experiences will evoke the desired change of
behaviour with reference to a specific objective.
The following considerations will be useful in the selection of such experiences:
1. Are they directly related to goals?
2. Are they meaningful and satisfying to the learners?
3. Are they appropriate to the maturity of the learners?
Why to Assess
1. To assess the achievement of the students. The abilities and the
achievements of the students must be assessed. Examinations are conducted
to discover whether or not the child had been able to acquire a certain amount
of knowledge or skill.
2. To measure personality. They are used to test the power of clear thinking,
quickness of mind, calmness and perseverance.
3. To measure the efficiency of teachers and of the school. They provide
a suitable occasion for the authorities to measure the efficiency of the teachers.
The efficiency of the institution is also measured through the examinations.
They provide a proper occasion to the teachers to know whether or not their
methods of teaching are appropriate.
4. To help in diagnosis. They help parents to know the progress of their
children. They help to discover the specific weak points of an individual or
class and thus give an opportunity to the teachers as well as to the taught to Measurement and
Evaluation in
remove these defects. Education: Overview
5. To act as an incentive. Stimulation to work hard is provided to the students
through the institution of examinations. Some objectives are placed before
the students and for the realization of those objectives the students develop in NOTES
them the habits of constant hard work.
6. To help in prognosis. The examinations have a prognostic value as well.
With this device, the aptitudes of the students are determined.
7. To provide uniformity of standard. The external examinations facilitate
the problem of uniformity of standards attained by the students of different
institutions.
8. To help in guidance. They facilitate the work of grouping individuals for the
purpose of teaching by bringing those together who have more or less the
same attainment.
9. To measure fitness for admission to higher courses. They are designed
to determine the capacity and fitness of the candidate to pursue higher courses
of general or professional study or training. Examinations which serve this
purpose are called entrance or qualifying examinations.
10. To help in selection by competition. The examinations are also conducted
to select the best candidates for appointment to public service or for award of
prizes and scholarships.
11. Study of every subject. The students study all the subjects including what
are known as ‘dull ones’ for fear of examinations.
12. Parents’ point of view. Examinations provide an opportunity to the parents
to know where their wards stand and whether money spent on them is being
utilized properly.
13. To certify competency. A technological society needs qualified doctors,
engineers and scientists, and so on, and the examination system certifies their
presence even if inadequately.
14. To link schools with the world. Examinations fulfill an important role in
linking schools with each other and with the world.
1.6 TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
The study of classification is known as taxonomy. You have various objectives of

education related to personal needs, social needs, community needs, national needs,
global needs, and various aspects to your personality. The first and the most successful
effort in this direction was made by American educational psychologist Benjamin
Bloom and his co-worker, who began their work in 1948. Bloom was teaching
educational psychology at the University of Chicago. He developed and proposed
the classification of educational objectives in 1956, which is popularly known as
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. This is the classification of the different
aims and objectives, which are required to be achieved through curriculum of any
Measurement and course and involves knowledge, skills, attitude values and abilities that a teacher,
Evaluation in
Education: Overview teacher educator or curriculum developer sets for students as teaching-learning
objectives. This classification fits properly for all subjects and courses whether
academic or technical. In all the areas of study, you try to develop content knowledge
NOTES and understanding, skills, and values related to it. You will find these in the classification
of educational objectives by Bloom.
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives also fits properly with Mahatma
Gandhi’s views on education. Mahatma Gandhi defines education as, ‘By education,
I mean the all-round drawing out the best in child and man-body, mind and soul’.
Gandhi’s definition remarkably reflects the idea that education should develop the
whole personality of the child by developing the three most important dimensions of
personality, i.e., body, mind and soul. Mind indicates intellectual aspects; soul indicates
the emotional, spiritual and moral aspects; and body indicates the development of
skills which requires the use of body parts like fingers, hands, legs, eyes, vocal cord
etc., for performing various skills.
Bloom classified educational objectives into three ‘domains’, namely:
(i) cognitive domain, (ii) affective domain (iii) psychomotor domain, as shown in
Figure 1.1.
Fig. 1.1 Domains of Educational Objectives
All the three domains are not divided entirely by a water tight compartment.
Each of the three domains is interrelated and achievements in one domain influence
the achievement by other domain. However, all domains develop in a hierarchical
order and constitute the whole personality of an individual. If an individual develops
his or her three domains in any area of study, he or she is having a good personality,
and if any one domain is underdeveloped, then he or she has not nurtured himself or
herself as a groomed personality. Hierarchical means of learning at the higher level
in any domain is entirely dependent on having acquired prerequisite knowledge and
skills at lower level. The three domains may be represented in short as:
1. Cognitive domain (about knowing-intellectual aspects of personality of an
individual)
2. Affective domain (about attitudes, feelings, interests, values and beliefs of an
individual)
3. Psychomotor domain (about doing-skill aspects of the personality of an Measurement and
Evaluation in
individual) Education: Overview
All the three domains have their own taxonomy or classification. In all domains,
the levels of expertise or abilities are arranged in order of increasing complexity, i.e.,
in hierarchical order of difficulty levels. Learning outcomes that require higher levels NOTES
of expertise require more effective teaching and more sophisticated classroom
techniques and method of teaching.
Dimensions of learning basically form a framework of learning focused on
preparing instructional planning, keeping in view cognition (the awareness part) and
learning in practical classroom situations. This framework serves three major purposes.
These are as follows:
1. It provides a process for planning and delivering curriculum and instruction
that integrates much of the research on effective teaching and learning.
2. It offers a way of integrating the major instructional models by showing how
they are connected and where the overlaps occur.
3. It provides a framework for organizing, describing and developing research-
based teaching strategies that engage students in the types of thinking that
can lead to meaningful learning.
The following five aspects of learning should be considered while finalizing
curriculum, instruction and assessment:
• Attitudes and perceptions about learning
• Using knowledge meaningfully
• Identifying productive habits of the mind
• Acquiring and integrating knowledge
• Extending and refining knowledge
I. Cognitive Domain
Cognitive domain includes those objectives of education which attempt to develop
mental faculties or intellectual abilities, i.e., the ability of knowing, understanding,
thinking and problem solving. It develops our factual knowledge, conceptual
understanding and all levels (lower, middle and higher) of thinking. It covers whole
of mental abilities and mental operations.
Classification of cognitive domain
The classification of cognitive domain was done in 1956 by Bloom and is commonly
known as Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain (Bloom et.al, 1956). Cognitive
taxonomy or classification of cognitive domain has knowledge-based goals. This
domain has been classified into six major categories which are arranged in a
hierarchical order based on the levels of complexities of cognitive or mental or
intellectual tasks or operations. These are arranged from simple to complex and
concrete to abstract starting from category one to category six, respectively.
Measurement and 1. Knowledge: This is the first and the lowest level of cognitive domain. It
Evaluation in
Education: Overview represents memory and constitutes recall and recognition of various facts,
concepts, principles, theories and laws of physical science. No addition or
deletion is done in this category; we simply recall and recognize things. In the
NOTES revised Bloom’s taxonomy, this category is given new name ‘remembering’.
Example: The symbol of iron is ‘Fe’.
The chemical formula of sulphuric acid is ‘H2SO4’.
Laws of motion were given by ‘Isac Newton’.
A magnet has two poles– N (north) and S (south)
2. Understanding: This is the second level of cognitive domain and develops
only after the development of the first category, i.e., knowledge or remembering
in any particular area of study, also in physical science. Learners are expected
to go beyond the level of recall and recognition. After having developed this
level of understanding on any topic, learners become capable of doing the
following major tasks, which in turn indicates that the learners have acquired
the level of understanding in a given topic:
(i) Translate, summarize or define the acquired knowledge in their own
words.
(ii) Describe, elaborate, extrapolate and explain natural phenomena or
events or process or method, etc.
(iii) Interpret the acquired information or knowledge in their own way and
give their own examples. They can discriminate or differentiate between
two or many objects or concepts. Classify and categorize various objects
into groups on the basis of some criteria. Verify and generalize facts
and concepts.
Example: After having understood the structure of atom, learners not only
recall protons, electrons and neutrons but also describe the structure of an
atom. Now learners can also explain why an atom is neutral with the help of
charges acquired by every fundamental particle and numbers of all three
particles in an atom.
3. Application: After having acquired knowledge and understanding levels of
any topic (may be a fact, concept, principle, theory or law), learners should
be able to apply them in their day-to-day lives. Application of any concept,
principle, theory or law in daily life and solving problems of varied nature is
impossible without its knowledge and understanding. Unless the learner is
able to apply whatever knowledge and understanding he or she has acquired,
it has no meaning at all and indicates that the learners have not understood
the content properly. by applying or implementing the gained knowledge and
understanding of various contents, you can solve many problems of daily life,
under concrete and abstract situations.
Example: If learners know and understand the importance of natural
resources, underground water crisis, electricity supply and demand relationship
and other such problems of daily lives, they will take care of these things in Measurement and
Evaluation in
their day-to-day life, and by applying this understanding, they will try to minimize Education: Overview
wastage of water and electricity in their homes, schools and society by proper
and judicial use of these things.
4. Analysis: This is the fourth higher level category of cognitive abilities. At NOTES
this stage, learners develop the potential to analyse and breakdown the whole
into its various components or constituents and detect the relationship and
organization of its various components. Learners develop the ability to break
a law and theory into its various inherent facts, concepts and principles on the
basis of which that theory or law has been created or proposed.
Example: Learners are taught about the laws of motion. Suppose they know
and understand the third law of motion which states, ‘to every action there is
an equal and opposite reaction’. They have also developed the ability to apply
this knowledge and understanding in their daily lives. If the analytical ability
has developed, they would be able to analyse this law in the event of some
likely situations. They would also be able to describe its every concept like
action and reaction. One can analyse anything if he or she has knowledge
and understanding of that thing and also has the potential to apply it. In the
process of analysis, three tasks are performed in general. These are as follows:
(a) Analysis of elements or constituents making the whole
(b) Analysis of relationship among various constituents
(c) Analysis of the organizational patterns of the constituents
5. Synthesis: This is the process of putting together various constituents to
make a whole. This is a higher level thinking ability and is complex in nature,
which involves the creation of a new pattern or structure by manipulating
various constituents. It has the elements of creativity attached with it.
Development of creative personality requires this level of cognition to be
achieved by the learners. All creative people have this ability in common.
Synthesis involves the following three things:
• Development of a unique communication
• Development of a plan, procedure or proposed set of operation
• Development of a set of abstract relations
6. Evaluation: This is the process of judgment about the worth or value of a
process or a product. It includes all the content, i.e., facts, concepts, principles,
theories and laws of physical sciences. It is the highest and the most complex
level of cognitive ability and involves all the five categories discussed earlier.
It is a quantitative as well as a qualitative process. It leads to the development
of decision-making ability among the learners and involves judgment in terms
of internal as well as external criteria.
Assessment of cognitive learning
Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skills by the mental
process. Cognition includes representation of physical objects and events and other
information processing.
Measurement and The cognitive learning is a result of listening, watching, touching or
Evaluation in
Education: Overview experiencing. Cognitive learning is mainly awareness towards the environment—
the environment that provides some meaning to acquired knowledge.
After these activities, it is important to process and remember the information.
NOTES No motor movement is needed in cognitive learning and the learner is active only in
a cognitive way. Cognitive learning includes symbols, values, beliefs and norms.
When we say the word ‘learning’, we usually mean ‘to think using the brain’.
This basic concept of learning is the main viewpoint in the Cognitive Learning Theory
(CLT). The theory has been used to explain mental processes as they are influenced
by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which eventually bring about learning in an
individual.
CLT implies that the different processes concerning learning can be explained
by analysing the mental processes first. It posits that with effective cognitive
processes, learning is easier and new information can be stored in the memory for a
long time. On the other hand, ineffective cognitive processes result in learning
difficulties that can be seen anytime during the lifetime of an individual.
Insight and motivation
In CLT, motivation and purpose are much the same. The learner’s goal is the end
result he anticipates and desires. The goal controls the behaviour of the learner. The
teacher’s most important responsibility is to help the learner find worthwhile goals
which may be clear and realistic. They should recognize and use the prominence of
social and achievement motives in school learning. The teacher must know about
what is familiar to students and then he must introduce elements of novelty but not
too rapidly. A good teacher must pace his presentation to maintain the interest and
attention in learning.
The teachers’ management of conflicting motives may be an important factor
in student’s success.
Guiding exploration and action
The cognitive theorists in teaching of reading begin with thoughts interesting and
understandable to the learner. In every type of instruction, we start with meaningful
wholes.
• An attempt is made to focus attention on elements and relationship that
determine the correct response.
• Teachers’ guidance must match the students’ level of thought or ways of
working. If a student has not advanced above the level of concrete thinking,
information presented symbolically will not help him.
• The teacher can help students to find purpose or order in learning.
The formation of concepts may be regarded as the organization of experience.
The teacher’s role is to use appropriate means to clarify the critical features of both
old and new experiences.
Thinking skills required in cognitive learning Measurement and
Evaluation in
The following critical thinking skills are required in cognitive learning: Education: Overview
1. Convergent thinking
NOTES
Convergent thinking is a term introduced by the American Psychologist Joy Paul
Guilford. It generally means the ability to give the ‘correct’ answer to standard
questions that do not require the utilization of much creative faculty. Divergent and
convergent thinking skills are both important aspects of intelligence, problem solving
and critical thinking. Bringing facts and data together from various sources and then
applying logic and knowledge to solve the problem to achieve an objective is known
as convergent thinking.
Assessing convergent thinking: Convergent thinking can be assessed by
administering standard IQ (Intelligent Quotient) tests, by various recognition or
knowledge tests, logical discussions and by giving some problems to the students.
2. Divergent thinking
Divergent thinking is thinking outwardly instead of inwardly. It is the ability to develop
original and unique ideas and then come up with a solution to a problem or achieve
an objective.
The goal of divergent thinking is to generate many different ideas about a
topic in a short period of time. It involves breaking a topic down into its various
component parts in order to gain insight into the various aspects of the topic. Divergent
thinking typically occurs in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner, such that the ideas
are generated in a random, unorganized fashion.
Self analysis
The following questions may help to find out the potential of a learner:
• What are my activities during a normal day?
• What do I know about?
• How do I spend my time?
• What are my areas of expertise?
• What would I like to change in my world or life?
• What are my strongest beliefs and values?
• What am I studying in school?
• What bothers me?
• What do I like? What are my hobbies? What are my interests?
Topic analysis
The following questions may help in refining a large topic into a specific, focused
one:
• What are the most important aspects of some specific things?
• What are the effects of a thing?
Measurement and • How has an object changed? Why are those changes important?
Evaluation in
Education: Overview • What are the different aspects of anything you can think of?
• What are the smaller parts that comprise an object?
NOTES • What do I know about a thing?
• What suggestions or recommendations can be made about that thing?
• Is something good or bad? Why?
Techniques to stimulate divergent thinking
The following are some of the techniques used to stimulate divergent thinking:
• Brainstorming: This is a technique which involves generating a list of ideas
in a creative, but unstructured manner. The goal of brainstorming is to generate
as many ideas as possible in a short period of time. All ideas are recorded
during the brainstorming process.
• Recording ideas: By recording ideas, one can create a collection of thoughts
on various subjects that later becomes a source book of ideas.
•Free writing: The idea is to write down whatever comes to mind about the topic,
without stopping. This can help generate a variety of thoughts about a topic in
a short period of time.
• Mind or subject mapping: This involves translating brainstormed ideas into
the form of a visual map or picture.
3. Critical thinking
Critical thinking is described as reasonable reflective thinking focused on what to
believe and what not to believe. It is that mode of thinking — about any subject,
content, or problem — in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking
by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual
standards upon them. Michael Scriven, british polymath and academic, and Richard
Paul, an internationally recognized authority on critical thinking, believe that critical
thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of:
• Analysing the situation
• Synthesizing two or more pieces of information
• Applying knowledge
• Active and skilful conceptualization
• Evaluating gathered information based on certain universal intellectual values
Characteristics of critical thinking: It comprises various modes of thinking,
such as scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological
thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking and philosophical thinking. The following
are its four characteristics:
1. It is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at the highest
level of quality.
2. Critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual; everyone is
26 Self-Instructional Material subject to episodes of irrational thought.
3. It is affected by the motivation. Measurement and
Evaluation in
4. Critical thinking can be seen as having two components: (a) a set of information Education: Overview
and belief generating and processing skills, and (b) the habit, based on
intellectual commitment to use those skills to guide behaviour.
NOTES
Importance of critical thinking skills: Critical thinking skills are essential
to:
• Learn how to approach problems logically and confidently
• Balance using both the right and left sides of the brain
• Make wise decisions in life
• Put oneself on the path to knowledge
The list of core critical thinking skills includes observation, interpretation,
analysis, inference, evaluation, explanation and meta-cognition. There is a reasonable
level of consensus among experts that an individual or group engaged in strong
critical thinking gives due consideration to the procedure involved.
Critical thinking calls for the ability to:
• Recognize problems
• Find workable means to solve those problems
• Comprehend and use the text with accuracy and clarity
• Interpret data to evaluate arguments
• Recognize unsaid assumptions
• Understand the importance of steps in problem solving
• Collect relevant information
• Recognize the existence (or non-existence) of logical relationships between
propositions
• Draw conclusions
• Cross-check conclusions
4. Problem solving
Problem solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analysing and solving
problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a
solution that best resolves the issue.
Formalized learning theory developed in late 1930, when proponents of various
approaches attempted to build their own theory to explain the problems of learning.
A theory of learning cannot be defined to satisfy all interested persons. We can
quote the definition of a theory as ‘a provisional explanatory proposition or set of
propositions, concerning some natural phenomena and consisting of symbolic
representations of: (a) the observed relationships among independent and dependent
variables, (b) the mechanisms or structures presumed to underlie such relationships,
or (c) inferred relationships and underlying mechanisms intended to account for
observed data in the absence of any direct empirical manifestations of the
relationships’ (Learning Theories edited by Melvin H. Marx).
Measurement and Approaches to problem solving
Evaluation in
Education: Overview Traditionally, two different approaches have been mentioned by psychologists,
adhering to two families of learning theories: (a) cognitive field theory, and (b) stimulus-
response theory.
NOTES
Cognitive field theory emphasizes the importance of perception of total situation
and relationship among its components, and restructuring the cognitive field. German
Psychologist and Phenomenologist Wolfgang Köhler conducted his classical
experiments on a chimpanzee named Sultan to study the process of problem solving
in animals. He, from his study on problem solving, proposed that solution of a problem
is arrived at, all of a sudden, after some initial efforts by the individual. Many studies
have been conducted on children and adults which confirm that solution of a problem
is reached, all of a sudden, through insight into the situation.
The second point of view has been advanced by stimulus-response theorists
who emphasize the importance of trial and error. They hold that a problem is solved
through a gradual process of elimination of errors and putting together correct
responses. There has been considerable controversy as regards the superiority of
one approach over the other as an interpretation of problem solving. Some
psychologists are of the opinion that cognitive field theory, approach is most effective
for solving problems which require higher mental processes, while stimulus-response
approach is effective for solving simple problems.
To do away with the controversy of cognitive and stimulus response theorists’
approach, American psychologist Harry Harlow (1959) proposed a third explanation.
His approach is more realistic and rational in nature. He conducted a series of
experiments on monkeys and human subjects of low mental abilities. He presented
his human subjects with simple problems of discrimination. He observed that in the
beginning, his subjects showed trial and error behaviour to solve a series of problems,
but he noticed that when similar problems were presented to the subjects in future
for the first time, they made correct discrimination. The later stage appears to be
insightful learning, that is, suddenly getting the problem solved. According to Harlow,
the underlying assumption is that in the previous trial and error learning, the subjects
have learned ‘how to learn’. They acquired what he called a learning set. They
acquired a method of learning that transferred positively to other problem situations
of similar type.
Harlow says, ‘Generalizing broadly to human behaviour, we hold that original
learning within an area is difficult and frustrating, but after mastery of the basic
facts, learning within the same area becomes simple and effortless.’
The steps in problem solving
In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps. Many
researchers refer to this as the problem-solving cycle, which includes developing
strategies and organizing knowledge. The following are the steps required in the
process of problem solving:
1. Identifying the problem: While it sounds like the simplest thing to do, it
actually is not. It is very common for people to identify the reason incorrectly,
28 Self-Instructional Material which obviously renders all following efforts useless.
2. Defining the problem: Once the problem has been correctly discovered, Measurement and
Evaluation in
the next step is to define it. Defining the problem carefully offers solutions Education: Overview
and insights into the problem.
3. Forming a strategy:Next, a strategy must be devised which would be as
per the individual’s mindset, attitude, experience and available resources. NOTES
4. Organizing information:The strategy should ideally lead to a solution, but
first, the information needs to be organized in a coherent manner, such that it
leads naturally to the best possible solution.
5. Allocating resources: It is good to allocate more resources to solve a
problem, so that the available resources can be used to find out a solution.
Problem solving techniques
These techniques are usually called problem-solving strategies. These are as follows:
• Brainstorming: Suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining
and developing them until an effective solution is found
• Abstraction: Solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it
to the real system
• Assessing the output and interactions of an entire system
• Lateral thinking: Approaching solutions indirectly and creatively
• Dividing and conquer: Breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller,
solvable problems
• Employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems
• Analogy: Using a solution that solved an analogous problem
• Hypothesis testing: Assuming a possible explanation to the problem and
trying to prove one’s perspective
• Synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects into
something new
• Transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist
• Eliminating the cause of the problem
• Testing possible solutions until the right one is found
5. Decision making
Decision making can be regarded as the mental processes resulting in the selection
of a course of action among several alternative scenarios. The end result of each
decision making process is a final selection. The output can be an action or a suggestion.
Steps in decision making
The following are the steps that are to be followed in the decision-making process:
• Objectives are to be established first.
• Objectives must be classified and placed in the order of importance.
• Alternative actions must be developed.
• The alternative must be evaluated. Self-Instructional Material 29
Measurement and • A tentative decision can be made.
Evaluation in
Education: Overview • The tentative decision is evaluated and analysed.
• Few steps are followed that result in a decision model. This can be used to
NOTES determine an optimal plan.
• In a situation of conflict, role-playing can be used.
Each step in the decision-making process may include social, cognitive and
cultural problems. It has been suggested that becoming more aware of these obstacles
allow one to better anticipate and overcome them. The following few steps can help
in establishing good decision making:
• Creating and nurturing the relationships, norms and procedures that will
influence how problems are understood and communicated.
• Recognizing that a problem exists.
• Identifying an explanation for the problem and evaluating it.
• Finding more suitable justice among many responses.
• Following through with action that supports the more justified decision.
Integrity is supported by the ability to overcome distractions and obstacles,
developing implementing skills and ego strength.
Decision-making stages
There are four stages that are involved in all group decision making. These stages,
or sometimes called phases, are important for the decision-making process to begin.
These were developed by communication researcher B. Aubrey Fisher. The four
stages are as follows:
1. Orientation stage: This is introductory stage, when members meet for the
first time and get to know each other.
2. Conflict stage: Once group members become familiar with each other,
disputes, little fights and arguments take place. Nevertheless, group members
eventually work it out.
3. Emergence stage: The group begins to clear up vague opinions by talking
about them.
4. Reinforcement stage: Members finally make a decision, while justifying to
themselves that it was the right decision.
II. Affective Domain and Formulation of Specific Objectives
The affective domain of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives is related to
the development of emotions, values, attitudes, and the development of those aspects
of personality which are more influenced by heart than the mind. It also includes the
development of interests, appreciation, feelings, likes and dislikes towards something.
Classification of Affective Domain
The classification of this domain was done by American educational psychologists
D. R. Krathwohl, B. S. Bloom and B. B. Masia in 1964. The categories in this
domain are also arranged hierarchically from the lowest to the highest level of
complexity.
1. Receiving: This is the ability, inclination and readiness of learners to receive Measurement and
Evaluation in
information. It requires attention, awareness, listening, seeing and willingness Education: Overview
on the part of the learners. These are preconditions of learning, personality
development, and imbibing culture and values. It needs sensitization of learners
to stimuli, phenomena or environment. On the whole, learners should be made NOTES
receptive in their habit and attitude. Whatever you want learners to learn, you
should make them receptive toward those things.
Examples:
• Reading newspapers, magazines, journals, books, reports, etc., of interest
to the learner
• Watching news, shows, reports, programmes as per interest
• Listening patiently and attentively to teachers, parents, seniors, friends
and more experienced persons
• Having curiosity to learn from various sources
2. Responding: This is the second level objective under the affective domain.
Learners are required to be responsive along with being receptive; otherwise
it will not serve the purpose. Responding behaviour reflects that the learners
are receiving or trying to receive. Continuity in attention and motivation
behaviour (receiving) leads to the development of responding behaviour.
This category of ability is represented by interest, which is the tendency to
respond to a particular object or event or situation. This creates the way for
two-way communication and facilitates the process of teaching and learning.
Students ‘listen’ to the teachers attentively and ‘respond’ to them to give their
reflection and share their experiences.
Example:
• Response of students in class
• Interaction of students with teachers, friends and seniors on various
issues or problems
• Visit to clubs, libraries, museums and other knowledge resource centres
• Participation in various activities, competition, seminars, conferences,
cross word and such other programmes
3. Valuing: During the cyclic process of receiving and responding, learners are
automatically inclined towards taking value judgment regarding the things
they are concerned with. These things may be an object, an event, an idea, a
rule, any ritual, a set norm or any traditional or modern aspects of our culture.
Through the process of valuing, individuals set guidelines for regulating their
own behaviour. Character formation or value inculcation in the growing
generation is done through the following three sequential steps:
(a) Value acceptance
(b) Value preference
(c) Value commitment
Example: A class is taught by several teachers. All teachers practice various
values in which some are common and some are unique for individual teachers.
Students attend their classes and interact with them. They observe and analyse Self-Instructional Material 31
Measurement and various values being practiced by their teachers. Through regular observation
Evaluation in
Education: Overview and analysis, students develop their own value based on their preference,
acceptance and commitment.
4. Organization: Through the process discussed above, students absorb various
NOTES values from their teachers, parents and society. They analyse various values
absorbed from different sources and finally construct relatively enduring value
system through the process of synthesis and organization of values for a
balanced conduct and behaviour pattern. This leads to the development of a
set value structure or philosophy of life for every individual. It assists individuals
in decision-making process about conduct in real life situations and in forming
opinions on major issues of social and personal concern.
5. Characterization of values or value complex: This is the highest level
category of objectives under affective domain. At this level, individuals develop
a set of values, attitudes and beliefs for themselves that build their character
and give shape to their philosophy and personality. This process goes on
continuously throughout life resulting into the shift of preference of various
values, depending upon situation, age and experience.
Assessment of Affective Learning
The affective domain given by Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia includes the manner in
which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation,
enthusiasm, motivations and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the
simplest behaviour to the most complex in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Five Major Categories Describing the Affective Domain
Category Key Words (Verbs)

1. Receiving phenomena Asks, choose, describe, follow, give,
(Awareness, willingness to hear) identify, locate, name
2. Responding to phenomena Answer, assist, aid, complie, conform,
(Active participation on the part discuss, greet, help, perform, practice,
of the learners. Attends and present, read, recite, report, select,
reacts to a particular tell, write
phenomenon)
3. Valuing (Valuing is based on the Complete, demonstrate, differentiate,
internalization of a set of explain, follow, form, initiate, invite,
specified values, while clues to propose, read, report, select, share,
these values are expressed in the study, work
learner's overt behaviour and are
often identifiable)
4. Organization (Organizes values Adhere, alter, arrange, combine,
into priorities by contrasting compare, complete, defend, explain,
different values, resolving formulate, generalize, identify,
conflicts between them, and integrate, modify, order
creating a unique value system)
5. Internalizing values Act, discriminate, display, influence,
(characterization): Has a value listen, modify, perform, practice,
system that controls their solve
behaviour
Attitude and Values Measurement and
Evaluation in
‘An attitude can be defined as a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, Education: Overview
events, activities, ideas, or just about anything in your environment.’
—Philip George Zimbardo, 1999 NOTES
In the opinion of American sociologist Read Bain, attitude is ‘the relatively
stable overt behaviour of a person which affects his status’. An attitude is a state of
mind or a feeling or disposition. It is important to have a positive attitude about work.
Values
Affective learning also involves internalizing a set of values expressed in behaviour.
Teachers affect the values and behaviour in a student by setting examples by their
own behaviour.
Attitude formation
Attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience, environment and
education. American psychologist Abraham Tesser has argued that hereditary
variables may also affect attitudes.
Measurement of attitude
A number of techniques for measuring attitudes are in use. However, they all suffer
from different kinds of limitations. Largely, the different types of techniques focus
on the components of attitudes, namely the cognitive, the affective and the behavioural
components. The two basic categories that attitude measurement methods can be
divided into are as follows:
1. Direct measurement, such as Likert scale
2. Indirect measurement, such as projective techniques
Direct observation
This is a simple and logical method which records the behaviour patterns of people
under study. This method is widely used for various purposes. However, even if the
individuals to be studied are easily accessible, observing the behaviour of a large
sample of individuals is not practically feasible.
Direct questioning
This method involves asking pre-set questions on certain topics on which the
individual’s behaviours are to be evaluated. While it seems like the most straightforward
approach to simply ask questions to test attitude, the results may not be accurate
because an individual may try to hide his or her real opinions and attitudes.
Some other approaches
In projective techniques, attitude gauging objects are hidden and results are interpreted
on the basis of pre-set criteria. While this technique overcomes some limitations of
the direct observation technique, the projective technique falls short when it comes
to objective and reliable interpretation of data.
Measurement and Thurstone scale
Evaluation in
Education: Overview The first official method for measuring attitude was formulated by Louis Leon
Thurston, a US pioneer in the fields of psychometrics and psychophysics, in 1928.
His objective was to measure people’s attitudes regarding religion. The Thurstone
NOTES
scale contains statements regarding the issue in question and every statement is
assigned a numerical value based on the value the evaluator considers it to have.
When people have selected the statements for each question, the values are added
up and the average is calculated, which corresponds to a particular attitude.
Likert scale
Likert introduced the Likert scale of attitudes in A Technique for the Measurement
of Attitudes. The scale covered a range of attitudes, from extremely positive to
neutral to extremely negative. This scale also consists of statements and the subjects
are asked to express their opinion regarding the statement through a 0–5 point scale.
Once each statement has been assigned a numerical value, again they are added up
and the mean is calculated. This kind of scale is often used in career assessment
programmes to gauge a learner’s interests and tendencies, so that they can help
themselves select the right career path.
The Likert scale is applied in the form of questionnaires. A Likert scale
questionnaire would contain a statement, which would need to be evaluated by
theindividual on the basis of the following kind of responses:
(a) Strongly disagree
(b) Disagree
(c) Neither disagree nor agree
(d) Agree
(e) Strongly agree
The individual will tick or circle one response for each statement or question.
Each statement/question and its possible responses are together known as a Likert
item. A Likert scale is, in turn, a sum of responses to multiple Likert items. A Likert
scale is considered a ‘balanced’ form of attitude testing because it contains an equal
number of positive and negative options.
In some cases of Likert scale questionnaires, the neutral response, such as
‘neither disagree nor agree’, is removed. Such an evaluation method is known as
the forced choice method, because the individual cannot remain neutral on any
statement. The forced choice method is used when it is thought that the individual
might select the neutral response to avoid controversy or hide ignorance.
Generally, three kinds of common biases may render Likert scale
questionnaires unreliable. These are as follows:
• Central tendency bias: In a professional setting especially, the individual
may be reluctant to admit strong feelings about an issue.
• Acquiescence bias: The individual may feel obliged to agree with the
presented statement.
• Social desirability bias: The individual may select an option to preserve the Measurement and
Evaluation in
self-image or to be popular. Education: Overview
Once the respondent gives in the complete questionnaire, the responses may
be evaluated individually or in a grouped form, depending on the pattern being studied.
When studied in a grouped form, the items provide a score, which can be categorized NOTES
and evaluated. The Likert scale is also sometimes known as the Summative Scale.
Interest and its measurement
The reason for finding out the interest of the students is to help them in getting their
dream careers. This inventory helps the teachers in knowing the interest areas of
their students so that they can encourage and get various opportunities to grow in a
particular field.
Thus, an interest inventory is often used in career assessment. The goal of
this assessment is to give insight into the students’ interests, so that they may face
less difficulty in deciding on an appropriate career choice for themselves. It is also
frequently used for educational guidance as one of the most popular career
assessment tools. The test was developed in 1927 by psychologist E. K. Strong to
help people who were quitting the military jobs to find suitable jobs.
Supporting students
Prior to selecting a career, students need to identify the right path for themselves.
This can be done through an assessment, which would help them get an insight into
their own interests, preferences and personal styles. Analysing these aspects will
direct them into identifying the right courses, jobs, internships and activities that are
suitable for them.
Self-concept and its assessment
Self-concept defines how we assess ourselves as individuals or what we think of
ourselves. Self-concept is a commonly used term. There are two aspects to the
development of self-concept. These are as follows:
1. The existential self: This aspect of the self can be defined as,‘the sense of
being separate and distinct from others and the awareness of the constancy
of the self’. (Bee 1992)
2. The categorical self: Once a child realizes that he hasa distinct identity,
hegradually become aware of the world around him and his own place in the
world. He starts relating to the world and starts thinking of himself as more
than hisphysical characteristics, such as hair colour or height, etc. Finally, he
becomes aware of the fact that others perceive himin a certain way, which
may or may not be similar to how he perceives himself.
According to American psychologist Carl Rogers, self-concept has three different
components. These are as follows:
1. The view you have of yourself (self-image)
2. How much value you place on yourself (self-esteem or self-worth)
3. What you wish you were really like (ideal self)
Measurement and Factors affecting self-concept
Evaluation in
Education: Overview The following factors affect self-concept:
1. How others react to us: People’s approval and recognition and affection
NOTES helps to develop a positive self-image.
2. Comparison with others: Comparing oneself with people who seem to be
doing better financially or more popular socially than oneself can lead to a
negative self-image. However, if the comparison is made with people who
are less successful, it would lead to a positive self-image.
3. Social roles: There are some roles that are associated with prestige and
positive self-image, such as that of a doctor.
4. Identification: Self-concept is also influenced by the role we play in the
group that we belong to.
III. Psychomotor Domain
Psychomotor domain is concerned with those objectives which are intended to develop
various skills. For example: typing, painting, drawing, dissecting, preparing food,
beautification, carpentry, book binding, sculpture, photography, operation of computer
or any other machine, working with any tools to produce something. It includes all
manipulative skills. For any motor activity or skill work, psychological readiness is
an essential condition. If a person is psychologically ready, he or she will also be
mentally ready and will act towards the desired, skilled work.
Classification
Psychomotor domain is classified by many psychologists. Some of them are Ragole
(1950), E. J. Simpson (1966), J. P. Guilford (1958), R. H. Dave (1969), A. J. Harrow
(1972), Allyn & Bacon (1994). In the following paragraphs, we are going to discuss
the classification given by R. H. Dave (1969) in an adapted form. There are five
categories under this domain, arranged from 1 to 5 in the order of increasing complexity,
difficulty level and fineness in the skill being developed.
1. Initiation-observation or observation-initiation: For learning any skill
(simple or complex), learners need psychological readiness. It is common to
most of the learners that they hesitate of any skilled work at the time of
beginning. They generally hesitate to take initiative. Contrary to this, there
are some learners who are highly motivated to start as they have observed
somebody doing it and they are highly motivated to perform that skill.
If learners are not interested or motivated, they need to become motivated by
means of promise of some reward, discussion, fulfillment of some desires
and aspirations of the learners, etc. In the above case, ‘initiation’ is the first
step towards the development of skill. On the other hand, if a learner has
observed some person performing some skill and is highly motivated and
encouraged to do that skill, then he takes initiative automatically. In this case,
observation is followed by initiation.
2. Manipulation: When the learner is ready to take initiative, he observes others
performing that skill and sees how performers are manipulating tools required
in that skill and he also starts manipulation of those tools to produce or copy Measurement and
Evaluation in
that skill. Manipulation and observation work together continuously for quite Education: Overview
some time. As a result, improvement in performance is achieved and it leads
towards perfection. During this process, learners perform the following three
tasks: NOTES
(i) Perform selected steps
(ii) Follow directions
(iii) Fix their performance through necessary practice
3. Precision: Repeated observation of the expert performers and continuous
practice leads learners to the performance of the skill with a desired level of
precision, i.e., accuracy and exactness. They reach at a higher level of
refinement. They achieve this level through the following points of
consideration:
• Controlling faults
• Eliminating errors
• Reproducing the desired skill with precision
4. Articulation: This is the level at which learners bring some novel attributes
or features to their skill performance in addition to the general attributes.
5. Naturalization: This is the highest level of performance in skill development.
The act of the performer becomes automatic or natural. Achiever of this
level of proficiency, which is rare, performs with the highest degree of
refinement and convenience as natural as possible. For performer as well as
audience or observer, it looks like an effortless performance.
Assessment of Performance or Psychomotor Learning
Performance assessments are designed to judge a student’s abilities to use specific
knowledge and research skills. Most performance assessments require the student
to manipulate equipment to solve a problem or make an analysis. Rich performance
assessments reveal a variety of problem-solving approaches, thus providing insight
into a student’s level of conceptual knowledge.
Performance assessment is a form of testing that requires students to perform
a task rather than select an answer from a ready-made list. Experienced teachers
or other trained staff then judge the quality of the student’s work based on a pre-
decided set of criteria. This new form of assessment is most widely used to directly
assess writing ability based on the text produced by students under test instructions.
How does it work?
The student’s work is assessed by teachers or other staff on the basis of pre-set
criteria. The teachers assess the student’s learning abilities when given specific
instructions. It is important to understand how the assessment works. The following
methods have been used successfully to do so:
• Open-ended answers: The student has to come up with the answer
independently after some degree of analysis, either orally or in writing. No
Measurement and options are given and the students are usually asked to discuss their
Evaluation in
Education: Overview observations about some material given to them.
• Extended tasks: In this kind of assessment, the student is required to research,
draft and revise and come up with a well-though out analysis of the given
NOTES problem. It is like an assignment or a project. It may take the student many
hours to complete.
• Portfolios: They are pictorial descriptions of the student’s past work and the
teacher’s evaluation of it. Usually, portfolios include a person’s best work
and some work in progress which showcases the student’s strengths.
What is common among all these methods is that they are all specific tasks
completed by the student according to the instructions from the teachers and the
students are made well-aware of the standards expected from them. They are also
aware that the teachers will be grading them based on their work. This aspect
renders performance assessment distinct from other testing methods.
Purpose of assessment
Performance assessments evaluate a student’s work and assess how well the student
is able to apply the learned concepts. Assessments may be of different types—
some may require the student to replicate a procedure learnt in class, some may
require simple recall or even intricate analysis.
A limitation of performance assessments is that such assessments may not
turn out to be suitable for simply testing the knowledge of facts.
Teaching goals of performance assessment
Performance assessment helps the student to:
• Apply systematic procedures
• Make use of resource texts, laboratory equipment and computers
• Use scientific methodology
• Evaluate and apply several approaches
• Work out difficult problems
The three main purposes of performance assessments are as follows:
1. Diagnostic purposes: The assessment is expected to diagnose the students’
knowledge about solving specific categories of problems.
2. Instructional purposes: A well-crafted assessment can also be used for
instructional purposes, except for the fact that it is standardized and graded.
3. Monitoring purposes: Since assessments are undertaken at regular intervals,
it is very useful for tracking a student’s levels of learning, especially in subjects
like science and mathematics, which signifies a student’s skills of problem
solving.
This methodology is revolutionary, in the sense that it is not just about testing,
but also about the learning process. In this methodology, students are encouraged to
think and create the finished product, during the course of which they are automatically
38 Self-Instructional Material testing their skills and knowledge.
Unlike the old model of teaching where students were tested after each lesson Measurement and
Evaluation in
or unit was covered in the classroom, here the approach is to use the book knowledge Education: Overview
merely as a resource or means to an end, and not the end itself.
Let us study a relevant example to understand performance assessment better.
If a coach assembles 11 players and tells them all the rules of the game of cricket, NOTES
the spirit in which the game must be played and the dangers of playing without
protective padding, will not make them world champions. The players need to go
and play an actual game. The performance assessment method involves students
‘playing the game’. This way, what goes on in the class is actual preparation for life
after school.
Typically, a performance assessment activity can be broken down into the
use of the following skills:
1. Obtaining information: Students would need to research, compile and
organize information as per the specified goal.
2. Employing the information: After they have organized the information,
they will need to work with it or infer, sequence, analyse and synthesize it to
create something new.
3. Use the information: When they have the information in the required form,
for example, a flowchart, they can use it to convince a target group, or simply
present ideas and concepts.
4. Communication: Making presentations, oral and visual, doing projects and
demonstrating skills is all a part of communicating with others. When a student
or a group of students presents their ideas in any form to others, they are
automatically honing their communication skills.
Here are the key benefits of employing the performance assessment
methodology:
1. The variety of tasks call for use of various learning styles and skills:
Each student has a core competency, which simply put, means a skill they
have more refined than others. Someone may be good at writing descriptive
book reports and someone else may be proficient at making Powerpoint
presentations. Some learners are exceptional at organizing information and
still others may be brilliant speakers, and so on. Not only does performance
assessment allow students to display their particular skills, it also encourages
them to acquire new ones. For example, a student who likes writing detailed,
informational pamphlets should be encouraged to make a persuasive speech
to a group of adults describing the pamphlet he or she has made.
2. Performance assessment tasks encourage teamwork: Working in teams
is a skill that will help a student throughout life, especially if he or she chooses
to work in a corporate set up. Therefore, it is a useful skill to acquire. Making
group presentations, working on projects in a team, and so on, helps students
to learn the value of collaboration at an early age. Division of tasks, cooperation,
empathy are all valuable lessons that each student must learn.
3. There is focus on personal habits and attitudes: In performance
assessment tasks, success depends on the learner’s attitude almost as much Self-Instructional Material 39
Measurement and as book learning. Inculcating habits such as flexibility, diligence, cooperation,
Evaluation in
Education: Overview tolerance, persistence, problem solving, planning and many more are all inherent
to the performance assessment methodology.
It is important to have predetermined criteria to evaluate the students’
NOTES performance. Students should not be scored or graded against their classmates and
should be provided with the criteria before the assessment.
Student’s feedback reflects levels of competency, rather than comparative
scores. It is always useful to try to find in students’ performance patterns of
appropriate and inappropriate responses.
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives was revised in 2001 under the title of
A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing. The revision work was done
by authors Lorin. W. Anderson, David R. Krathwohl, Kathleen A. Cruikshank and
others. Due to the changes brought in the cognitive domain, the instructional objectives
for this domain also need changes accordingly.
The following changes were made in the classification of educational objectives:
The nomenclatures of the categories under cognitive domain were changed.
• Knowledge was replaced by remembering.
• Comprehension was replaced by understanding.
• Application was replaced by applying.
• Analysis was replaced by analysing.
• Synthesis was replaced by creating.
• Evaluation was replaced by evaluating.
Rationale behind the changing concepts
It is evident that the six categories in the original classification of Bloom are in the
form of ‘noun’, which has been changed to ‘verb’. The rationale behind this change
is simple, logical and easy to digest. Taxonomy of educational objectives, i.e., various
categories reflect different forms of thinking. Thinking, being an active process,
represents the forms of verbs more accurately than the noun. Therefore, some of
the sub categories were reorganized and renamed. Knowledge, the first category, is
a product of thinking and was considered inappropriate to describe a category of
thinking and, therefore, it was replaced with the word ‘remembering’, the lowest
level of cognitive domain activities.
Knowledge is a product of thinking (lower as well as higher order products)
and was not clarifying its level of category; hence change was needed. Remember
is the right word because it indicates the product of lower order thinking. We can
cram, recall, recognize and remember something without understanding it.
Comprehension is replaced by understanding, synthesis is replaced by creating, and
so on. All these changes reflect the nature of the thinking process and the outcomes
described by each category in a better way.
Functions of Educational Objectives/Usefulness of Taxonomical Measurement and
Evaluation in
Classification Education: Overview
Educational objectives perform the following functions:
• Bloom’s taxonomy motivates educators to focus on all three domains of NOTES
educational objectives.
• Creates a more holistic form of education to develop the whole personality of
the learners.
• Whole personality development makes an individual more useful for his ownself
and for the society.
• Allows teachers to select appropriate classroom assessment techniques for
student evaluation and for the performance or skills to be evaluated.
• Understanding Bloom’s taxonomy develops the competencies in the teachers
through which a teacher can design effective learning experiences.
• Helps in devising and organizing fruitful and interesting co-curricular activities.
• Takes care of the all-round development of the personality of the child.
• Helps teachers in framing instructional objectives in behavioural terms.
Guidance Functions of Evaluation
Guidance and counselling of students have become one of the most important areas
of school education. Due to diverse kinds of problems like stress and suicide
committed by students, this area has become very important for students, parents
and educational administration. As a result of these reasons, counsellors are being
appointed in schools and several guidance and counselling clinics and centres are
coming up at different places to support students and parents. Some of the important
guidance functions of evaluation are listed as follows:
• Evaluation results are very much useful for the guidance and counselling of
needy students.
• Proper educational and vocational guidance can be given to students on the
basis of their evaluation on various abilities, interests, skills, attitudes, aptitude,
values, and after knowing the strength and weakness of the needy students.
• On the basis of evaluation results of the test of anxiety and stress among
students, proper guidance may be given to students to reduce their level of
stress.
• Various types of personality disorders may be diagnosed by using variety of
tests and the subject may be given proper guidance to cure or control them
properly.
• Students may be helped in choosing the right kind of vocation or profession or
career in which they may succeed and grow.
• Students may be helped in choosing suitable courses of study which suit them
and in which they may excel.
Measurement and • Based on the findings of evaluation, students may be guided and counselled
Evaluation in
Education: Overview properly to nurture and develop their life skills.
NOTES CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

8. What does assessment determine?
9. What is taxonomy?
10. How did Bloom classify educational objectives?
11. What is problem solving?
12. What is the affective domain of Bloom’s taxonomy related to?
13. What is the psychomotor domain concerned with?
14. What does self-concept defines?
15. List the three main purposes of performance assessment.
1.7 SUMMARY
• Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of

some physical object are determined.
• Measurement is of two types: (i) physical measurement and (ii) mental
measurement/ psychological measurement/educational measurement.
• ‘Scaling’ in social sciences refers to the process of measuring. Scaling
techniques are deployed in the service of estimating different individual levels
of extraversion, or level of satisfaction.
• The process of evaluation consists of the following three aspects:
• Quantitative measurements
• Qualitative assessment
• Teachers’ opinion
• There are many types of evaluation, but the two important types which are
commonly used by teachers are formative evaluation and summative
evaluation.
• The formative evaluation is a monitoring type of evaluation which is used to
monitor the progress of students during the class, course, or session. It is
aimed at improving the quality of teaching-learning process.
• Through placement evaluation, the entry behaviour of the student is assessed.
• Diagnostic evaluation is concerned with the persistent learning difficulties
that are left unresolved by the corrective prescriptions of formative assessment.
• The summative evaluation is done at the end of a course, semester or a class
or topic.
• The formative evaluation is conducted during the process of teaching and
learning, during the class, during the semester or a session. The summative
evaluation, on the other hand, is conducted at the end of the process of teaching Measurement and
Evaluation in
and learning, e.g., at the end of class, at the end of semester, at the end of Education: Overview
session, etc.
• In external evaluation, the teachers who are teaching a particular group of
students are not involved in the evaluation of their students. Hence, the teachers NOTES
and the examiners are different; they are never common.
• In internal evaluation, the teacher and the examiner both are the same person.
The same teacher teaches a particular subject and himself or herself sets the
paper and evaluates the achievement of the students.
• The term ‘norm’ has two meanings. One is the established or approved set of
behaviour or conduct to be followed or displayed by all the members of a
family, or society or any organization.
• In a norm-referenced evaluation, there is no pass or fail, as there is set marks
for passing the test. This type of evaluation is termed as the norm- referenced
evaluation and the test is considered as the norm referenced test.
• The study of classification is known as taxonomy.
• Bloom developed and proposed the classification of educational objectives in
1956 which is popularly known as Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives.
• Bloom classified educational objectives into three ‘domains’ which are as
follows:
• Cognitive domain
• Affective domain
• Psychomotor domain
• Cognitive domain includes those objectives of education which attempt to
develop mental faculties or intellectual abilities, that is, the ability of knowing,
understanding, thinking and problem solving.
• Bloom has further classified cognitive domain into six major categories which
are knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
• Affective domain of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives is related to
the development of emotions, values, attitudes and the development of those
aspects of personality which are more influenced by heart than the mind.
• Psychomotor domain deals with the development of motor abilities which in
turn are responsible for skill development for performing any task.
• The assessments used in affective assessment are attitudes and values, interest,
and self-concept.
• An attitude is a state of mind or a feeling or disposition. It is important to have
a positive attitude about work.
• Various methods of measuring attitudes have been developed. Attitude
measurement can be divided into two basic categories: direct measurement
(A likert scale) and indirect measurement (projective techniques).
Measurement and • Performance assessments are designed to judge a student’s abilities to use
Evaluation in
Education: Overview specific knowledge and research skills. Performance assessment is a form
of testing that requires students to perform a task rather than select an answer
from a ready-made list.
NOTES
1.8 KEY TERMS
• Rating scale: It refers to a scale used to evaluate the personal and social
conduct of a learner.
• Diagnostic evaluation: It aims at identifying or diagnosing the weaknesses
of students in a given course of instruction.
• Anecdotal records: Those records which maintain the description of
significant event and work or performance of the students
• Grading: It is a means for reporting the result of measurement.
• Formative evaluation: It is the type of evaluation which is done during the
teaching-learning process to assess the ongoing construction or formation of
knowledge and understanding of students.
• Summative evaluation: It is a type of evaluation that evaluates the quality
of the final product and finds out the extent to which the instructional objectives
have been achieved.
• Cognitive domain: It includes those objectives of education which attempt
to develop mental faculties or intellectual abilities, that is, the ability of knowing,
understanding, thinking and problem solving.
• Affective domain: It is related to the development of emotions, values,
attitudes and the development of those aspects of personality which are more
influenced by heart than the mind.
• Psychomotor domain: It deals with the development of motor abilities which
in turn are responsible for skill development for performing any task.
• Likert scale: It is a tool used to determine opinions or attitudes; it contains a
list of declarative statements, each followed by a scale on which the subject
is to indicate degrees of intensity of a given feeling.
• Self-concept: It is the composite of ideas, feelings and attitudes that a person
has about his or her own identity, worth, capabilities and limitations.
1.9 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’
1. Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of

some physical object are determined.
2. Objectivity of a test refers to two aspects: (a) item objectivity (i.e., objectivity
of the items), and (b) scoring objectivity (i.e., objectivity of scoring).
3. J.M. Bradfield defines evaluation as ‘the assignment of symbols to Measurement and
Evaluation in
phenomenon in order to characterize the worth or value of the phenomenon Education: Overview
usually with reference to some social, cultural and scientific standards’.
4. Scaling in social sciences refers to the process of measuring.
NOTES
5. A test consists of a set of questions to be answered or tasks to be performed.
6. The goals of placement assessment are to determine for each student the
position in the instructional sequence and the mode of instruction that is most
beneficial.
7. Diagnostic evaluation aims at identifying or diagnosing the weaknesses of
students in a given course of instruction.
8. Assessment is the process of determining the following:
(i) he extent to which an objective is achieved.
(ii) The effectiveness of the learning experiences provided in the classroom.
(iii) How well the goals of teaching have been accomplished.
9. The study of classification is known as taxonomy.
10. Bloom classified educational objectives into three ‘domains’, namely: (i)
cognitive domain, (ii) affective domain, and (iii) affective domain.
11. Problem solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analysing and
solving problems.
12. The affective domain of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives is related
to the development of emotions, values, attitudes, and the development of
those aspects of personality which are more influenced by the heart than the
mind.
13. The psychomotor domain is concerned with those objectives which are
intended to develop various skills.
14. Self-concept defines how we assess ourselves as individuals or what we
think of ourselves.
15. The three main purposes of performance assessment are:
• Diagnostic purposes
• Instructional purposes
• Monitoring purposes
1.10QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the two types of measurement.
2. Differentiate between formative and summative evaluation.
3. What are aptitude tests?
4. How is cognitive learning defined?
Measurement and 5. What are the thinking skills required in cognitive learning?
Evaluation in
Education: Overview 6. What are the steps in the problem solving process?
7. What are the features of external evaluation?
NOTES 8. What was the rationale behind changing the six categories of Bloom’s
educational objectives?
9. State few ways which can ensure that one makes good decisions.
10. What are the factors that affect self-concept?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the characteristics of a good measurement tool.
2. Discuss the importance of measurement scales. You may give your argument
with reference to various measurement scales.
3. Describe qualitative evaluation techniques, as well as the five categories that
come under it.
4. How are the objectives of the cognitive domain classified? Discuss in detail.
5. Describe various types of evaluation with proper examples.
6. Describe the techniques that help to stimulate divergent thinking.
7. Explain the classification of psychomotor domain under educational objectives.
8. What are the characteristics of critical thinking?
1.11 FURTHER READING
Bloom, B. S. Taxonomy of Objectives of Cognitive Domains. New York: Longmans

Green &Co.
Ebel, R.L. Essentials of Educational Measurement. New Jersey: Englewood Cliff.
Grunlund, N. E. Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching (3rd Ed). New York:
Mcmillan Publishing Co.
Julian, C., Stanley and Hopkins. Educational and Psychological Measurement
and Evaluation. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
Lindermon, Richard, H. Educational Measurement. Mumbai: B. S. Taraporevala
Sons & Co.
Major Tools and Techniques
UNIT 2 MAJOR TOOLS AND in Educational Evaluation
TECHNIQUES IN
NOTES
EDUCATIONAL
EVALUATION
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit Objectives
2.2 Different Types of Tests: Teacher-made vs. Standardized
2.2.1 Criterion-referenced vs. Norm-referenced Tests
2.3 Education Tests
2.4 Measurement of Achievement
2.5 Diagnostic Test Construction and Usefulness
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Terms
2.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you learnt about the concept of measurement and evaluation. In
it, difference types of measuring scales and the need for measurement and evaluation
were discussed. In this unit, the discussion will turn towards the major tools and
techniques in educational evaluation. Evaluation is an attempt to appraise the quality/
suitability of a resource. There are different types of evaluation techniques. Some
are standardized tests, while others are made by the teachers. Moreover, while
some tests are norm-referenced, other tests are criterion referenced. This unit will
look at all of these in detail.
2.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

• Discuss how tests can be classified
• Describe the merits and demerits of different types of tests.
• Explain how a criterion-referenced test can be constructed
• Discuss the difference types of questionnaires that are used by researchers
in Educational Evaluation 2.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS: TEACHER-
MADE VS. STANDARDIZED
NOTES Tools or question papers prepared by the teachers to evaluate their own students
whom they have been teaching are called as teacher made tests. These tests are
not standardized and are prepared for a small number of students, generally for a
section or a class or a school.
Standardized tests or tool
A standardized test is a test, which is developed in such a way that it reaches up to
a specific level of quality or standardization. The test is standardized with respect to
the form and construction, administration procedure and test norms. It is a kind of
test, which is standardized in terms of its development, administration, scoring and
interpretation. The test is standardized to bring objectivity, reliability, validity and to
have all the other characteristics of a good test. Standardized tests have a manual
with it, which instructs and guides its users regarding its administration, scoring and
interpretation. The following are some of the important definitions of standardized
tests to clarify the concept of standardized test or tool of measurement and evaluation.
According to C. V. Good, ‘a standardized test is that for which content has
been selected and checked empirically, for which norms have been established, for
which uniform methods of administration and scoring have been developed and
which may be scored with a relatively high degree of objectivity.’
According to L. J. Cronbach, ‘a standardized test is one in which the procedure,
apparatus and scoring have been fixed so that precisely the same test can be given
at different times and places.’
The most important benefits of a standardized test are that it minimizes or
reduces four types of errors. These are personal error, variable error, constant error
and interpretive error.
Characteristics of standardized tests
Following are the important characteristics of a standardized test:
• It has norms, which contains everything about the test, starting from its
preparation to its scoring and interpretation. Norms of the test describe every
aspect of the test in detail so that any user can use it properly by using the
norms of the test.
• It has norms developed for transferring raw score to a standard score.
• Instruction for administration of the test is pre-determined and fixed.
• Duration of the test is fixed.
• The test is standardized on a suitable sample size selected from a well-defined
population.
• It has high reliability and validity.
• The test has high objectivity.
• Answer key and scoring procedure of the test is fixed and is predetermined. Major Tools and Techniques
in Educational Evaluation
• Test manual is properly developed.
• The errors in the standardized tests are minimized or reduced.
2.2.1 Criterion-referenced vs. Norm-referenced Tests NOTES
Norm-referenced Tests
To understand non-referenced type of evaluation, we have to first learn about the
term ‘norm’. The term ‘norm’ has two meanings. One is the established or approved
set of behavriour or conduct to be followed or displayed by all members of a family
or society or any organization. It is the established customs of the society which
most of the people follow without question. The other meaning of the term, which is
meaningful for us here, is the average performance of the group.
Example: A group of students are tested for the awareness towards environmental
pollution through a written test. The test consists of 50 objective type questions of
one mark each. There was no negative marking in the test. The full mark of the test
is obviously 50. After the conduction of the test, it is marked by the examiner. There
are 150 students in the group. Marks of all students are added and the additive
marks are divided by 150 to find the average performance of the group. Suppose it
is found to be 30, so 30 marks is the average obtained by the whole group in which
some achieve 49 out of 50 and some other achieve very less, say 12 out of 50. The
30 mark, i.e., the average of the group is said to be the norm of this group.
Now, the evaluation of all 150 students is done considering this 30 (the norm)
as a point of reference. All students who have got marks above 30 are considered
as above average, all those who have achieved below 30 are considered as below
average and all those who have achieved just 30 are supposed as average. There is
no pass or fail in this type of evaluation as there is set marks for passing the test.
This type of evaluation is called as norm-referenced evaluation and the test is
considered as norm-referenced test.
Criterion-referenced evaluation
The type of evaluation in which the performance of the testees are evaluated with
reference to some predetermined criteria is called as criterion-referenced evaluation.
No weightage is given to norm or average performance of the group in this evaluation.
All decisions, such as pass or fail, distinction, excellent, etc., are taken with reference
to criteria set out in advance.
In the preceding example, if some criteria is set before the test with reference to
which the performance of each students will be evaluated, it will become criterion-
referenced devaluation. Suppose the following criteria are finalized for this test:
Pass marks: 40 %
Distinction: 80%
In the test discussed above, all those students who get 20 or more than 20
(40%) are declared as pass. All those students who score less than 20 are declared
Major Tools and Techniques as fail. All those who get 40 or more (80%) are declared as distinction. If any prize
is given to those who score at least 90%, then only the students who will get 45 or
more will get the prize. As all decisions are taken on the basis of some criteria, this
evaluation is called as criterion-referenced evaluation. Let us now look at how a
NOTES creterion-referenced evaluation can be constructed.
Construction of criterion referenced test
During the preparation of a criterion-referenced test, the test constructor is required
to take the following steps:
Step 1: Indentifying the purpose of the test
First of all, the objectives of the test are finalized. The test developer must know the
purpose of the test. He should be well informed and well aware of the purpose of
the test for which it is going to be prepared. In addition to the purpose, he should also
know the following aspects of the test:
• Content areas of the test from where the items will be developed
• Level of students or examinees for whom test is being prepared
• Difficulty level of the test items
• Types of the test objective type or subjective type or mixed type of test
• Criteria for qualifying the test
After having understood these points, the test developer starts the work of
constructing the criterion-referenced test. He moves on to the second step.
Step 2: Planning the test
This step requires the following work to be done by the test constructor:
(i) Content analysis: The test developer analyses the content of the test. It
involves the selection of contents, i.e., the testing areas and its peripherals.
He also decides the key areas of the content from where more questions are
to be developed.
(ii) Types of items: The decisions regarding the type of items are taken at this
stage. In case of subjective type, it may be essay type, short-answer type and
very short-answer type. In case of objective type, it may be multiple- choice
question, fill in the blanks, true or false type, sentence completion type, one
word answer type, etc., If the test is of mixed type, then questions are developed
accordingly. But what is planned at this stage is the proportion of objective
and subjective type items in terms of marks.
(iii) No of items: Total number of questions of each type which is to be included
in the test is decided.
(iv) Weightage: It is very important to decide the weightage of each type of
items and each content area. It depends upon the level of the student being
tested. As we move from lower to higher level, the percentage of knowledge
domain items decreases and higher order thinking abilities, such as
understanding, application and skill, increases. The test developer also decides Major Tools and Techniques
the weightage of each of the content areas being included in the test considering
its relevance.
(v) Duration of the test: With consideration to the total number of questions in
the test, the level of examinees, difficulty levels of the test items and the NOTES
duration of the test are decided.
(vi) Mechanical aspects: It includes the quality of paper, ink, diagrams, type
setting, font size and printing of the test papers.
(vii) Development of key for objective scoring: To bring objectivity in the
process of evaluation, it becomes essential to achieve interpersonal agreement
among the examiners with regard to the meaning of the test items and their
scoring. For this purpose, a ‘key’ is prepared for each paper and given to all
examiners while scoring the test. They are supposed to score the test following
the key.
(viii) Instructions for the test: The test developer also prepares instructions for
its administration, and scoring and evaluation procedure ‘test manual’. It shows
the whole procedure of testing. It acts as a guide to the individuals involved in
testing procedure at all stages. This manual is strictly applied to bring objectivity
in the test.
Step 3: Preparing blueprint of the test
Blueprint is a specification chart which shows the details of the test items to be
prepared. It shows all the content areas and the number and type of questions from
those areas. It also reflects the objectives to be tested. The blueprint describes the
weightage given to various content areas, objectives, types of items and all other
details of the test. It serves as a guideline or frame of reference for the person
constructing the test.
Step 4. Construction of test items
According to the blueprint all questions are constructed, covering all the content
areas, all the objectives or abilities and all types of items. Questions may be objective
or subjective type as mentioned in the blueprint.
Examples of objective-based and objective-type questions:
1. Multiple choice questions
(i) Which of the following metal is present in blood?
(a) Cobalt (b) Iron (c) Calcium (d) Sulpher
(ii) Which of the following is not associated with photosynthesis?
(a) Dark reaction (b) Light reaction (c) Calcium (d) Chlorophyll
(iii) Which of the following is a port city?
(A) Patna (B) Ahmadabad (C) Calcutta (D) Durgapur
Major Tools and Techniques (iv) The capital of India was transferred from Calcutta to Delhi in the year:
(A) 1911 (B)1905
(C) 1912 (D) 1906
NOTES 2. True false type questions

State true or false for the following:
(i) Pacemaker is related to lungs.
(ii) Evaluation is a quantitative process.
(iii) Man is mortal.
(iv) Privatization and globalization are the same concept.
3. Matching type items
Match the items in column A to those in column B in the following table.
Column A Column B
Ganga Bhakra
Gomti Patna
Yamuna Lucknow
Sutlej Delhi
4. Fill in the blanks

Fill in the blanks selecting the appropriate words from the brackets against each of
the following.
(i) The longest cell of human body is …………………….(Neuron, Tibia fibula)
(ii) Largest continent is ………………………..(Asia, Africa)
(iii) The deepest ocean is ………………….(Atlantic, Pacific)
(iv) India became republic in the year …………………..(1947, 1950)
(v) The 20th common wealth game will be held in ………… city (Glasgow,
Mexico)
5. One word-answer Questions
Give one word answer for the following questions:
(i) India’s biggest bird sanctuary is situated at which place?
(ii) How many chambers are there in human heart?
(iii) Write the full form of GATT.
(iv) How many countries participated in the 19th Commonwealth Games held in
Delhi?
(v) Name the discoverer of America.
The questions prepared in the box are objective in nature as all of them have Major Tools and Techniques
only one correct answer. The students will get either full marks (for correct response)
or no marks (for wrong response). The experience, feelings and other academic,
personal or social factors of the examiners or scorers will not influence the marking
of these types of questions. We can say that, no subjectivity is possible in scoring NOTES
these types of tests. Hence, these are called objective type and objective-based
tests.
Step 5: Selecting the items for the test
Items have already been constructed as per the guideline of the blue print. It may
be that some items are not suitable or up to the mark. To avoid this fact, generally
some more questions are prepared so that if any question is rejected at any stage, it
might be able to be replaced immediately. The following steps are followed to select
the right item for the test. This process of selection is done through a process known
as ‘try out’. The process of try out involves the following steps:
(i) Sampling of subjects: As per the size of population for which the test is
being prepared, a workable sample, say around 150 subjects, is selected on a
random basis. This is the sample on which the prepared items are tested for
its functionality, workability and effectiveness.
(ii) Pre-try out: It is also known as preliminary try-out. The prepared items are
administered on a sample of around ten subjects taken form the sample. The
answersheets are checked, evaluated and discussed with the candidates for
any kind of problems they would have faced during the test. It is probable
that they might have faced the language difficulty, words ambiguity and some
other problems of this kind. These problems are sorted out. The items having
these problems are rewritten or rephrased to improve and modify the language
difficulties and ambiguity of the items. At the end of the pre try- out, the
initial draft of the test is prepared.
(iii) Proper try-out: At this stage, around fifty candidates are selected from the
sample and the initial draft of the test is administered on them. Answersheets
are scored and item analysis is done. Difficulty value and discrimination power
of each item are calculated. The items which come within the acceptable
range of difficulty value and discrimination power are selected for the test
and others are rejected.
(iv) Final try-out: The final try-out is done on a comparatively large sample. The
sample size may be more than 100 or even more, depending upon the size of
population. After administration and scoring of the test, reliability and validity
of the test are measured. If it is proved to be reliable and valid, it gets green
signal.
Step 6. Evaluating the test and preparing final draft of the paper
For establishing quality, an index test manual is prepared which informs about the
test’s norms, scoring key, reliability and validity. The final draft of the test paper is
prepared. Instructions for the examinees as well as for the test administration are
Major Tools and Techniques determined. Item analysis is performed to find out the item workability for the test.
The required changes are done and final draft of the paper is ready for printing.

NOTES
The following are the characteristics of a good test:
• Objectivity: An evaluation tool should be objective in nature. The test should
fetch almost the same score to an individual, irrespective of the examiner
who scores it. It should be free from all kinds of biases at all levels of testing.
• Reliability: It is the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on different
times on the same test or parallel test, scored by same or different examiner
at same or different times. The difference in scores (if any) should be
insignificant.
• Validity: An evaluation tool should measure what it is supposed to measure.
If a tool is developed or prepared to measure a particular aspect of personality,
it should measure that aspect only and nothing else. If the test does so, it is
supposed to be valid.
• Practicability: An evaluation tool should have practicability or usefulness in
terms of time, energy and resources. It should also be easy to administer.
These shall be discussed in detail in the next section.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What are teacher-made tests?
2. Define criterion-referenced evaluation.
2.3 EDUCATION TESTS
An educational test is not just a test that measures achievement in subjects of study,
but it is also a psychological test that leads to an assessment of the overall development
of a student. According to Anastasi, ‘psychological test is essentially an objective
and standardized measure of a sample of behaviours’. For Freeman, it ‘is a
standardized instrument designed to measure objectively one or more aspects of a
total personality by means of samples of verbal or non-verbal responses, or by
means of other behaviours’.
Test is a stimulus selected and organized to elicit responses which can reveal
certain psychological traits in the person who deals with them. The diagnostic or
predictive value of a psychological test depends upon the degree to which it serves
as an indicator of a relatively broad and significant area of response. It is obvious
that a psychological test is the quantitative and qualitative measurement of the various
aspects of behaviour of the individual for making generalized statements about his
total performances.
The aspects which affect the characteristics of a good test are as follows: Major Tools and Techniques
• Validity of the test
• Reliability of the test
• Objectivity of the test NOTES
• Usability of the test
• Comprehensive and preciseness of the test
• Administration of the test
• Test from economic viewpoint
• Availability of the test
• Appearance of the test
• Standardization of the test
• Norms of the test
Some of the important characteristics of a test are analysed below.
Validity: Validity of a test refers to its truthfulness; it refers to the extent to
which a test measures what it intends to measure. Standardization of a test requires
the important characteristic viz., validity. If the objectives of a test are fulfilled, we
can say that the test is a valid one. The validity of a test is determined by measuring
the extent to which it matches with a given criterion. Let us take an example, suppose
we want to know whether an ‘achievement test in mathematics’ is valid. If it really
measures the achievement of students in mathematics, the test is said to be valid, or
else not. So ‘validity’ refers to the very important purpose of a test and hence it is
the most important characteristic of a good test. A test may have other merits, but if
it lacks validity, it is valueless.
Freeman states, ‘an index of validity shows the degree to which a test measures
what it is supposed to measure when compared with the accepted criteria’. Lee J.
Cronback held the view that validity ‘is the extent to which a test measures what it
purports to measure’.
Reliability: Reliability refers to consistency of scores obtained by some
individuals when re-tested with the test on different sets of equivalent items or
under other variable examining conditions. It refers to the consistency of scores
obtained by the same individuals when they are re-examined with the same test on
different occasions or with different sets of equivalent items or under different
examining conditions. Reliability paves the way for consistency that makes validity
possible and identifies the degree to which various kinds of generalizations are
justifiable. It refers to the consistency of measurement i.e., how stable test scores
or other assessment results are from one measurement to another.
Reliability refers to the extent to which a measuring device yields consistent
results upon testing and retesting. If a measuring device measures consistently, it is
reliable. The reliability of a test refers to the degree to which the test result obtained
is free from error of measurement or chance errors. For instance, we administer an
achievement test in mathematics for students of class IX. In this test, Paresh scores
Major Tools and Techniques 52. After a few days, we administer the same test. If Paresh scores 52 marks again,
we consider the test to be reliable, because we feel that this test accurately measures
Paresh’s ability in mathematics. H.E. Garrett stated, ‘the reliability of test or any
measuring instrument depends upon the consistency with which it gauges the ability
NOTES to whom it is applied’. The reliability of a test can also be defined as ‘the correlation
between two or more sets of scores on equivalent tests from the same group of
individuals’.
Objectivity: Objectivity is an important characteristic of a good test. Without
objectivity, the reliability and validity of a test is a matter of question. It is a
pre-requisite for both validity and reliability. Objectivity of a test indicates two things—
item objectivity and scoring objectivity.
‘Item objectivity’ refers to the item that must call for a definite single answer.
In an objective-type question, a definite answer is expected from the test-takers.
While framing the questions, some points to be kept in mind are: ambiguous questions,
lack of proper direction, double barrelled questions, questions with double negatives,
etc. These concepts affect the objectivity of a test. Let us take an example of an
objective item. Suppose we ask students to write about Gandhi. This question does
not have objectivity. Because, here the answers will have different perceptions for
different individuals and also the evaluation. If we ask the students ‘what was Gandhi’s
father’s name’, this obviously will have only one answer and even the biasness of
the evaluator will not affect the scoring. So all the items of a test should be objective.
Objectivity of scoring refers to by whosoever checked the test paper would
fetch the same score. It refers to that the subjectivity or personal judgment or biasness
of the scorer should not affect the scores. The essay-type questions are subjective
and the scores are affected by a number of factors like mood of the examiner, his
language, his biasness, etc. Essay-type questions can have objectivity if the scoring
key and proper directions for scoring are provided.
Usability: Usability of a test refers to the practicability of a test. It refers to
the degree to which the test can be successfully used by the teachers/evaluators.
Usability of a test depends on certain aspects which are expressed in the following
manner:
(a) Comprehensibility: The test items should be free from ambiguity and
the direction to the test items and other directions to the test must be
clear and understandable. The directions for scoring and the
interpretation of scores must be within the comprehension of the user.
(b) Ease of administration: If the directions for administration are
complicated or if they need more time and labour, the users may lag
behind to use such tests. The directions for administration must be clear
and concise. The test paper should be constructed according to the
availability of time. Lengthy tests involving more time may not be
preferred for use.
(c) Availability: If a test is not available at the time of necessity, it lacks its
usability. Most of the standardized tests are of high validity and reliability,
but their availability is very less. So it is desirable that in order to be Major Tools and Techniques
reliable, the tests must be readily and easily available.
(d) Cost of the test: The cost of the test must be cheap, so that the schools
and teachers can afford to purchase and use them. If it will be costly,
then every school cannot avail it. So a good test should be of reasonable NOTES
price.
(e) Ease of interpretation: A test is considered to be good if the test scores
obtained can be easily interpreted. For this, the test manual should provide
age norms, grade norms, percentile norms and standard score norms
like standard scores, T-scores, Z-scores etc. So ‘interpretability’ of test
refers to how readily the raw scores of test can be derived and
understood.
(f) Ease of scoring: A test in order to be usable must ensure ease of
scoring. The scoring procedure must be a simple one.
All the directions for scoring and the scoring key should be available, to make
the scoring an objective one. The examiner’s biasness, the handwriting of the examinee
should not affect the scoring of a test.
Classification of Tests
Tests are divided into different types taking into consideration their content, objective,
administration system, scoring style etc. According to mode of administration, tests
are of two types:
(i) Individual test: When a psychological test is administered upon an individual
at a particular time, it is known as ‘individual test’.
(ii) Group test: When a test is administered upon a group of individuals at a
particular time, it is known as ‘group test’. It is mostly applicable on adult
literates.
According to the ability of the student, tests are of two types:
(i) Speed test: This type of test is applicable upon the individuals to know the
mental speediness. Here, the time is limited and the number of questions is
more and all the questions are equal in difficulty level. Railway examinations,
banking examinations are the examples of speed test.
(ii) Power test: This type of test is applicable upon the individuals to know the
mental power or the ability. Here, time limit is not there and the individuals
are expected to answer the question within as much time they like. All the
questions of this test are arranged according to difficulty level and
discriminating power. The essay competitions by the media are the bright
examples of power test.
According to the type of items involved in the test, it can be of three types:
(i) Essay-type test: Essay-type tests are otherwise known as open-ended tests.
The essay question is especially useful for measuring those aspects of complex
achievement that cannot be measured well by more objective means. These
include: (a) the ability to supply rather than merely identify interpretations and
Major Tools and Techniques application of data, and (b) the ability to organize, integrate and express ideas
in a general attack on a problem. Outcomes of the first type are measured by
restricted-response questions and outcomes of the second type by extended-
response questions. For example, ‘discuss the educational philosophy of M.K.
NOTES Gandhi’.
(ii) Short-answer type test: This type of test requires to be written in a short-cut
manner regarding a concept. It is suitable for measuring a wide variety of
relatively simple learning outcomes, and it is used almost exclusively to measure
the recall of memorized information. For example: ‘What is measurement?
Write within 50 words.’
(iii) Objective-type test: In objective-type questions, the individual is expected to
answer the question with the help of a word, a phrase, a number or a symbol.
The test with multiple-choice items, true-false items, matching type items,
fill-in-the blanks items, one-word substitution are the examples of objective
type test.
According to the method of scoring, test are of two types:
(i) Machine-scored test: The tests which are scored or assessed by the machines
like computer are known as ‘machine-scored test’. The Bank P.O. examination
is an example of machine-scored test.
(ii) Hand-scored test: The tests which are assessed by the human beings are
known as ‘hand-scored tests’. The classroom achievement tests is an example
of hand-scored tests.
According to the principle of test construction, tests are of two types:
(i) Teacher-made test: Generally ‘teacher-made tests’ are prepared by classroom
teachers to assess pupils’ growth. It is related to action research. Teacher-
made tests serve different purposes viz., to measure pupil’s achievement, to
know how far the specific objectives have been fulfilled, to diagnose the
learning difficulties, and to arrange specific remedial measures to award grades
etc. This type of test only follows two steps—planning and preparation.
(ii) Standardized test: Standardized tests measure the common objectives of a
wide variety of schools. They have standard procedures for administration
and scoring, and provide norms for interpreting the scores. A test manual and
other necessary material are typically provided to aid in the administration of
the test and the interpretation and use of the results. The test items are generally
of high quality because they have been prepared by specialists, subject experts,
pre-tested and selected on the basis of their effectiveness and their relevance
to a rigid set of specification. They are specially useful for measuring general
educational development, determining student’s progress from one year to
the next, grouping students, analysing learning difficulties, and comparing
achievement with learning ability.
Standardized test and teacher-made test have been discussed later in this unit
in detail.
According to the nature of the test, they are classsified as: Major Tools and Techniques
(i) Oral test: It is a kind of verbal test. In oral test, the individual is expected to
answer orally. This type of tests is mostly applicable to illiterates or small
children. In the public survey, the people are asked to speak something
regarding the issue. In the interview board, the interviewers ask questions to NOTES
the interviewee and the interviewee answers orally. This type of test is known
as ‘oral test’.
(ii) Written test: Here, the individual has to respond the questions in writing form.
So the respondent should have the writing ability. It is only applicable upon
the literates. All the written examinations are the examples of written test. It
is a kind of verbal test.
(iii) Performance test: This type of test is also known as ‘nonverbal test’. The
respondent is not expected to respond verbally. He has to perform the task.
The running competition, jumping competition held by physical examination
are the examples of performance test.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3. What is validity of a test?
4. What does the objectivity of a test indicate?
2.4 MEASUREMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT
An achievement test is an instrument designed to measure the relative achievement

of students. It is an indispensable instrument in the teaching–learning process. The
following definitions given by experts enable us to have a comprehensive view of an
achievement test. According to Gronland, achievement test is ‘a systematic procedure
for determining how much a student has learned through instruction’. According to
Popham, ‘the achievement test focuses upon an examinee’s attainments at a given
point in time’.
This most common technique for measuring cognitive development is supposed
to yield the intended evidences about students’ learning and indirectly the instructional
effectiveness. Since most of the judgments about the students’ achievement and
teaching effectiveness are based on the evidences gathered, it is necessary that the
question papers are designed well and prepared scientifically. For this, it is necessary
that teachers in general and paper-setters in particular are thoroughly made conversant
with the following concepts and steps for developing a good question paper
(achievement test):
(i) Knowledge of criteria of a good achievement test
(ii) Preparation of design of question paper
(iii) Development of blueprint based on the design provided or developed
(iv) Framing of different types of questions in accordance with the blueprint
Major Tools and Techniques (v) Development of key, model answers and marking schemes
(vi) Consolidation of questions and formatting of question papers
(vii) Preparation of question-wise analysis
NOTES (viii) Final editing and review of the question paper
(ix) Moderating of the question paper
Practical uses of achievement tests
Achievement tests can be used for various purposes in the teaching–learning process.
The value of such tests is directly proportional to the extent to which the results
from its use are translated into improved instructional, guidance and administrative
practices in the school. The instructional uses of achievement tests are:
• For class analysis and diagnosis
• For individual pupil diagnosis
• Guidance use of achievement tests
• Alternative uses
• Administrative uses
• Aid to the parents
We know that the three basic criteria of a good question paper are:
(i) validity, (ii) reliability, and (iii) usability or practicability that makes a question
paper good. Evidences collected are to be judged against these criteria, which the
paper-setter must understand.
A questionnaire is a tool for research, comprising a list of questions whose answers
provide information about the target group, individual or event. Although they are
often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case.
This method was the invention of Sir Francis Galton. Questionnaire is used when
factual information is desired. When opinion rather than facts are desired, an
opinionative or attitude scale is used. Of course, these two purposes can be combined
into one form that is usually referred to as ‘questionnaire’.
Questionnaire may be regarded as a form of interview on paper. The
procedure for the construction of a questionnaire follows a pattern similar to that of
the interview schedule. However, because the questionnaire is impersonal, it is all
the more important to take care of its construction.
A questionnaire is a list of questions arranged in a specific way or randomly,
generally in print or typed and having spaces for recording answers to the questions.
It is a form which is prepared and distributed for the purpose of securing responses.
Thus a questionnaire relies heavily on the validity of the verbal reports.
According to Goode and Hatt, ‘in general, the word questionnaire refers to a
device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills
himself’.
Barr, Davis and Johnson define questionnaire as, ‘a questionnaire is a Major Tools and Techniques
systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population
from which information is desired’ and Lundberg says, ‘fundamentally, questionnaire
is a set of stimuli to which literate people are exposed in order to observe their
verbal behaviour under these stimuli’. NOTES
Types of Questionnaire
Figure 2.1 depicts the types of questionnaires that are used by researchers.
Questionnaire
Closed form Open form Pictorial
Mailed Personally administered
Individual
In groups
In print
Projected
Fig. 2.1 Types of Questionnaires
Commonly used questionnaires are:

(i) Closed form: Questionnaire that calls for short, check-mark responses
are known as closed-form type or restricted type. They have highly
structured answers like mark a yes or no, write a short response or
check an item from a list of suggested responses. For certain type of
information, the closed form questionnaire is entirely satisfactory. It is
easy to fill out, takes little time, keeps the respondent on the subject, is
relatively objective and is fairly easy to tabulate and analyse.
For example, How did you obtain your Bachelors’ degree? (Put a tick
mark against your answer)
(a) As a regular student
(b) As a private student
(c) By distance mode
These types of questionnaires are very suitable for research purposes.
It is easy to fill out, less time consuming for the respondents, relatively
objective and fairly more convenient for tabulation and analysis. However,
construction of such type of questionnaire requires a lot of labour and
thought. It is generally lengthy as all possible alternative answers are
given under each question.
(ii) Open form: The open form, or unrestricted questionnaire, requires the
respondent to answer the question in their own words. The responses
Major Tools and Techniques have greater depth as the respondents have to give reasons for their
choices. The drawback of this type of questionnaire is that not many
people take the time to fill these out as they are more time consuming
and require more effort, and it is also more difficult to analyse the
NOTES information obtained.
Example: Why did you choose to obtain your graduation degree through
correspondence?
No alternative or plausible answers are provided. The open form
questionnaire is good for depth studies and gives freedom to the
respondents to answer the questions without any restriction.
Limitations of open questionnaire are as follows:
• They are difficult to fill out.
• The respondents may never be aware of all the possible answers.
• They take longer to fill.
• Their returns are often few.
• The information is too unwieldy and unstructured and hence difficult
to analyse, tabulate and interpret.
Some investigators combine the approaches and the questionnaires carry
both the closed and open form items. In the close ended questions, the
last alternative is kept open for the respondents to provide their optimum
response. For example, ‘Why did you prefer to join B.Ed. programme?
(i) Interest in teaching (ii) Parents’ wish (iii) For securing a government
job (iv) Other friends opted for this (v) Any other.’
(iii) Pictorial form: Pictorial questionnaires contain drawings, photographs
or other such material rather than written statements and the respondents
are to choose answers in terms of the pictorial material. Instructions or
directions can be given orally. This form is useful for working with
illiterate persons, young children and persons who do not know a specific
language. It keeps up the interest of the respondent and decreases
subjects’ resistance to answer.
Questionnaire administration modes
Main modes of questionnaire administration are:
• Through Mail: Mailed questionnaires are the most widely used and also
perhaps the most criticized tool of research. They have been referred to as a
‘lazy person’s way of gaining information’. The mailed questionnaire has a
written and signed request as a covering letter and is accompanied by a self-
addressed, written and stamped envelope for the return by post. The method
of mailing out the questionnaire is less expensive in terms of time, funds
required; it provides freedom to the respondent to work at his own convenience
and enables coverage of a large population.
• Personal contact/face-to-face: Personally administered questionnaires both
in individual and group situations are also helpful in some cases and have the
following advantages over the mailed questionnaire (i) the investigator can
establish a rapport with the respondents; (ii) the purpose of the questionnaire
can be explained; (iii) the meaning of the difficult terms and items can be Major Tools and Techniques
explained to the respondents; (iv) group administration when the respondents
are available at one place is more economical in time and expense; (v) the
proportion of non-response is cut down to almost zero; and (vi) the proportion
of usable responses becomes larger. However, it is more difficult to obtain NOTES
respondents in groups and may involve administrative permission which may
not be forthcoming.
• Computerized questionnaire: It is the one where the questions need to be
answered on the computer.
• Adaptive computerized questionnaire: It is the one presented on the
computer where the next questions are adjusted automatically according to
the responses given as the computer is able to gauge the respondent’s ability
or traits.
Different types of test include multiple-choice questions, short-answer questions,
essay –type questions, true-false questions, and so on. Let us look at their merits
and demerits.
(a) Multiple-choice questions
Merits
The merits of multiple-choice questions are as follows:
• Quick and easy to score, by hand or electronically
• Can be written so that they test a wide range of higher-order thinking skills
• Can cover lots of content areas on a single exam and still be answered in a
class period
Demerits
The demerits of multiple-choice questions are as follows:
• Often test literacy skills: “if the student reads the question carefully, the answer
is easy to recognize even if the student knows little about the subject” (p.
194)
• Provide unprepared students the opportunity to guess, and with guesses that
are right, they get credit for things they don’t know
• Expose students to misinformation that can influence subsequent thinking
about the content
• Take time and skill to construct (especially good questions)
(b) True-false questions
Merits
The merits of truth-false questions are as follows:
• Quick and easy to score
Major Tools and Techniques Demerits
The demerits of truth-false questions are as follows:
• Considered to be one of the most undependable forms of evaluation
NOTES • Often written so that most of the statement is true save one small, often
trivial bit of information that then makes the whole statement untrue
• Encourages guess work, and rewards correct guesses
(c) Short-answer questions
Merits
The merits of short-answer questions are as follows:
• Quick and easy to grade
• Quick and easy to write
Demerits
The demerits of short-answer questions are as follows:
• Encourage students to memorize terms and details, so that their understanding
of the content remains superficial
(d) Essay questions
Merits
The merits of essay questions are as follows:
• Offer students an opportunity to demonstrate knowledge, skills, and abilities
in a variety of ways
• Can be used to develop student writing skills, particularly the ability to formulate
arguments supported with reasoning and evidence
Demerits
The demerits of essay questions are as follows:
• Require extensive time to grade
• Encourage use of subjective criteria when assessing answers
• If used in class, necessitate quick composition without time for planning or
revision, which can result in poor-quality writing.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

5. How does Popham define achievement test?
6. What are the instructional uses of achievement tests?
2.5 DIAGNOSTIC TEST CONSTRUCTION AND in Educational Evaluation
USEFULNESS
Diagnostic tests are a kind of educational tests. These tests have two purposes: NOTES
(i) prognostic purpose, and (ii) diagnostic purpose. The prognosis of the students
done in the specific subjects which has been taught to them. The diagnosis means to
identify the causes of their weakness of their poor attainment of the students. The
prognosis and diagnostic functions are complementary to each other, and both are
essential in educational measurement and evaluation.
A diagnostic test is designed to real specific weakness or failures to learn in
some subject of study such as reading or arithmetic. In a diagnostic test, the main
interest is the performance on individual items or on small groups of highly similar
items. In the diagnostic test, score or mark is not assigned for the correct answer
but wrong answer provide the basis for the causes of his failure.
Diagnostic tests are those which help us to know the particular strength and
weakness of the student. These tests are also known as ‘analytical tests’. The
correct answer provides a student’s strength and wrong answer indicates his
weakness. The achievement tests provide the overall scores on the basis of correct
answers of the subject items. The wrong answers are assigned zero marks. These
attainment tests do not provide reason for the poor scores of an individual.
The term ‘diagnostic’ as applied to tests is fraught with danger and ambiguity.
Educationists consider the certain test as diagnostic, while others are achievement
tests which have no diagnostic characteristics. A diagnostic test undertakes to provide
a picture of strengths and weaknesses. Hence, any test that yields more than a
single overall score is, in a sense, diagnostic. Even if there are only two part scores,
for example, one for arithmetic computation and one for arithmetic reasoning,
diagnostic tests makes it possible to say that the student performed better in
computation than in reasoning answers to problems. It means that the diagnostic
tests are qualitative, not quantitative. A diagnostic test does not yield the total scores
of an individual in a subject which he has studied and taken the test.
Analysis as the basis of diagnosis
The successful development of school learning depends upon the care with which
the underlying and basic skills of the subjects themselves are recognized and utilized
in teaching. For instance, teaching a child how to do additions comprise not only in
developing the habit of responding automatically and correctly to the basic
combinations, but also involves higher levels of skill, such as control of the attention
span, and carrying from one column to the next. The teacher’s task is made obvious
and objective if he understands this. Similarly, it can be shown that silent reading
comprehension is not a single isolated ability. It is a composite of many elements,
Major Tools and Techniques such as knowledge of word meanings, ability to get meaning from sentences, ability
to arrange through unit and sentence units into logically organized wholes, and ability
to find desired material quickly. The teacher has a real basis for instructional
procedures with this knowledge.
NOTES Language is another basic subject in which many delicately balanced skills
are interwoven in an extremely complex manner. Here again the elements of
achievement in the total process must be identified. Blind trust in general practice on
the total skill must necessarily give way to the exact identification and discovery of
the particular points of pupil weakness as a basis for special emphasis.
Good diagnosis must parallel the process of good teaching. Effective diagnostic
materials in any school subject can be prepared only after the skills contributing to
success in that subject have been isolated and identified. Psychologically, the reason
for this is that on the whole the child learns to do what he practises or does. Remedial
work, accordingly, can function only when the point at which pupil mastery breaks
down has been located. Thus, the analysis must be penetrating and the diagnosis
must be precise.
Specific nature of diagnosis
Diagnosis must be more exact than merely a broad statement of general functions.
It is not enough to discover that a child is unable to read silently. The exact nature of
his handicap must be revealed before it is possible to undertake a remedial
programme. The more specific the diagnostic information revealed, the more exactly
the remedial material can be made to fit the need. To return to a frequently used
illustration, if it is found by diagnosis that a child is unable to add, unless the exact
point at which his mastery of addition breaks down can be determined by the diagnosis,
teaching, or remedial efforts are largely wasted. One of the outstanding reasons
why more effective teaching and remedial work has not been done in certain fields
is that no adequate analysis of basic skills can be made or has been made.
Importance of diagnostic use of test results
Tests as such are incapable of improving instruction because of any inherent power.
Existing conditions are merely revealed by them. Remedial or corrective teaching is
the result of deliberate constructive effort by the teacher after the particular points
of weakness in the instruction of the pupils has been revealed by the tests. The ease,
the clarity and the directness with which these needs are revealed by the tests are a
measure of their real educational value.
Very few existing tests are so constructed as to permit the interpretation of
their results directly in terms of an effective remedial procedure. However, this
seems to be no good reason for the failure of teachers to apply more directly the
results of this work in testing to the improvement of their teaching practice. Just as
the data revealed by the navigator’s instruments require calculation and interpretation,
so is it necessary to analyse test data carefully in order to make them the basis of
genuine remedial programme.
Diagnosis as the basis for remedial work Major Tools and Techniques
Accurate diagnosis of class and individual pupil difficulties, coupled with application
of remedy is not only important but necessary for teachers. The success of the
remedial or corrective teaching depends upon the accuracy and detail with which
NOTES
the specific skills involved in successful achievement in the subject are identified
and isolated in the test. Tests of the general survey type, or tests that report single
unanalysed scores, cannot supply this information in sufficient detail.
Diagnosis as the basis for preventive work
Diagnosis as applied in education has taken on a meaning indicative of a breakdown
in method, a failure of instructional techniques. Unquestionably, one of the basic
purposes of diagnosis is the location of weaknesses and the determination of their
causes, but there is nothing in the method that precludes its use in the prevention of
weaknesses through anticipation of their causes. Out of the knowledge gained through
the use of diagnostic procedures should become the basis for preventive work of all
types. The existence of a weakness implies a failure at some point in the programme.
The real importance in the discovery should lie rather in the prevention of its
reappearance elsewhere under similar conditions.
An illustration from the field of medicine may make this point somewhat
more concrete. In every medical examination for diagnostic purposes, a complete
analysis is made and an exact case record of all observations is kept. Due to the
analysis of these records, a better understanding of the causes and characteristics
of certain types of human ailments is possible. Out of this same type of analysis has
also come the basis for much of the preventive work that characterizes modern
medical science.
In a similar way, accurate and detailed educational diagnosis may ultimately
offer the basis for the development of a programme of preventive work in education.
For example, if after diagnosing the addition of fractions in the fifth grade, it is found
that the failure of pupils to reduce the fractions to their lowest terms in the answers
is a common weakness, the obvious thing to do is to correct the defects at once, and
then proceed to reconstruct the first instruction so that in the following year the
causes for this particular weakness may not operate so powerfully. Similarly, any
weakness identified now should afford the basis for decisions calculated to reduce
the probability of their recurrence in the future.
The diagnostic tests are broadly classified into two categories: (i) educational diagnostic
tests, and (ii) physical or clinical diagnostic tests.
(i) Educational diagnostic tests: These tests are related to different subjects
for specific level or class or grade.
(ii) Clinical diagnostic tests: These tests are also of several types relating to
hearing, vision and other aspects.
Major Tools and Techniques The regular classroom teacher should take help of a clinical specialist. Due to their
knowledge about the students, classroom teachers can be more confident in their
orientation towards group approaches. The teacher would expect normal actions
and behaviours on the part of all students. They would be prepared, however, to deal
NOTES with reasonable departure from normal behaviour, and for the unusual cases, the
teacher would feel free to invite the person with special skill in diagnosing and
treating such cases to bring them at par to the normal students of the class.
Functions of diagnosis
Although diagnosis is an individual activity, it has four functions:
(i) Classification
(a) Intellectual level
(b) Vocational level
(c) Aptitude or Musical level
(ii) Assessment of specific ability
(a) Level of adjustment
(b) Level of abnormality
(c) Level of depression and anxiety
(iii) Aetiology function refers to study the diagnosis or causes.
(iv) Remediation may be of following types:
(a) Clinical treatment for physical ailments
(b) Counselling for mental ailments
(c) Remedial teaching for learning weakness
(d) Special education for handicapped
These functions are highly individualized.
Methods of diagnosis
In view of the above functions, the following methods are used for diagnosis:
(i) Observation method: It is most popular method used for both prognosis
and diagnosis. It is used for children. It is a subjective method, as well as
being the most commonly used method.
(ii) Testing procedure used for diagnosis: This may include: (a) Clinical testing
method, (b) Psychological testing method, and (c) Educational testing method.
It has been mentioned that the teacher has to invite other skilled persons to know the
deficiencies of the students to provide proper remediation.
Steps for construction of diagonostic test
The following steps are used for preparing the diagnostic tests:
• Formulation of objectives and outline of the content or topic.
• Content analysis into sub-topics and its elements: (a) Sequence of sub-topics
and elements within the sub-topic; (b) Sequence of learning points.
• Identifying in difficulty order of sub-topics.
• Deciding types of the items. Major Tools and Techniques
• Preparing items and try-out.
• Item analysis of test items and modification of items.
• Analysis of logical sequence of content. NOTES
• Preparing the final draft of the test.
• Preparing manual of the test.
• Remedial devices or measures.
Diagnostic test in school subjects
Let us look at the different diagnostic tests in school subjects.
(i) Diagnostic reading test: Reading is an important skill for school subjects.
Low silent reading test includes the following sub-tests:
(a) Role of reading and comprehension of prose.
(b) Poetry comprehension and appreciation.
(c) Vocabulary in different areas.
(d) Meaning of sentences.
(e) Paragraph comprehension.
With these tests, the following types of errors are committed by the students:
wrong pronunciation of words, spelling errors, omission error, repetition error,
placement of words, combining word, adverse reading etc. The teacher has
to locate the real causes for these errors, only after that remediation would
be provided.
(ii) Diagnostic test of mathematical skills: The compass diagnostic test in
arithmetic is used on the topic: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
The following types of errors are committed by the students:
(a) Carry over in addition.
(b) Borrowing in addition.
(c) Borrowing and reducing one from next.
(d) Placement of decimal error.
(e) Tables are not remembered in multiplication.
(f) Placement of decimal in multiplication.
(g) Tables are not remembered in division.
(h) Noting wrong numbers.
Example of early over error in addition
(1) 43 (2) 54 (3) 67 67

56 74 35 35
or
99 128 912x 102
Major Tools and Techniques Example of borrowing error in subtraction
(1) 78 (2) 96 (3) 52 52

46 75 38 38
NOTES or
32 21 26x 14
The teacher has to identify the real cause of wrong answers, then he will be
able to provide the remedial teaching for these errors.
Achievements vs. Diagnostic Tests
Some important characteristics of the two type of educational tests are enumerated
as follows:
(i) An achievement test provides the extent of the leering outcomes of the
students. The performance is evaluated in terms of a single one, which is
intended to locate specific weakness in the learning of content, but does not
provide a single score.
(ii) An achievement test is quantitative, while a diagnostic test is qualitative. An
achievement test has prognostic purposes.
(iii) The items of an achievement are arranged in the order of difficulty value.
The easiest item in the beginning of the test and most difficult item is placed
at the end of the test. But in a diagnostic test, items are arranged in the
learning sequence in order of positive transfer of learning.
(iv) In achievement tests, items are analysed on the basis of correct responses of
the students on an item, ‘device method’ of item analysis is used for selecting
and rejecting the items. A diagnostic test items are analysed on the basis of
wrong responses of the students on items. Stanley method of item analysis is
used for diagnostic test.
(v) The contest of a subject is the same in both the tests. The objective-type
items are used in both types of tests. In an achievement test, one score is
assigned for correct answer and zero for wrong answer. In diagnostic test,
scores are not assigned for correct answer by wrong responses, considered
in view of the sequence of the content to identify the cause for the wrong
answer.
(vi) The scoring and interpretation is easy for achievement tests scores. The
subject specialist is not required, but scoring and interpretation of diagnostic
test scores is difficult. The subject specialist is a must for identifying the
causes of the wrong answers.
(vii) Essay-type and objective-type tests are used in the attainment tests, but only
objective type can be effectively employed in diagnostic tests. Essay- type
cannot be used in diagnosis purpose.
(viii) Reliability and validity are essential characteristics of an achievement test.
But diagnostic sub-tests or one learning unit are adequately reliable. A
diagnostic test is an individual test from interpretation point of view, but
otherwise it is a group test.
(ix) In constructing an achievement test, the sampling of content is done for Major Tools and Techniques
consideration; no learning point is omitted or ignored.
(x) The diagnostic tests are effective tools for teachers for planning and organizing
remedial teaching. Tutorial groups are formed on the basis of diagnostic test.
Teacher can help the poor students and can raise their level of performance NOTES
by removing their difficulties. The purpose of diagnostic tests is the remedial
teaching and instruction. The achievement tests are used for selection,
promotion gradation, classification and also in research work.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

7. What are the two purposes of diagnostic tests?
8. What are educational diagnostic tests?
2.6 SUMMARY
• Tools or question papers prepared by the teachers to evaluate their own

students whom they have been teaching are called as teacher made tests.
• A standardized test is a test, which is developed in such a way that it reaches
up to a specific level of quality or standardization. The test is standardized
with respect to the form and construction, administration procedure and test
norms.
• The type of evaluation in which the performance of the testees are evaluated
with reference to some predetermined criteria is called as criterion-referenced
evaluation. No weightage is given to norm or average performance of the
group in this evaluation.
• An educational test is not just a test that measures achievement in subjects of
study, but is also a psychological test that leads to an assessment of the
overall development of a student.
• The aspects which affect the characteristics of a good test are as follows:
• Validity of the test
• Reliability of the test
• Objectivity of the test
• Usability of the test
• Comprehensive and preciseness of the test
• Administration of the test
• Test from economic viewpoint
• Availability of the test
• Appearance of the test
• Standardization of the test
• Norms of the test
Major Tools and Techniques • Tests are divided into different types taking into consideration their content,
objective, administration system, scoring style etc.
• An achievement test is an instrument designed to measure the relative
achievement of students. It is an indispensable instrument in the teaching–
NOTES learning process.
• A questionnaire is a tool for research, comprising a list of questions whose
answers provide information about the target group, individual or event.
Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this
is not always the case. This method was the invention of Sir Francis Galton.
• Diagnostic tests are a kind of educational tests. These tests have two purposes:
(i) prognostic purpose, and (ii) diagnostic purpose.
• The prognosis of the students done in the specific subjects which has been
taught to them. The diagnosis means to identify the causes of their weakness
of their poor attainment of the students.
• The diagnostic tests are broadly classified into two categories: (i) educational
diagnostic tests, and (ii) physical or clinical diagnostic tests.
2.7 KEY TERMS
• Standardized test: A standardized test is any form of test that requires all
test takers to answer the same questions, or a selection of questions from
common bank of questions, in the same way, and that is scored in a ‘standard’
or consistent manner, which makes it possible to compare the relative
performance of individual.
• Criterion-referenced test: Tests that are designed to measure student
performance against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards.
• Objectivity: Objectivity is a noun that means a lack of bias, judgment, or
prejudice.
• Pictorial: Something that is expressed in pictures or is illustrated.
• Remedial: A remedial action is intended to correct something that is wrong
or to improve a bad situation.
1. Tools or question papers prepared by the teachers to evaluate their own

students whom they have been teaching are called as teacher-made tests.
2. The type of evaluation in which the performance of the testees are evaluated
with reference to some predetermined criteria is called as criterion-referenced
evaluation.
3. Validity of a test refers to its truthfulness; it refers to the extent to which a
test measures what it intends to measure.
4. Objectivity of a test indicates two things: item objectivity and scoring objectivity.
5. According to Popham, ‘the achievement test focuses upon an examinee’s Major Tools and Techniques
attainments at a given point in time.
6. The instructional uses of achievement tests are:
• For class analysis and diagnosis
NOTES
• For individual pupil diagnosis
• Guidance use of achievement tests
• Alternative uses
• Administrative uses
• Aid to the parents
7. Diagnostic tests have two purposes. These are:
(i) Prognostic purpose
(ii) Diagnostic purpose
8. Educational diagnostic tests are tests related to different subjects for specific
level or class or grade.
2.9 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. What is a standardized test? What are its characteristics?
2. Differentiate between criterion-referenced tests and norm referenced tests.
3. What are the essential characteristics of a good test?
4. Discuss the merits and demerits of different types of tests.
5. What are the different types of diagnostic tests?
1. Describe how a criterion-referenced test can be constructed.
2. Discuss how tests can be classified.
3. Discuss the difference types of questionnaires that are used by researchers.
4. Describe how a diagnostic test can be constructed.

Green &Co.
Sons & Co. Self-Instructional Material 73
Psychological Testing
UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Structure NOTES
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit Objectives
3.2 Psychological Testing in the Area of Intelligences
3.3 Attitude and Personality Tests
3.3.1 Attitude
3.4 Examination System: Current Strategies
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Terms
3.9 Further Reading
3.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you learnt about the major tools and techniques used in evaluation.
In it, standardized tests, criterion-referenced tests and diagnostic tests were discussed.
In this unit, the discussion will turn towards psychological testing. Psychological
testing refers to the administration of psychological tests. A psychological test is an
objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour. There are many
types of psychological tests - intelligence tests, personality tests, occupational tests,
and so on. This unit will discuss psychological tests in detail. The unit will also
discuss different types of examination systems such as semester system and the
open book system.
3.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

• Discuss the characteristics and types of attitude
• Describe the determinants of personality
• Discuss some of the projective techniques of examining personality.
• Examine some of the major trends in examinations and evaluations seen in
recent times
Psychological Testing
3.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING IN THE AREA
OF INTELLIGENCES
NOTES Intelligence of an individual or group of individuals is tested through various types of

tests that are called intelligence tests. Intelligence test can be studied by classifying
it in the following ways:
1. Classification of intelligence test on the basis of administration:
(i) Individual intelligence test
(ii) Group intelligence test
2. Classification of intelligence test on the basis of the nature of the test:
(i) Verbal intelligence test
(ii) Non-verbal intelligence test
(iii) Performance intelligence test
• Individual intelligence test: This test can be given to each individual
separately. The first practical general intelligence test, called as Binet–Simon
scale, was administered individually.
• Group intelligence test: It is the intelligence test, which is administered in
groups. The first practical group intelligence test was developed for the Armed
Forces during the First World War.
Table 3.1 shows the comparison between individual and group intelligence
test.
Table 3.1 Comparison between Individual and Group Intelligence Test
Individual intelligence test Group intelligence test
• Can be administered on one • Can be administered on a group of

individual at a time. individuals at a time.
• It is developed and administered • It is more frequently used for testing
on young children. normal adults (adolescents or older).
• It is better predictors for young • It is better predictors for adults’
children. intelligence.
• It is more expensive and time • It is much less expensive and time
consuming. consuming.
• It is highly useful in clinical • It is less useful in clinical setting.
settings.
• It is easy to construct.
• It is difficult to construct.
• Verbal intelligence test: A verbal intelligence test needs the following verbal
capabilities in the tests regarding the language in which the intelligence test is
developed and administered:
o Understanding spoken language
o Understanding written language
o Ability to speak language Psychological Testing
o Ability to write language

o Verbal comprehension factor
A test may require the first four items from the given list or may require NOTES
all. It is also possible to compose a test in which none of the first four aspects
is present and the fifth aspect, verbal comprehension, is the only aspect acting
as a cardinal requirement. Each test is examined in terms of its combination
of verbal requirement rather than simply classified as ‘verbal’ or ‘non-verbal’.
• Non-verbal intelligence test: The intelligence test that is based on symbols
or figures and in which language is either very less used or not used is referred
to as non-verbal intelligence test. The subject indicates the correct answer
either through the use of language or by marking one of a number of choices.
The symbolic response might be made with respect to objects rather than
printed materials.
• Performance intelligence test: In this type of intelligence test the subject
is required to handle or manipulate objects in such a way as to complete a
specified task. Intelligence regarding skills of performing some task is tested
through this test. Performance test usually measures more coordination,
speed, perceptual and spatial factors. Any kinds of instrument that is in a
printed form is referred to as verbal test as this emphasizes verbal
comprehension and requires symbolic responses. Table 3.2 shows the
comparison between verbal, non-verbal and performance test.
Table 3.2 Comparison of Verbal, Non-Verbal and Performance Test
Verbal intelligence test Non-verbal intelligence test Performance test
1. It requires understanding It requires symbolic It requires manipulative

of written language. responses on the part of responses by the testees.
testees.
2. Considers verbal Considers perceptual and
comprehension factors. Considers symbolic relation spatial factor.
reasoning factor.
3. Conducted by writing By handling the objects
language. By marking correct choices. correctly.
4. Consists of verbal Consists of perceptual ability
comparative, numerical and spatial ability.
Consists of reasoning for
computation and numerical abstract and seeing the
reasoning.
relationship perception.
Effect of culture and
5. Effect of culture and
Effect of culture and language is not observed.
language is observed. language is not observed.
Only for individual test only.
6. May be used for individual
May be used for individual
and group testing. and group testing.
7. It can be used on literate It can be used for both
It can be used on illiterate
subjects only. literate, illiterate, children
and literate both. and adult.
8. It is easy to construct,
It is difficult to construct but
administer and score. It is difficult of construct,
easy to administer and score. administer and score.
Psychological Testing Some important tests of Intelligence
There are many tests for measuring intelligence. As discussed above, they can be of
three types namely verbal, non-verbal and performance types. Some important tests
of intelligence are given as follows:
NOTES
• Stanford–Binet test of intelligence
• Wechsler–Belleve intelligence test
• Thurstone’s test of primary mental abilities
• Non-verbal test of intelligence (also known as Reven’s Progressive Matrices)
• Culture free intelligence test
• Bhatia–battery performance test
Note: To study and for using any of the intelligence test, consult any psychological
test library or psychology lab. Read the manual of the test and try to use it to have
first hand experience.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. How are intelligence tests classified on the basis of administration?
2. What is a performance intelligence test?
3.3 ATTITUDE AND PERSONALITY TESTS
Let us now study attitude and personality tests.

3.3.1 Attitude
L.L. Thurstone states that an attitude ‘is the degree of positive and negative affect
associated with some psychological object’. Attitude refers to the predisposition of
an individual to evaluate some aspect of his world, including ideologies, objects,
symbols, people, etc. Attitude is the bent of mind that may be positive, negative,
hostile or indifferent. One’s attitude is reflected in his behaviour. In a nutshell, attitude
includes the sum-total of an individual’s inclination, feelings, prejudice or bias,
preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats and convictions about something. For
example, somebody’s attitude towards Indian culture means his thinking about the
culture of India, whether he likes or dislikes Indian culture. Social attitudes are
learned from the society through interaction with the social members. Attitude of an
individual changes from time to time and it is not an inborn quality, rather it is acquired.
Anastasia states, ‘an attitude is often defined as a tendency to react favourably
towards a designated class of stimuli, such as a national or racial group, a custom or
an institution. Thus defined, attitude cannot be directly observed but must be inferred
from overt behaviour, both verbal and non-verbal’.
Freeman states ‘an attitude is a dispositional readiness to respond to certain
situation, persons or objects in a consistent manner which has been learned and has
become one’s typical mode of response. An attitude has a well-defined object of Psychological Testing
reference. For example, one’s view regarding a class of food or drink (such as fish
and liquors), sport, maths or democrats are attitudes’.
Characteristics and types of attitude NOTES
In this section, we discuss the characteristics and forms of attitude:
Characteristics
The characteristics of attitude are as follows:
• Attitudes are not inborn but acquired.
• Attitudes differ from culture to culture.
• Attitudes are integrated into an organized system.
• Attitudes are less consistent, they can be modified.
• Attitude is a position towards outer objects, either ‘for’ or ‘against’.
• Attitudes are socially learned.
• Attitudes are formed due to the process of differentiation.
• Attitudes are complex.
• Attitudes have readiness to respond.
• Attitudes have a time dimension.
• Attitudes have a duration factor.
• Attitudes are predisposition towards objects.
• Attitudes are observed from overt behaviour.
• An attitude has a well-defined object of reference.
• It implies a subject–object relationship.
Types
The predispositions towards different things create different attitude. Attitude of a
person varies from situation to situation, time to time, etc. Some people have positive
attitude towards religious thoughts and morality, but some has negative attitude towards
it. In general, attitude is of two kinds: (i) positive attitude and (ii) negative attitude.
For example, Gandhi was interested in non-violence, so he had positive attitude
towards non-violence. On the other hand, he was against violence, so he had negative
attitude towards violence. Besides this kind of classification of attitude, attitude may
be classified into different categories like:
• Acquisitive attitude
• Play attitude
• Scientific attitude
• Business attitude
• Artistic attitude
• Religious attitude
Psychological Testing The people who have interest in acquisition of something all the time, they have
acquisitive attitude. At each and every time, they search for something. Play attitude
refers to the interest in playing. The people with playing attitude, always give
importance upon playing. Some people are more prone towards science and
NOTES technology from the childhood, they involve themselves in small scientific activities.
They have scientific bent of mind and this is known as ‘scientific attitude’. Some
people are very much interested in commerce and business activities. This refers to
their business attitude. People with skill in art and craft, have artistic attitude. They
have their interest in artistic plays, arts and crafts etc. Religious attitude refers to the
positive bent of mind to religious activities. The people with religious attitude, believe
in different forms of God, and they are known as theists. But the people who have
negative bent of mind towards God and religion, are known as atheists. They do not
like to involve themselves in religious activities.
Determinants of attitude and attitude testing
Attitude is not an inborn quality. At the time of birth, child’s mind is like a clean slate
in which the society and environment write everything. Interacting with parents,
peer group, siblings, neighbours, society and school mate, child develops his attitude
towards an individual or object or anything else. So there are certain factors which
determine the attitude of human beings. The determinants are:
1. Cultural or social determinant: A child acquires everything from the culture
or society, to which he belongs. The cultural ethics, social norms, ceremonies,
the religious and moral beliefs of the particular society are acquired by the
child. His attitude towards something is framed according to that social or
cultural framework. For example, tribal child receives all the aspects of his
tribal culture. His language, way of living, thinking, education, all the aspects
will be according to the tribal society he is concerned with. For example, the
interior tribal people have their attitude that, the outside people are alien to
them and they destroy their culture and civilization. So, the child of this tribe,
also develops this kind of attitude towards the outsiders.
2. Psychological determinants: One’s psychology determines his attitude. The
person who is kind enough and merciful has sympathetic attitude towards the
poor. Emotional and personal experiences, social perception etc., contribute
towards development of attitude.
3. Functional determinants: Functional determinants are also known as
situational determinants. Sometimes, the situation builds attitude in human
minds. For example, when somebody is rebuked and mistrusted by his friends
in a certain situation, his attitude suddenly changes towards his friends. So,
situational factors are very much responsible for attitude development.
Purposes of Attitude Testing and Measurement of Attitude
Purposes of Attitude Testing
Behind every action, there is purpose. When we go for testing attitude of people or
students, obviously there are some purposes behind it. In the teaching–learning
situation, attitude testing has an important role to play. So the purposes of attitude
testing are:
• To assess the entry attitude of the students towards a particular course. Psychological Testing
• To assess how far the desirable attitudes have been developed in the students
during the course and after the completion of the course.
• To help the students to develop positive attitude towards certain things.
NOTES
• To help the students in their career plan.
• To help the management to make its administration and supervision a qualitative
one.
• To help the teacher to overcome their weakness in the teaching–learning
situation.
• To help the students to check their undesirable behaviour.
Measurement of Attitude
Attitude is a subjective concept which is not absolute, rather relative. So, when test
is prepared for testing attitude, certain dimensions are to be kept in mind. The
dimensions are:
• Direction
• Degree
• Intensity
From the direction point of view, there are two kinds of directions: (i) positive and
(ii) negative. When an individual has positive bent of mind towards something, it is
known as ‘positive attitude’ and when he has negative bent of mind towards something
it is known as ‘negative attitude’. Every student’s attitude should be measured in
relation to his teaching–learning situation.
Every attitude has its degree. For example, a person who sings occasionally
has less degree of positive attitude towards singing in comparison to the person
whose profession is singing. So at the time of measuring attitude, the degree of
predisposition should be taken into consideration.
Attitudes also have an intensity dimension. At a high degree of intensity, some
kind of behaviours are motivated towards a greater extent. So all these dimensions
should be kept in mind at the time of attitude testing.
The methods to be followed for the measurement of attitude are:
(i) Thurstone Scale: This scale was developed by Thurstone. Thurstone’s attitude
scale is known as equal-appearing interval scale. In this scale, both favourable
and unfavourable statements regarding a particular topic are reflected in an
eleven point scale. The respondent is supposed to check the point for each
item according to his attitude. The median of the judged locations for an item
is its scale value. The scale position are very much a function of the judges
who are chosen.
(ii) Likert Scale: This scale was developed by Likert. All the items of this scale
are followed by five options. The respondents are supposed to point out the
option they like. The decisions are either favourable or unfavourable on the
object, or person. Judges are not appointed for this scale, and this scale is
Psychological Testing known as ‘five-point scale’. Likert type scale is less time consuming and
economic. Its approach is more empirical because, it deals with the
respondent’s score directly rather than employing judges. The sum of the
item credits is the total score of the individuals, which is interpreted in terms
NOTES of empirically established norms.
Example of Likert type scale:
1. ‘Science is the Scales 5 4 3 2 1
soul of present Values SAA U D SD
day society’.
Values:
SA – Strongly Agree 5
A – Agree 4
U – Undecided 3
D – Disagree 2
SD – Strongly Disagree 1
Limitations of attitude testing
Attitude testing has certain limitations which cannot be avoided. The limitations are:
• Attitude is a subjective concept, so it is very difficult to measure attitude
quantitatively.
• Attitude is such a complex affair that it cannot be represented by any single
numerical index.
• Attitude is learned not inborn. So it varies from situation to situation and time
to time.
• In most of cases, it is seen that there is difference between verbally expressed
attitudes and attitudes reflected in behaviour.
The concept of personality is subjective in nature. It is very difficult to assess or
measure subjective concepts objectively. Still, psychologists have tried to measure
the personality of human beings through different tools and techniques. In the primitive
society, physical strength was the norm of personality Measurement; during the
Vedic period, the memorization of Vedas was the norm of personality measurement.
Later, astrology, palmistry, physiognomy and phrenology were considered as the
measures of personality.
The methods used for assessment of personality may be categorized as
subjective, objective and projective techniques. It is very difficult to bring a watertight
compartment among all these assessment techniques. Some of the important
techniques are discussed here.
Concept of personality
According to G.W. Allport, ‘personality is the dynamic organization within individual
82 Self-Instructional Material of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his
environment’. Eysenck defined personality as ‘the more or less stable and enduring Psychological Testing
organization of a person’s character, temperament, intellect and physique, which
determine his unique adjustment to the environment’. According to Watson,
‘personality is the sum of activities that can be discovered by actual observations
over a long period of time to give reliable informations’. For Morton Prince, personality NOTES
is ‘the sum total of all the biological innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies, appetites
and instincts of the individual and the dispositions and tendencies acquired by
experience’.
In a nutshell, personality refers to the external appearance and internal qualities
of an individual. It is something unique to everyone, and it is the result of the interaction
of heredity and environment. Personality refers to individual’s unique and relatively
stable patterns of behaviour, thoughts and feelings. We cannot draw a watertight
compartment between personality and all the psychological traits. Personality is a
summative approach which assesses all the integrative qualities of an individual.
Learning and acquisition of experiences in every platform of life contribute towards
growth and development of personality.
Characteristics of personality
The characteristics of personality are as follows:
• Personality is built by heredity and environment.
• There is individual difference in personality.
• Personality determines one’s adjustment to his environment.
• Personality emerges from the interaction of psychobiological organism.
• Personality may be intrinsic or extrinsic.
• Personality is the reflection of all the psychological and physical traits of an
individual.
• Personality can be assessed.
• Personality means man within the man.
• Personality refers to social adaptability.
• Personality is a dynamic organization.
• Behaviour is the reflection of personality.
• Personality permits a prediction about an individual.
• Personality is more or less stable in nature.
• Personality exhibits self consciousness.
• Personality includes all the behaviour patterns: conative, cognitive and affective.
• Personality includes conscious, semi-conscious and unconscious activities.
• Learning and acquisition of experiences contribute towards growth and
development of personality.
• Personality should not be taken as synonymous with one’s character and
temperament.
• Personality of an individual is directed towards some specific ends. Self-Instructional Material 83
Psychological Testing Determinants of personality
An individual is the by-product of his heredity and environment. Many believe that
heredity plays a major role towards personality development, but in reality, no one
factor can be given credit of influencing personality. Personality is the by-product of
NOTES
many factors which are discussed below.
(i) Heredity: In most of the cases, children are more similar to their parents
and siblings. Heredity influences physique, motor-sensory equipment and level
of intelligence. Physical appearance of an individual contributes a lot for his
personality. So, heredity does play an important role in the development of
personality.
(ii) Environment: Here, we will discuss about three types of environment:
(a) Physical environment, (b) Social environment, and (c) Cultural environment.
These factors make an individual to ‘acquire’ a personality.
(a) Physical environment: Physical environment refers to the physical,
geographical and geological structure of the area where an individual
lives. In case of the cold countries, people are white; but in hot countries,
people’s complexion is black. The people of North East of India are
different from the people of South India in their colour and physical
appearance. This difference is mostly due to the physical environment.
(b) Social environment: Social environment of an individual includes all
social agents like parents, siblings, peer groups, school, teachers,
neighbour etc. All these factors play their role in the development of
personality of an individual. Children from homes where morality, honesty,
spiritualism, religiousness are given importance, are different from the
children from the homes of poverty, family disorder, formal relationship
among all etc. A child’s maximum time is devoted in school with his
teachers and friends. Teachers are the role models before the children.
The principle of discipline, living cooperatively, respect to teachers, feeling
brotherhood and sisterhood in uniform dress, all these are acquired by
schools. Teacher’s open mindedness, democratic look, enthusiastic and
industriousness, leave a mark upon a child which develops his personality.
Interpersonal relationship among the members of a society are important
means which help in the development of certain social personality
characteristics. All these factors help in the development of personality.
(c) Cultural environment: Cultural values moulds the personality of people
belonging to that culture. A child internalizes the values, ideas, beliefs,
norms and customs of a culture through the interaction with this culture
and the society. Every society has its own cultural heritage, and this
cultural heritage transmits from generation to generation successfully
which is known as ‘enculturation’. The personality of the people of
Eastern society is different from the personality of the people of Western
society, it is due to the cultural change. Margaret Mead conducted a
study on the adolescents of Somoa, a primitive culture. She concluded
that the cultural pattern of a society influence to a great extent the
personalities of individuals.
Subjective and objective techniques Psychological Testing
1. Observation: Through observation in real-life situation, the personality of

an individual can be known. Observation is of two types: (a) participant
observation, and (b) non-participant observation. In case of participant
NOTES
observation, the observer becomes a part of the group or becomes a part of
the life of the individual whose behaviour is observed. But in case of non-
participant observation, the observer remains away from the group or from
the individual. Observation is a first-hand information, so it is more valid and
reliable. But sometimes the observer’s biasness affects the assessment. Some
people also hesitate to reflect their natural behaviour when they know that
somebody is observing them. Behaviour is a subjective concept, and it varies
from situation to situation. But, observation has a great role in assessing
personality.
2. Interview: Interview is a technique of eliciting response from an interviewee
by a couple of interviewers. In the words of Maccoby and Maccoby, ‘interview
refers to a face-to-face verbal interchange in which the interviewers attempt
to elicit information or expression of opinion or belief from the interviewees’.
Within a limited period of time, the interviewers ask questions to the interviewees
and elicit responses from them. Interview may be of two types: (a) structured
interview and (b) unstructured interview. In structured interview, some
questions are pre-fixed to be asked. The type of behaviour to be assessed is
also pre-planned. But in unstructured interview, the questions are situational.
Open interrogation takes place between the interviewers and interviewees.
The scope of unstructured interview is more than structured interview because
in the former case the interviewers are not restricted to a particular set of
predetermined questions. Interview techniques have their own limitations as
well. Skilled interviewers are necessary and this technique is time consuming.
It also suffers from the personal biasness of the interviewers.
3. Checklist: A checklist consists of some items and the subject is supposed to
respond to the items according to his interest. From the responds, the
personality of the subject is assessed by the psychologists. For example, in
the list given below, the subject is asked to check the items which are applicable
to him.
Example,
• I want to work whole day.
• I want to lead a comfortable life.
• I want rest whole day.
• I want to pray whole day.
Examples of standardized checklists are: (a) Money problems checklist,
and (b) Student problem checklist made by Central Bureau of Educational
and Vocational Guidance.
4. Rating scale: Rating scale was developed by Galton in 1883. According to
Van Dalen, ‘a rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity or frequency of a
variable’. In the words of Good and Scate, ‘the rating scale typically directs
Psychological Testing attention to different parts or aspects of the thing to be evaluated, doesn’t
have as many items or categories as the checklist or score card’. Through
this device, a rater can record judgments of another person or his own based
on the traits defined by the scale. It covers much wider range of natural
NOTES behaviour than any practicable battery of personality tests. There are different
types of rating scales like: (a) Numerical scale, (b) Graphic scale, (c)
Cumulative points scale, (d) Standard scale, and (e) Forced-choice rating.
5. Personality inventory: The tool was developed by Woodworth in 1919.
But at that time, it was known as ‘personal data sheets’. In personality
inventory, an effort is made to estimate the presence and strength of each
specified trait through a number of items representing a variety of situations
in which the individuals’ generalized mode of responding may be sampled.
Personality inventory is of two types: (a) uni-dimensional personality inventory,
and (b) multi-dimensional personality inventory.
Personality is of multi-dimensional quality. That is why the multi-
dimensional personality inventory is used in most of the cases. The reliability
of personality inventories ranges from very low to satisfactory coefficient
0.8, depending on the traits being measured. Personality inventories are
particularly useful in group trends, i.e., in differentiating between groups of
adjusted and maladjusted, rather than among individuals.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is mostly used in
the assessment of personality. It was developed in 1940 its first manual was
used in 1943. It is available in individual card form and group booklet form. It
consists of total 550 items and is used on the individuals above the age of 16.
MMPI consists of three answers: True, False and Can’t say; and it is mainly
used in clinical and diagnostic centres. The time required for administration
of MMPI is 90 minutes and its reliability ranges from 0.50 to 0.90.
Projective techniques
The term ‘project’ was used for the first time by Sigmund Freud in the field of
psychology. Projection, according to Freud means externalizing of conflicts or other
internal conditions that give rise to conscious pain and anxiety. ‘Projection’ refers to
encourage an individual to use his imagination as per his interest. Projective techniques
are those which draw out responses from the unconscious. It enables an individual
to reflect his internal feelings like aptitudes, attitudes, values, philosophies etc. All
the projective techniques are dealt with complex mental processes which reflect the
whole personality of an individual.
The characteristics of projective techniques are as follows:
• Unstructured and ambiguous materials are used in projective techniques.
• It studies the unconscious mind of individuals.
• It studies the total personality of individuals.
• It evokes multi-dimensionality of responses.
• There is freedom to respond on the part of the respondents, when responding
the techniques.
• The answers to projective techniques are not right or wrong. Psychological Testing
• The purpose of projective techniques are disguised.

• The validity and reliability of projective techniques are more.
• Projective techniques have holistic approach in assessing personality. NOTES
• These techniques are specially useful for children.
Projective techniques also suffer from certain limitations as follows:
• Projective techniques are subjective.
• Experts are required for use of these techniques.
• It is difficult to construct, administer and evaluate projective techniques.
• It lacks objectivity in evaluation.
• It lacks norms.
• Interpretation of the test is time consuming.
• It is very difficult to measure its validity and reliability.
• In most of the cases, directions for the administration of the projective
techniques are not standardized.
• The evaluation of projective techniques varies from evaluator to evaluator.
Some of the projective techniques are explained below.
1. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
This technique was developed by Morgan and Murray in 1935. Thematic Apperception
Test is called a story-telling test because the respondents are to tell stories according
to the pictures shown to them. TAT pictures are administered individually as well as
collectively to group of individuals. The test material consists of 31 cards, 30 reflecting
various pictures and one blank card. All the pictures are related to real-life situations
through which an individual passes. All the pictures are given in two sessions and
the number of pictures depends upon age, sex and aspect of personality to be assessed.
After the administration of the test, the examinees are interviewed, and asked why
they wrote such type of stories. The interpretation of the stories takes place with the
help of these following points:
• The hero
• Theme of the story
• The end of the story
• Punishment for crime
• Defence and confidence
• Emotional expressions etc.
2. Rorschach Inkblot Test
This technique was developed by Swiss Psychiatrist Herman Rorschach in 1921.
The test consists of 10 symmetrical ink blots on 10 separate cards of 11 × 9 inches.
Five of the ink blots are black and white, and others are multicoloured.
Psychological Testing All the inkblots are completely unstructured. All the cards are given to the
respondent at a time in a sequence. Here, the subject is given more time and is
permitted to give as many responses as he likes. After this, the examiners generally
conduct inquiry into the details of the subject’s response on individual cards. For the
NOTES scoring purpose, the responses are given specific symbols and entry is made into
four columns: location, contents, originality, and determinants.
The reliability of Rorschach Inkblot test is 0.75, and the validity ranges from 0.5 to
0.8. The test requires trained and skillful persons for scoring and interpreting it, and
therefore the work must be done only by experienced and trained psychologists.
Psychologically, projection is an unconscious process, whereby an individual
attributes certain thoughts, attitudes, emotions or characteristics to other persons or
objects in the environment. He expresses his needs to others in an environment and
draws incorrect inferences from experience. Projective technique provides the subject
with a semi-structured or unstructured stimulus situation, giving him an opportunity
to impose upon it his own private needs and his own perceptions and interpretations.
Projective techniques require the subject to describe or interpret objects other than
himself, and these are based on the hypothesis that an individual’s response to an
unstructured stimulus is influenced by his needs, motives, fears, expectations and
concerns. Interpretations are drawn on the basis of the completeness provided by
the testee and the type of stimulus presented to him.
Several forms of projective technique are pictures, inkblots, incomplete
sentences, word associations, one’s own writings and drawings etc., which are
intended to elicit responses that will reveal the respondent’s personality structure
(feelings, values, motives, characteristics, modes of adjustment and complexes). He
is said to project the inner aspects of his personality through his interpretations; and
creations his needs, wants, desires, aversions, fears and anxieties get reflected
involuntarily.
Projective techniques are the means to dig out the intricacies of human
behaviour which are below the surface and are incapable of exposure by subjective
and objective techniques such as observation, peer ratings and self-rating
questionnaires etc.
Most commonly known projective techniques are the Rorschach Inkblot Test
and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Rorschach Inkblot Test provides an insight
into the nature of disorder on the one hand, and hidden feelings, emotions and desires
on the other, which the testee would not have normally desired to be known to
others. It consists of a set of 10 inkblots: five made in shades of black and grey only,
two contain bright patches of red in addition to shades of grey, and the remaining
three employ various colours. In this, the subject is shown one blot at a time and is
asked what he sees in it.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of the pictures of people in various
settings. It has a set of 30 cards and one blank card which are used in various
combinations as per the age and sex of the subject. In TAT, the subject is told to
make up a story about each picture in turn. In actual clinical practice, a set of 10
selected cards is used for the particular case. TAT is helpful in identifying the presence
or absence, as well as strength, of one or more motives to be used for diagnosing the Psychological Testing
problems. Other techniques include Children Apperception Test (CAT), Draw-a-
Man Test, Word Association Test, etc. Artistic products of structured type or
completely unstructured, like finger paintings, can also be used as projective
techniques. NOTES
One of the major advantages of projective techniques is that they are not
difficult to administer. These can be used for persons of all ages, ethnic groups and
intelligence levels. Projective techniques are ingenious efforts to measure personality
variables. They are said to measure the ‘whole personality’. The projective techniques
are, however, difficult to interpret for which sustained training is necessary. Despite
their widespread use by clinical and school psychologists, projective techniques are
relatively un-standardized ordinary measure of reliability that are difficult to obtain.
Yet their popularity may be attributed to ‘faith validity’ and the mistakes assumed by
the users.
Use of projective technique
As clarified earlier, projective techniques are useful in bringing out covert behaviour
patterns, though indirectly, which are either not revealed through the use of subjective
and objective techniques, or are concerned with very deep rooted motives and
emotions which the respondent would not like to be exposed to. Children and adults
unwilling to discuss their problem may be administered projective techniques. Some
of the situations most appropriate for the use of projective techniques are:
• Identifying the subject’s real concerns, his conception of himself, and the
way he views his human environment.
• Diagnosing the behavioural problems of students.
• Studying the personality of children who are unable or unwilling to discuss
their problems directly.
• Verification of the patterns of personality emerging out of subjective or objective
techniques.
• Studying the home and school adjustment of adolescent.
• Studying personality or adjustment patterns of more sensitive subjects, or of
those who tend to give biased responses on tests.
• Clinical usages.
• Testing illiterate persons of different language backgrounds.
Use of projective techniques by teachers
Projective techniques by their very nature require properly trained personnel to
administer and interpret them. It is necessary to be aware of projective techniques
and to be able assess if there is any utility in employing them to study various kinds
of personality disorders and maladjustments among students. Teachers should not
casually venture into using projective techniques unless they are properly trained for
them. These techniques should be used only by clinical psychologists or school
psychologists who have had intensive training in the use of these methods. In view
Psychological Testing of the complexity associated with the application of projective techniques, these
should be employed in case of students showing the signs of very severe emotional
problems. It should be noted that projective techniques are most successfully used
for eliciting suppressed desires, feelings, ambitions, attitudes and emotions, guilt and
NOTES complexes etc.
Limitations of personality assessment
The demerits of personality assessment are:
• Personality is a subjective and relative concept, so it is very difficult to assess
it.
• Personality assessment cannot be purely objective.
• Sometimes, the result of personality assessment affects the individuals.
• Sometimes, the result of personality assessment is different from the real-life
situation.
• Personality assessment varies from technique to technique.
• Personality assessment varies from evaluator to evaluator.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3. How does L.L. Thurstone define attitude?
4. What is Thurstone scale?
5. What is the Rorschach inkblot test?
3.4 EXAMINATION SYSTEM: CURRENT

STRATEGIES
Several methods of assessment and evaluation of learners are in use these days,
such as unit tests, half-yearly examinations, annual examinations, semester system,
board examinations and entrance tests.
Unit tests
Unit tests are prepared and conducted to check the understanding level and to know
the problems of the students at initial level. In these tests, the subject matter is
selected from a specific content taught in a limited time period. The subject matter
is significantly pertinent to the objectives to attain in that period. The unit can be an
entire module. Each unit test is totally independent from other tests to be conducted
in the session.
Benefits of unit tests
There are many benefits of unit tests, such as:
• Objectives are clearer and well defined.
• Follow-up after evaluation is simpler.
• Students get opportunities for improvement. Psychological Testing
• Each unit gets proper attention and importance

• Students’ weakness can be diagnosed and rectified at very early stage.
• As the main examination is broken into small ones, students need to prepare NOTES
a small portion of content at a time, which helps in effective learning.
• Understanding the objectives of teaching is facilitated.
• Students learn new skills.
Limitation of unit tests
The limitations of unit tests may be summarized as follows:
• They require efficient, hardworking and trained teachers
• If they are not systematically arranged, there may arise confusion and
discouragement among the student.
• Proper feedback and diagnosing problems is not so easy.
• All the unit tests may not follow the same pattern. Hence, evaluation may not
be reliable.
Half-Yearly and Annual Examinations
Besides unit tests, many schools conduct half-yearly and annual examinations. Half-
yearly examinations, which cover almost half of the syllabus, are conducted after
the first unit test. The aim behind it is to evaluate the student at slightly bigger level.
It again helps students as well as teachers to find out the problems. It determines
whether the mid-term objectives have been achieved or not. The other big advantage
of the half-yearly examinations is that it provides the teachers an opportunity to
assess their teaching methodologies. For example, if many students fail to perform
well in a half-yearly examination, it means that there is some serious flaw in the
teaching methodologies, which require teachers’ attention. If the number of such
students is less, then remedial teaching classes could be arranged for them.
Annual examination—also called summative examination— is the final
examination. It decides whether the skills and abilities (academics and co-curricular)
aimed to be achieved in the beginning of the session have been achieved or not. In
the success of this examination, unit tests and mid-term examinations help a lot. On
the basis of unit tests and mid-term examinations, students having problems in learning
are identified and special classes are arranged for them so that by the end of the
session they can perform their best.
Board Examinations and Entrance Test
The board examination system has broadly been classified into the following two
levels in India.
1. State level boards
The state level boards are administered by each state. They are independent of the
central boards. They design their own syllabus and standards. They facilitate the
Psychological Testing learning process by generally following their state language as a medium of instruction.
Not only the medium of instruction is a local language but textbooks and other study
material are also available in state’s local language.
2. Central level boards
NOTES
At the central level, there are two boards in India. One of them is the Central Board
of Secondary Education (CBSE). The other all India board is the Council for Indian
School Certificate Examination (CISCE, popularly called ISCE).
(i) CBSE
The CBSE was constituted in 1962. It has been set up to achieve the following
interlinked objectives:
• To prescribe conditions of examinations and conduct public examination at
the end of Class X and XII
• To grant qualifying certificates to successful candidates of the affiliated schools
• To fulfil the educational requirements of those students whose parents were
employed in transferable jobs
• To prescribe and update the course of instructions of examinations
• To affiliate institutions for the purpose of examination and raise the academic
standards of the country
The prime focus of the Board is on:
• Innovations in teaching-learning methodologies by devising students friendly
and students centred paradigms
• Reforms in examinations and evaluation practices
• Skill learning by adding job-oriented and job-linked inputs
• Regularly updating the pedagogical skills of the teachers and administrators
by conducting in service training programmes, workshops, etc
The jurisdiction of the Board is extensive and stretches beyond the national
geographical boundaries. As a result of the reconstitution, the erstwhile ‘Delhi Board
of Secondary Education’ was merged with the Central Board and thus all the
educational institutions recognized by the Delhi Board also became a part of the
Central Board. Subsequently, all the schools located in the Union Territory of
Chandigarh. Andaman and Nicobar Island, Arunachal Pradesh, the state of Sikkim,
and now Jharkhand, Uttaranchal and Chhattisgarh have also got affiliation with the
Board. From 309 schools in 1962 the Board today has 8979 schools, including 141
schools in 21 countries. There are 897 Kendriya Vidyalayas, 1761 Government
Schools, 5827 Independent Schools, 480 Jawahar Novodaya Vidyalayas and 14
Central Tibetean Schools.
In order to execute its functions effectively Regional Offices have been set
up by the Board in different parts of the country to be more responsive to the
affiliated schools. The Board has regional offices in Allahabad, Ajmer, Chennai,
Guwahati, Panchkula and Delhi. Schools located outside India are looked after by
regional office Delhi. The headquarters constantly monitors the activities of the
Regional Offices, although sufficient powers have been vested with the Regional Psychological Testing
Offices. Issues involving policy matters are, however, referred to the head office.
Matters pertaining to day-to-day administration, liaison with schools, pre and post
examination arrangements are all dealt with by the respective regional offices.
(ii) CICSE NOTES
The Council for Indian School Certificate Examination (CICSF) has been constituted
to secure suitable representation of governments responsible for schools (which are
affiliated to it) in their states/territories; the Inter-State Board for Anglo-Indian
Education; the Association of Indian Universities; the Association of Head of Anglo-
Indian Schools, the Indian Public School Conference; the Association of Schools for
the ISC Examination and eminent educationists.
The objects of the Council is educational, and includes the promotion of science,
literature, the fine arts and the diffusion of useful knowledge by conducting school
examination through the medium of English. The Council exists solely for educational
purposes and not for purposes of profit. It is committed to serving the nation’s
children, through high quality educational endeavours, empowering them to contribute
towards a humane, just and pluralistic society, promoting introspective living, by
creating exciting learning opportunities, with a commitment to excellence.
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
NIOS is an ‘Open School’ to cater to the needs of a heterogeneous group of learners
up to pre-degree level. It was started as a project with in-built flexibilities by the
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) in 1979. In 1986, the National Policy
on Education suggested strengthening of Open School System for extending open
learning facilities in a phased manner at secondary level all over the country as an
independent system with its own curriculum and examination leading to certification.
Consequently, the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government
of India, set up the National Open School (NOS) in November 1989. The pilot
project of CBSE on Open School was amalgamated with NOS. The National Open
School (NOS) was vested with the authority to register, examine and certify students
registered with it up to pre-degree level courses. In July 2002, the Ministry of Human
Resource Development amended the nomenclature of the organization from the
National Open School (NOS) to the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
with a mission to provide relevant continuing education at school stage, up to pre-
degree level through Open Learning system to prioritized client groups as an alternative
to formal system, in pursuance of the normative national policy documents and in
response to the need assessments of the people, and through it to make its share of
contribution to:
• Universalization of education
• Greater equity and justice in society
• Evolution of a learning society
The NIOS provides opportunities to interested learners by making available
the following Courses/Programmes of Study through open and distance learning
(ODL) mode.
Psychological Testing • Open Basic Education (OBE) Programme for 14+ years age group,
adolescents and adults at A, B and C levels that are equivalent to classes
III, V and VIII of the formal school system.
• Secondary Education Course
NOTES • Senior Secondary Education Course
• Vocational Education Courses/Programmes
• Life Enrichment Programmes
NCERT’s General Guidelines for Evaluation

A publication of the NCERT entitled Reforming Examinations: Some Emerging
Concepts (1978) lists the following generalisations about evaluations:
1. Evaluation is a function of the learner and instruction and, therefore, good
evaluation is one which is done by the teacher, of the taught as an individual.
2. Evaluation provides quality control at every stage of the teaching learning
process and, therefore, evaluation would be treated as an integral part of the
teaching-learning process.
3. Since evaluation provides feedback about the rate of the pupil’s learning and
the effectiveness of instruction, evaluation should be done unitwise after
teaching every unit.
4. As the purpose of teaching is learning by students, focus of teachers’ evaluation
should be on improvement of pupils’ achievement and not on judging their
achievement. Therefore, diagnostic testing and remedial teaching should go
side by side.
5. Pupils’ achievement is the outcome of the integrated process of learning
within a given set of conditions. Evaluation of pupils’ learning should, therefore,
be also integrated with regard to both the process and product of learning,
6. Keeping in view the obsolesence and explosion of knowledge, the new
curriculum stresses the learnability aspect more than the knowledge aspect.
Emphasis in evaluation should therefore, shift from testing of rote memory to
that of problem solving abilities and attitude development.
7. For appraisal of the total development of the learner, it is essential that evaluation
should not be limited to scholastic achievement alone, but it should encompass
all aspects of pupils development. As such evaluation techniques will have to
be extended beyond written and practical examinations to include oral testing,
observations, checklists, rating scales and interviews.
8. Since independent learning by students is considered an important method of
learning in the new curriculum self-assessment by pupils of their own learning
should be practised in the evaluation system of an institution, so that cooperative
assessment of the teacher and the learner is encouraged.
9. Since it is impossible to achieve 100 percent or even near to 100 percent Psychological Testing
reliability of the various tools used for evaluating pupils, it is desirable that
students should be classified broadly into 5 to 7 grades rather than using 101
point scale as at
NOTES
10. As every pupil learns at his own rate he should be judged in terms of his own
capacities and goals and not in terms of the standards of his class, institution
or the board of secondary education. As such passing of a student in all the
subjects at a time cannot be considered essential.
11. The grades of every pupil indicate only his level of performance which may
be satisfactory or unsatisfactory in terms of his own standard. Thus, a grade
howsoever low it may be, cannot be taken as failure but as an indicator of his
present level of achievement.
12. Given more time and proper remedial teaching a student can improve his
achievement Therefore, a student should get the opportunity of improving his
grade in one or more subjects, if fie so desires.
13. The more accurately and meaningfully the evidence about pupils’ growth in
different aspects of his development is reported to students, teachers, parents,
employers and institutes recording of pupil performance in various areas of
development is a prerequisit to every evaluation programme.
Evaluation of Non-Scholastic Aspects of Pupil’s Growth
A national seminar organised by the NCERT from 8 to 12 October, 1979 made the
following recommendations on making effective evaluation of Non-scholastic aspects
of pupil’s growth.
1. Educationists the world over are expressing a grave concern over the bookish
nature of the present day education dominated by examinations which tends
to evaluate mostly the cognitive outcomes of education only. This is particularly
true of the Indian scene. The seminar strongly recommends that educational
policy-makers, planners, administrators and teachers should take a serious
note of this lacuna and take proper steps to ensure that adequate attention is
paid to the development and evaluation of both the cognitive and non-cognitive
aspects of pupil growth. This is possible only when the schools pay adequate
attention to the development and scientific evaluation of both these aspects in
an integrated and balanced manner.
2. Since the foundations of personality are laid in early childhood, it is very
important that developmental evaluation of non-cognitive aspects of growth
should start as early as possible. The Education Departments and the Boards
of Secondary Education should ensure that proper facilities are provided in
the educational institutions so as to make possible the development and
evaluation of these aspects of pupil growth. For this purpose, it would be
necessary to develop systematic and realistic programmes for various types
of institutions and to ensure that they are sincerely executed. The importance
of cocurricular activities in the fostering of non-scholastic objectives of
Psychological Testing education is too well- known to need reiteration by this seminar. It is, therefore,
recommended that at least six periods per week must be provided for
cocurricular activities in all secondary and higher secondary schools. The
proportion could be even large in primary schools. The planning and execution
NOTES of these activities need to be done in a manner that participation of each and
every pupil in some worthwhile activity is duly made possible.
3. Appreciating the role of education in shaping the personality of the child the
seminar recommends that evaluation in schools should be used more for
developmental purposes than for simply reporting, promoting from class-to-
class and certification. This is particularly true to the non-scholastic aspects
of growth, scientific assessment of which poses serious theoretical and
practical problems. The seminar, therefore, recommends that the evaluation
done in these areas should be used for formative: purposes only and should
not be quantified to be used for promotion from class-to-class.
4. The seminar considered in detail the role of class-room instructional
programmes in the development of non-scholastic aspects of growth. It was
agreed that in each subject area specific objectives of the psychomotor and
effective domains should also be identified and included in the evaluation
scheme. Similar exercise may be done in the cocurricular area as well. In
addition, programmes conducive to the development of these objectives should
also be identified and executed in both the areas in a systematic manner.
5. Training of teachers in the development and evaluation of non-scholastic
aspects of pupil growth is very crucial, more so because of the elusive and
non-tangible nature of these aspects. The Departments of Education, Boards
of Secondary Education and the Universities should undertake in-service
programmes on an extensive scale and also, incorporate to relevant topics
and activities in the preservice programmes. Availability of adequate facilities
for training in this area should be made an essential condition for recognition
of training institutions at all levels.
6. The role of the supervisor in the proper execution of educational programmes
in India cannot be ignored. For successful implementation of any innovative
project, involvement of administrators and the headmasters is a must and
therefore orientation of these categories of staff in the supervision of work in
the non-scholastic aspects of growth should receive proper emphasis in their
training and orientation programmes.
7. The present state of affairs in education in India is an inevitable outcome of
quantitative expansion at the cost of quality control. To restore education to
its pristine glory it is necessary that serious notice is taken by the Central and
the State Governments and the local communities of the existing inadequate
facilities in most of the schools and ernest efforts are made to improve them
early so as to make possible a satisfactory implementation of educational
programmes. The wide gap between the stated objectives of education and
their actual implementation in schools for want of adequate facilities need to
be appreciated early enough and remedial measures taken accordingly.
8. Instructional materials and manuals make a significant contribution to the Psychological Testing
successful implementation of educational programmes. There is a great need
for the development of such materials in the forms of teacher’s guides,
students’ guides etc. and their circulation to schools. The Department and the
Boards of Secondary Education should get such materials developed with the NOTES
help of Teachers colleges and other experts in adequate quantities for the
guidance of teachers and students. The role of mass media in this area need
also be recognized.
9. To give due importance to the development and evaluation of non-scholastic
aspects of growth in the school time-table, it is necessary that the periods
devoted by teachers to this work should be counted in their work-load.
10. For an effective implementation of any programme of development and
evaluation of non-scholastic aspects of growth it is essential that good work
done by teachers in this area should receive due recognition for which the
Department and the Boards can undertake a variety of steps such as holding
seminar reading programmes, issuing of special certificates of recognition to
outstanding teachers and providing for the assessment of the work in this
area in the confidential report forms of teachers.
11. The need for research and development activities in the non-scholastic area
of pupil growth is too obvious to be dilated upon. The National Council of
Educational Research and Training, the State Institutes of Education, Colleges
and the Departments of Education in the Universities should appreciate this
need and undertake Systematic and Scientific research in this area. A beginning
in this respect has been made by the National Council of Educational Research
and Training which needs further intensification at all levels.
Trends in Examinations and Evaluation
As a result of reform movement in examinations and evaluation, the following major
trends are disconcernible:
• Use of more scientific and systematic methods instead of arbitrary methods.
• Stress on performance in both academic and non-academic areas
• Continuous evaluation in place of periodic examinations
• Use of a variety of techniques and tools instead of a few techniques and tools
of evaluation
• Wider uses of test results in place limited uses
• Emphasis on improvement of achievement rather than measurement of
achievement
• Treatment of testing in relation to other elements of the curriculum rather
than treating testing in isolation
• Preferring grades to marks
• Awarding subjectwise grades in place of overall grades
• Clearing the examination in parts and not at one stroke
Psychological Testing • Improving grades through subsequent attempts
• Providing opportunities for re-evaluation
• Spot evaluation at specified centres in place of marking by examiners at their
NOTES residences
• Deployment of special squads for checking unfair means
• Declaring the use of unfair means as an offence
• More flexible and purposeful form of question papers than the traditional one
• Apart from testing memorisation, questions include for evaluating abilities
like understanding, critical thinking, application of knowledge and skills etc
• More coverage of the syllabus
• Inclusion of a variety of questions in the question paper
• A large number of questions in place of a few questions
• Replacement of overall options to internal options
• Specifically worded questions in place of large questions
• More objective scoring
• Use of multiple sets of question papers
Use of Question Bank
One of the main shortcomings of the present education system is the lack of
appropriate questions asked in the examination. It does not meet the teaching-learning
process properly. The person who prepares the questions basically depends on his
choice and questioning skill. These questions are prepared on basic knowledge and
many times it also has been observed that most of the questions are repeated; only
language is changed. These questions are not able to evaluate knowledge,
understanding or applicability domain of the students. As a result, students prepare
only few questions for the examination, which does not give the complete evaluation
of student’s knowledge.
Keeping all these points in mind, the idea of preparing a question bank has
been generated. A question bank is a set of questions on a subject used either for
study review or for drawing questions used in an examination. It is readymade
collection of the questions that helps students and teachers in teaching learning
process. It is prepared for critical evaluation. It is a means of determining the
presence, quality and criticality of the subject. Thus, it can be said that the question
bank is a database of questions that can be shared among various courses. How
questions meet specific criteria to create assessments is important.
A good question bank:
• Tests student understanding of a subject
• Guides the student to learn a lesson deeply
• Develops questioning skill among students and higher level thinking
In a question bank, a number of questions are prepared from a single unit of a Psychological Testing
subject, maximum number of questions those can be prepared from a unit are prepared.
There may be many types of question papers:
• Bank of objective type questions
NOTES
• Bank of short answer questions
• Bank of essay type (descriptive) questions
• Bank of miscellaneous questions
These questions are prepared on the basis of difficulty level and discrimination
power to make these question banks more reliable and logical.
To prepare a question bank, you must:
1. Ensure that there are all types of questions- Objective type questions,
short-answer questions, long-answer questions, questions requiring illustrations,
diagrams etc. The main thing is that the question bank must be exhaustive as
far as the content coverage is concerned
2. Ensure that there are all level of questions- There must be all levels of
questions in a question bank. These levels pertain to complexity; from very
simple to very complex questions, in order to prepare the student fully for
examination
3. Ensure questions from previous years’ question papers- Sometimes,
examiners setting the papers use cryptic language to form questions to confuse
students. Students should know how to interpret the cryptic questions and
answer correctly. This can be achieved by offering them such questions from
old exam papers.
4. Provide answers at the end- A good question bank always contains answers
at the end. Otherwise there is no way for the student to confirm if he/she has
answered correctly. For mathematical problems or Physics numerical questions,
there need not be the entire solution, but just the final answer.
Differential Vs Uniform Evaluation
In evaluation situations, we tend to overlook the fact that there are individual
differences among students. We feel satisfied with using a uniform yardstick for all
students at a particular point of time. We do not usually take cognizance of the fact
that the rate of learning of different children may be different, the learning situations
may vary from class to class and student to student and resource inputs may not be
the same. Evaluation has to take care of and cater to the needs of such extensive
and intensive differences and promote self-paced learning by providing for individual
differences instead of prescribing uniform group evaluation.
Full Vs Partial Evaluation
Full evaluation must take into account all the three aspects i.e. cognitive, affective
and psycho-motor. The traditional system of examination evaluates only cognitive
abilities. Even in cognitive area external examinations often to do not go beyond the
Psychological Testing evaluation of memorisation or convergent thinking. These drawbacks can be overcome
through evaluation at the school level.
NOTES While developing assessment tools for classroom, certain issues should be addressed
in relation to the following:
• Purpose and impact: How should the assessment be used and how should
it impact the instruction and the selection of curriculum?
• Validity and fairness: Does it calculate what it intends to calculate?
• Reliability: Is the data that is to be collected reliable across applications
within the classroom, school and district?
• Significance: Does it address content and skills, which are to be valued by
and reflect current thinking in the field?
• Efficiency: Is the method of assessment consistent with the time available in
the classroom setting?
There is a huge range of assessments that are accessible for use in reforming
science assessment in the classroom. These types of assessments comprise strategies
that are traditional as well as alternative. The diverse types of alternative assessments
can be used with a range of science content and process skills, including the following
general targets:
• Declarative knowledge
• Conditional knowledge
• Procedural knowledge
• Application knowledge
• Problem solving
• Critical thinking
• Documentation
• Understanding
Assessment can be divided into three stages:
1. Baseline assessment: It establishes the ‘starting point’ of a student’s
understanding.
2. Formative assessment: It provides information to help guide the
instruction throughout the unit.
3. Summative assessment: It informs both the student and the teacher
about the level of conceptual understanding and performance capabilities
that a student achieves.
The huge range of targets and skills that can be addressed in classroom
assessment needs the use of many assessment formats. Some formats, and the
stages of assessment in which they most likely occur are shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Assessment Formats Psychological Testing
Format Nature/Purpose Stage

Baseline assessments Oral and written responses Baseline
based on individual
experience NOTES
Assess prior knowledge
Paper and pencil tests Multiple choice, short Formative
answer, essay, constructed
response, written reports
Assess students acquisition
of knowledge and concepts
Embedded assessments Assess an aspect of student Formative
learning in the context of
the learning experience
Oral reports Require communication by Formative
the student that
demonstrates scientific
understanding
Interviews Assess individual and Formative
group performance before,
during and after a science
experience
Performance tasks Require students to create Formative and
or take an action related to summative
a problem, issue or
scientific concept
Checklists Monitor and record Formative and
anecdotal information summative
Investigative projects Require students to explore Summative
a problem or concern stated
either by the teacher or the
students
Extended or unit Require the application of Summative
projects knowledge and skills in an
open-ended setting
Portfolios Assist students in the Formative and
process of developing and summative
reflecting on a purposeful
collection of student-
generated data
Oral exams
An oral exam is a chance for one to demonstrate their knowledge, their presentation/
speaking skills as well as their ability to communicate. These exams can be formal
or informal, but all exams should be considered formal exchanges for making a good
impression. For both types, you should listen carefully to the question and then answer
directly.
Psychological Testing Formal exams have a list of questions in a ready format. The criteria for
evaluation are usually set in a right/wrong format, and can at times be competitive.
For this kind of exam, if you wish to add ‘related’ or qualified information, first ask
permission as a basic courtesy.
NOTES Informal exams are mostly more open and your responses can be usually
longer and the evaluations can be more subjective. Answers are generally less exact
(right/wrong) and more value is added for problem solving analysis and method, as
well as interpersonal communication and presentation.
Written tests
Written tests are those tests that are given on paper or on a computer. A test taker
who takes a written test might respond to precise items by writing or typing inside a
given space of the test or on a separate form or document.
A test developer’s choice of what style or format to use while developing a
written test is generally random agreed that there is no solitary invariant standard
for testing. As a result, these tests might comprise only one test item format or might
have a combination of different test item formats.
Some common written test formats are:
• MCQs or Multiple Choice Questions- A statement or question is given
with five or six options and the respondent has to choose the correct answer
or answers, depending on the correct answers included. In general, besides
the correct answer/s, at least three incorrect answers are included to confuse
the respondent.
• Fill-in-the-blanks- A statement is given with some key words missing and
the respondent needs to provide the missing words.
• Short-answer questions- The respondent is asked to write brief answers,
which may include a definition, a short description, an example, a list, or to
draw a figure and so on.
• Long-answer questions- The respondent is asked to write descriptive, essay
type answers that require him or her to analyse and apply the concepts learned.
Open book examination
In an open book exam you are assessed on understanding instead on recall as well
as memorization.
You will be expected to do the following:
• Apply material to new situations
• Analyse elements and relationships
• Synthesize or structure
• Evaluate using your material as evidence
• Access to content varies by instructor
The exam can be taken home or in the classroom with questions that are
seen or unseen before exam time. You should not underestimate the preparation

needed for an open book exam and your time will be limited. So the key is proper Psychological Testing
organization in order to quickly find data, quotes, examples and/or arguments that
you use in your answers.
Preparation NOTES
• Keep current on readings and assignments in class
• Prepare brief and concise notes on ideas and concepts that are being tested
• Select carefully what you intend to bring with you to the exam, and note
anything significant about what you do not
• Include your own comments on the information that will provide value to your
arguments, and show that you have considered this through
• Anticipate with model questions but not model answers
• Instead challenge yourself with how would you answer questions and what
options or resources you might need to think.
Weightage in content
Table 3.4 points towards the diverse features of the content that are to be tested and
the weightage that is to be given to these aspects.
Table 3.4 Features of the Content that is to be Tested and Weighed
Sl. No Content Marks Percentage
1 Sub topic - 1 15 60
2 Sub topic - 2 10 40
Total 25 100
Reasons for stating objectives and aims

The statement of educational objectives and aims has numerous advantages. Some
of them are as follows:
• To assist teachers in planning the curriculum
• To convey the educational intent of the course to students and to the faculty
• To help recognize the resources needed to undertake the instruction process
• To provide a basis for evaluating the course, and a basis for the assurance of
quality
Aims, objectives and learning outcomes
All educational objectives can be understood in the following ways:
1. What the teacher intends to do?
2. What does it intend the student to learn, or what he or she will be able to learn
by gaining learning experience?

Psychological Testing Earlier, such purposes have often been defined in terms of the teacher’s
activity. This no longer suffices because the aims of teaching are required to be
defined in terms of the ultimate purpose, which is student learning.
It is, therefore, a consensus that for each teaching activity, there should be
NOTES two kinds of statement of intent:
Objectives (or learning outcomes as intended)
A number of specific statements explicating what it intends for the student to have
learnt or be able to do, as a result of the learning experience.
Hierarchy of aims and objectives
There are many situations in which aims and objectives can be spelt out. The success
and attainment of higher level aims will be dependent on the achievement of lower
level aims. The important question to ask is: ‘How will the aim and objective for this
individual teaching session help achieve the overall aims and objectives of the
course?’
Allocation of time
While group assignments help teachers save time in some areas (e.g., grading final
projects), they may lead to use time in other areas (e.g., time required up front to
reckon suitable project topics, interact with external clients, divide students in groups;
time during the semester to meet with and regulate student groups; time at the end
of the semester to determine the contributions made by individual team members.)
Exam blueprint
Once you understand the learning objectives and question types for your exam, you
should compose an exam blueprint. An exam blueprint may be structured in terms of
a chart that represents the number of questions that you think is desirable in your
exam within each topic and objective level. The blueprint states the learning objectives
and skills that the learners are to be tested for and the relative importance that must
be given to each. The blueprint also ensures that you cover the desired topics for
your assessment. Table 3.5 shows an example blueprint.
After you have composed your blueprint, start by writing questions that
correspond with the learning objective level for each topic area.
A blueprint specifies what the test should cover rather than describing what
the course syllabus covers. A test blueprint should have the test title, the fundamental
purpose of the test, the features of the curriculum that are covered by the test,
an indicator of the students who will take the test, the kinds of tasks that will be
used in the test (and how these tasks will correspond with other pertinent evidence
to be collected), the uses of the evidence provided by the test, the conditions
under which the test will be given (time, place, who will prepare the test, who will
score the answer sheets, how accuracy of scoring will be ensured, whether
students will be able to consult books (or use calculators) while attempting the
test, and any precautions that are to be taken so as to ensure that the responses

are only the work of the student attempting the test), and the balance of the Psychological Testing
questions.
Table 3.5 Exam Blueprint
NOTES
Topic I Topic II Topic III Topic IV Total
Knowledge 1 2 1 1 5
(12.5%)
Comprehension 2 1 2 2 7
(17.5%)
Application 4 4 3 4 15
(37.5%)
Analysis 3 2 3 2 10
(25%)
Synthesis 1 1 2
(5%)
Evaluation 1 1
(2.5%)
Total 10 10 10 10 40
(25%) (25%) (25%) (25%)

The semester system is basically a division of an academic year in two parts in
which an educational institution aims to complete the predefined course. Examinations
are conducted after the completion of one semester. The second semester is totally
independent of the first.
Characteristics of semester system
The characteristics of the semester system may be summarized as follows:

• A semester system divides the whole academic year into two terms,
approximately 16 to 18 weeks each.
• It is a very proactive system, engaging both the faculty and the students in
one or the other academic activity throughout the year.
• It does not allow the students to feel free most of the time as it does not allow
them to study only when examination is just round the corner as is the case in
the annual examination system.
• It keeps the students engaged throughout the year. However, it reduces
examination pressure also by dividing the year syllabus into parts.
• It assesses the students at short intervals and hence enhances their learning
skills by constantly informing them about their weaknesses.

Psychological Testing Limitations
The limitations of the semester system are as follows:
• Sometimes it may lead to create confusion among the students.
NOTES • Teachers may face the problem of increased frequency of examinations and
extended work load.
• Sometimes it may create a confusion among the students as to how things
are going to happen.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

6. What is NIOS?
7. What are the characteristics of a good question bank?
8. What are the three stages of assessment?
3.5 SUMMARY
• Intelligence of an individual or group of individuals is tested through various

types of tests which are called as intelligence test.
• Intelligence test can be studied by classifying on the basis of administration in
the following ways:
(i) Individual intelligence test
(ii) Group intelligence test
• Intelligence test can be studied by classifying on the basis of the nature of the
test
(i) Verbal intelligence test
(ii) Non-verbal intelligence test
(iii) Performance intelligence test
• There are many tests for measuring intelligence. They can be of three types
namely verbal, non-verbal and performance types.
• Some important tests of intelligence are given as follows:
ο Stanford–Binet test of intelligence
ο Wechsler–Belleve intelligence test
ο Thurstone’s test of primary mental abilities
ο Non-verbal test of intelligence (also known as Reven’s Progressive
Matrices)
ο Culture free intelligence test
ο Bhatia–battery performance test
• L.L. Thurstone states that an attitude ‘is the degree of positive and negative
affect associated with some psychological object’.

• Attitude may be classified into different categories like: Psychological Testing
o Acquisitive attitude
o Play attitude
o Scientific attitude
NOTES
o Business attitude
o Artistic attitude
o Religious attitude
• The determinants of attitude are:
o Cultural or social determinant
o Psychological determinants
o Functional determinants
• The methods to be followed for the measurement of attitude are:
(i) Thurstone Scale
(ii) Likert Scale
• According to G.W. Allport, ‘personality is the dynamic organization within
individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique
adjustment to his environment’.
• The term ‘project’ was used for the first time by Sigmund Freud in the field of
psychology. Projection, according to Freud means externalizing of conflicts
or other internal conditions that give rise to conscious pain and anxiety.
• Several methods of assessment and evaluation of learners are in use these
days, such as unit tests, half-yearly examinations, annual examinations,
semester system, board examinations and entrance tests.
3.6 KEY TERMS
• Attitude: It refers to a predisposition or a tendency to respond positively or

negatively towards a certain idea, object, person, or situation
• Personality: It refers to the combination of characteristics or qualities that
form an individual’s distinctive character.
• Projection: According to Freud, projection means the externalizing of conflicts
or other internal conditions that give rise to conscious pain and anxiety.
• Question bank: It refers to a set of questions on a subject used either for
study review or for drawing questions used in examination.
1. The classification of intelligence tests on the basis of administration is as

follows:
(i) Individual intelligence tests
(ii) Group intelligence tests
Psychological Testing 2. In a performance intelligence test, the subject is required to handle or
manipulate objects in such a way as to complete a specified task.
3. L.L. Thurstone states that an attitude is the degree of positive and negative
affect associated with some psychological object.
NOTES
4. Thurstone’s attitude scale is known as equal-appearing interval scale. In this
scale, both favourable and unfavourable statements regarding a particular
topic are reflected in an eleven point scale. The respondent is supposed to
check the point for each item according to his attitude. The median of the
judged locations for an item is its scale value. The scale position are very
much a function of the judges who are chosen.
5. The Rorschach inkblot test was developed by Swiss Psychiatrist Herman
Rorschach in 1921. The test consists of 10 symmetrical ink blots on 10 separate
cards of 11 × 9 inches. Five of the ink blots are black and white, and others
are multi-coloured. All the cards are given to the respondent at a time in a
sequence. After this, the examiners generally conduct inquiry into the details
of the subject’s response on individual cards. For the scoring purpose, the
responses are given specific symbols and entry is made into four columns:
location, contents, originality, and determinants.
6. NIOS is an ‘Open School’ to cater to the needs of a heterogeneous group of
learners up to pre-degree level. It was started as a project with in-built
flexibilities by the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) in 1979.
7. A good question bank:
• Tests student understanding of a subject
• Guides the student to learn a lesson deeply
• Develops questioning skill among students and higher lever thinking
8. Assessment can be divided into three stages:
1. Baseline assessment: It establishes the ‘starting point’ of a student’s
understanding.
2. Formative assessment: It provides information to help guide the instruction
throughout the unit.
3. Summative assessment: It informs both the student and the teacher
about the level of conceptual understanding and performance capabilities
that a student achieves.
1. Differentiate between individual intelligence test and group intelligence test.
2. Discuss how attitude can be measured.
3. What are some of the methods that are in use to evaluate learners?
4. What are open-book examinations? How can one prepare for them?
5. What is a semester system? Discuss its characteristics.
Long-Answer Questions Psychological Testing
1. What is attitude? Discuss its characteristics and types.

2. What is personality? What are its characteristics? Discuss its determinants.
3. Discuss some of the projective techniques of examining personality. NOTES
4. Discuss some of the major trends in examinations and evaluations seen in
recent times.
3.9 FURTHER READING

Green &Co.
Sons & Co.

Statistics in Measurement
UNIT 4 STATISTICS IN and Evaluation-I
MEASUREMENT AND
NOTES
EVALUATION-I
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit Objectives
4.2 Statistical Treatment of Data
4.2.1 Interpretation of Data
4.3 Frequency Distribution and Graphic Representation of Data
4.3.1 Presentation of Data in Sequence: Grouping, Tabulation and Graphical
Representation
4.4 Measures of Central Tendency and Variability
4.5 Co-efficient of Correlation
4.6 Percentile and Percentile Rank
4.7 Normal Probability Curve
4.8 Derived Scores (Z-score, Standard Score and T-score)
4.9 Summary
4.10 Key Terms
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you learnt about psychological testing. In this unit, the discussion
will turn towards statistics in measurement and evaluation. Statistics is science of
collecting and analysing numerical data in large quantities, particularly for the purpose
of inferring proportions in a whole from those in a representative sample.
One can analyse quantitative data through techniques such as measures of
central tendency. Measures of central tendency are of various types, such as
arithmetic mean, mode and median. This is also commonly known as simply the
mean. Even though average, in general, means any measure of central location,
when we use the word average in our daily routine, we always mean the arithmetic
average.
4.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

• Discuss how data is interpreted
• Describe how data is represented graphically
Statistics in Measurement • Discuss the different measures of central tendency
and Evaluation-I
• Illustrate how mean, mode, and median can be calculated
• Explain correlation analysis
NOTES • Describe normal probability curve
4.2 STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA
Meaning, importance and steps involved in processing data

Research does not merely consist of data that is collected. Research is incomplete
without proper analysis of the collected data. Processing of data involves analysis
and manipulation of the collected data by performing various functions. The data
has to be processed in accordance with the outline laid down at the time of developing
the research plan. Processing of data is essential for ensuring that all relevant data
has been collected to perform comparisons and analyses. The functions that can be
performed on data are as follows:
• Editing
• Coding
• Tabulation
• Classification
Usually, experts are of the opinion that the exercise of processing and analysing
of data is inter-related. Therefore, the two should be thought as one and the same
thing. It is argued that analysis of data generally involves a number of closely-
related operations, which are carried out with the objective of summarizing the
collected data and organizing it in such a way that they are able to answer the
research questions associated with it.
However, in technical terms, processing of data involves data representation
in a way that it is open to analysis. Similarly, the analysis of data is defined as the
computation of certain measures along with searching for the patterns of relationship
that may exist among data groups.
Editing of data
Editing of data involves the testing of data collection instruments in order to ensure
maximum accuracy. This includes checking the legibility, consistency and
completeness of the data. The editing process aims at avoiding equivocation and
ambiguity. The collected raw data is also examined to detect errors and omissions, if
any. A careful scrutiny is performed on the completed questionnaires and schedules
to assure that the data has the following features:
• Accuracy
• Consistency
• Unity
• Uniformity
• Effective arrangement
The stages at which editing should be performed can be classified as follows: Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
• Field Editing: This involves reviewing the reporting forms, by the
investigator, that are written in an abbreviated or illegible form by the
informant at the time of recording the respondent’s responses. Such type
of editing must be done immediately after the interview. If performed NOTES
after some time, such editing becomes complicated for the researcher, as
it is difficult to decipher any particular individual’s writing style. The
investigator needs to be careful while field editing and restrain the
researcher from correcting errors or omission by guesswork.
• Central Editing: This kind of editing involves a thorough editing of the
entire data by a single editor or a team of editors. It takes place when all
the schedules created according to the research plan have been completed
and returned to the researcher. Editors correct the errors such as data
recorded in the wrong place or the data recorded in months when it should
be recorded in weeks. They can provide an appropriate answer to incorrect
or missing replies by reviewing the other information in the schedule. At
times, the respondent can be contacted for clarification. In some cases, if
the answer is inappropriate or incomplete and an accurate answer cannot
be determined on any basis, then the editor should delete or remove that
answer from the collected data. He/She can put a note as ‘no answer’ in
this case. The answers that can be easily deciphered as wrong should be
dropped from the final results.
Besides using the above-stated methods according to the data source, the
researcher should also keep in mind the following points while editing:
• Familiarity with the instructions given to interviewers and coders
• Know-how of editing instructions
• Single line striking for deleting of an original entry
• Standardized and distinctive editing of data
• Initialization of all answers that are changed
Coding of data
Coding of data can be defined as representing the data symbolically using some
predefined rules. Once data is coded and summarized, the researcher can analyse it
and relationships can be found among its various categories.
Checklist for coding
This enables the researcher to classify the responses of the individuals according to
a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should possess the following
important characteristics:
• Classes should be appropriate and in accordance to the research problem
under consideration.
• They must include a class for every data element.
• There should be a mutual exclusivity, which means that a specific answer
can be placed in one and only one cell of a given category set.
Statistics in Measurement • The classes should be one-dimensional. This means that every class is defined
and Evaluation-I
in terms of only one concept.
Significance of Coding
NOTES Coding of data is necessary for its efficient analysis. Codiing facilitates reduction of
data from a variety to a small number of classes. Thus, only that information which
is important and critical for analysis is retained in the research. Coding decisions are
usually taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire. This makes it possible to
pre-code the questionnaire choices, which in turn, is helpful for computer tabulation.
However, in case of hand coding, some standard method should be used.
One such method is to code in the margin with a coloured pencil. The other method
is to transcribe data from the questionnaire to a coding sheet. Whatever method is
adopted, you should ensure that coding errors are altogether eliminated or reduced
to a minimum level.
Classification of Data
Research studies involve extensive collection of raw data and usage of the data to
implement the research plan. To make the research plan easier, the data needs to be
classified in different groups for understanding the relationship among the different
phases of the research plan. Classification of data involves arrangement of data in
groups or classes on the basis of some common characteristics. The methods of
classification can be divided under the following two headings:
• Classification according to attributes
• Classification according to class intervals
Figure 4.1 shows the categories of data.
Data According
According
To Classification To
Attributes Class
Intervals
 DESCRIPTIVE
CLASSIFICATION
 EXCLUSIVE
 SIMPLE CLASS-INTERVALS
CLASSIFICATION
 MANIFOLD  INCLUSIVE
CLASSIFICATION CLASS-INTERVALS
Fig. 4.1 Data Classification
Classification of data according to attributes

Data is classified on the basis of similar features as follows:
• Descriptive classification: This classification is performed according to
114 Self-Instructional Material the qualitative features and attributes which cannot be measured quantitatively.
These features can be either present or absent in an individual or an element. Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
The features related to descriptive classification of attributes can be literacy,
sex, honesty, solidarity, etc.
• Simple classification: In this classification the elements of data are
categorized on the basis of those that possess the concerned attribute and NOTES
those that do not.
• Manifold classification: In this classification two or more attributes are
considered simultaneously and the data is categorized into a number of classes
on the basis of those attributes. The total number of classes of final order is
given by 2n, where n = number of attributes considered.
Classification of data according to class intervals
Classifying data according to the class intervals is a quantitative phenomenon. Class
intervals help categorize the data with similar numerical characteristics, such as
income, production, age, weight, etc. Data can be measured through some statistical
tools like mean, mode, median, etc. The different categories of data according to
class intervals are as follows:
• Statistics of variables: This term refers to the measurable attributes, as
these typically vary over time or between individuals. The variables can be
discrete, i.e., taking values from a countable or finite set, continuous, i.e.,
having a continuous distribution function, or neither. This concept of variable
is widely utilized in the social, natural and medical sciences.
• Class intervals: They refer to a range of values of a variable. This interval
is used to break up the scale of the variable in order to tabulate the frequency
distribution of a sample. A suitable example of such data classification can be
given by means of categorizing the birth rate of a country. In this case, babies
aged zero to one year will form a group; those aged two to five years will
form another group, and so on. The entire data is thus categorized into several
numbers of groups or classes or in other words, class intervals. Each class
interval has an upper limit as well as a lower limit, which is defined as ‘the
class limit.’ The difference between two class limits is known as class
magnitude. Classes can have equal or unequal class magnitudes.
The number of elements, which come under a given class, is called the
frequency of the given class interval. All class intervals, with their respective
frequencies, are taken together and described in a tabular form called the
frequency distribution.
Problems related to classification of data
The problems related to classification of data on the basis of class intervals are
divided into the following three categories:
(i) Number of classes and their magnitude: There are differences regarding
the number of classes into which data can be classified. As such, there are no
pre-defined rules for the classification of data. It all depends upon the skill

Statistics in Measurement and experience of the researcher. The researcher should display the data in
and Evaluation-I
such a way that it should be clear and meaningful to the analyst.
As regards the magnitude of classes, it is usually held that class intervals
should be of equal magnitude, but in some cases unequal magnitudes may
NOTES result in a better classification. It is the researcher’s objective and judgement
that plays a significant role in this regard. In general, multiples of two, five
and ten are preferred while determining class magnitudes. H.A. Sturges
suggested the following formula to determine the size of class interval:
=i R /(1 + 3.3 log N )
where,
i = size of class interval.
R = Range (difference between the values of the largest element and smallest
element among the given elements).
N = Number of items to be grouped.
Sometimes, data may contain one or two or very few elements with very high
or very low values. In such cases, the researcher can use an open-ended
interval in the overall frequency distribution. Such intervals can be expressed
below two years; or twelve years and above. However, such intervals are
not desirable, yet cannot be avoided.
(ii) Choice of class limits: While choosing class limits, the researcher must
determine the mid-point of a class interval. A mid-point is, generally, derived
by taking the sum of the upper and lower limit of a class and then dividing it
by two. The actual average of elements of that class interval should remain
as close to each other as possible. In accordance with this principle, the class
limits should be located at multiples of two, five, ten, twenty and hundred and
such other figures. The class limits can generally be stated in any of the
following forms:
o Exclusive type class intervals: These intervals are usually stated as
follows:
• 10–20
• 20–30
• 30–40
• 40–50
These intervals should be read in the following way:
• 10 and under 20
• 20 and under 30
• 30 and under 40
• 40 and under 50
In the exclusive type of class intervals, the elements whose values are
equal to the upper limit of a class are grouped in the next higher class. For
example, an item whose value is exactly thirty would be put in 30–40-
class interval and not in 20–30-class interval. In other words, an exclusive
116 Self-Instructional Material type of class interval is that in which the upper limit of a class interval is
excluded and items with values less than the upper limit, but not less than Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
the lower limit, are put in the given class interval.
o Inclusive Type Class Intervals: These intervals are normally stated as
follows:
• 11–20 NOTES
• 21–30
• 31–40
• 41–50
This should be read as follows:
• 11 and under 21
• 21 and under 31
• 31 and under 41
• 41 and under 51
In this method, the upper limit of a class interval is also included in the
concerning class interval. Thus, an element whose value is twenty will be
put in 11–20-class interval. The stated upper limit of the class interval 11–
20 is twenty but the real upper limit is 20.999999 and as such 11–20 class
interval really means eleven and under twenty-one. When data to be
classified happens to be a discrete one, then the inclusive type of
classification should be applied. But when data happens to be a continuous
one, the exclusive type of class intervals can be used.
(iii) Determining the frequency of each class: The frequency of each class
can be determined using tally sheets or mechanical aids. In tally sheets, the
class groups are written on a sheet of paper and for each item a stroke (a
small vertical line) is marked against the class group in which it falls. The
general practice is that after every four small vertical lines in a class group,
the fifth line for the element falling in the same group is indicated as a diagonal
line through the above said four lines. This enables the researcher to perform
the counting of elements in each one of the class groups. Table 4.1 displays a
hypothetical tally sheet.
Table 4.1 A Tally Sheet
In case of large inquiries and surveys, class frequencies can be determined

by means of mechanical aids, i.e., with the help of machines. Such machines function,
either manually or automatically and run on electricity. These machines can sort out
Statistics in Measurement cards at a speed of around 25,000 cards per hour. Although this method increases
and Evaluation-I
the speed, it is an expensive method.
Tabulation of data
NOTES In simple terms, tabulation means placing the results and data collected from research
in a tabular form.
Methods of tabulation
Tabulation can be done either manually or mechanically using various electronic
devices. Several factors like the size and type of study, cost considerations, time
pressures and availability of tabulating machines decide the choice of tabulation.
Relatively large data requires computer tabulation. Manual tabulation is preferred in
case of small inquiries, when the number of questionnaires is small and they are of
relatively short length. The different methods used in hand tabulation are as follows:
• Direct tally method: This method involves simple codes, which the
researcher can use to directly tally data with the questionnaire. The codes
are written on a sheet of paper called tally sheet and for each response, a
stroke is marked against the code in which it falls. Usually, after every four
strokes against a particular code, the fifth response is indicated by drawing a
diagonal or horizontal line through the strokes. These groups are easy to
count and the data is sorted against each code conveniently.
• List and tally method: In this method, code responses may be transcribed
into a large worksheet, allowing a line for each questionnaire. This facilitates
listing of a large number of questionnaires in one worksheet. Tallies are then
made for each question.
• Card sort method: This is the most flexible hand tabulation method, where
the data is recorded on special cards that are of convenient sizes and shapes
and have a series of holes. Each hole in the card stands for a code. When the
cards are stacked, a needle passes through a particular hole representing a
particular code. These cards are then separated and counted. In this way,
frequencies of various codes can be found out by the repetition of this
technique.
Significance of tabulation
Tabulation enables the researcher to arrange data in a concise and logical order. It
summarizes the raw data and displays the same in a compact form for further
analysis. It helps in the orderly arrangement of data in rows and columns. The
various advantages of tabulation of data are as follows:
• A table saves space and reduces descriptive and explanatory statements to
the minimum.
• It facilitates and eases the comparison process.
• Summation of elements and detection of omissions and errors becomes easy
in a tabular description.
• A table provides a basis for various statistical computations.
Checklist for tables Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
A table should communicate the required information to the reader in such a way
that it becomes easy for him/her to read, comprehend and recall information when
required. Certain conventions have to be followed during tabulation of data. These NOTES
are as follows:
• All tables should have a clear, precise and adequate title to make them
intelligible enough without any reference to the text.
• Tables should be featured with clarity and readability.
• Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate an easy reference.
• The table should be of an appropriate size and tally with the required
information.
• Headings for columns and rows should be in bold font letters. It is a general
rule to include an independent variable in the left column or the first row. The
dependent variable is contained in the bottom row or the right column.
• Numbers should be displayed such that they are neat and readable.
• Explanatory footnotes, if any, regarding the table should be placed directly
beneath the table, along with the reference symbols used in the table.
• The source of the table should be indicated just below the table.
• The table should contain thick lines to separate data under one class from the
data under another class and thin lines to separate the different subdivisions
of the classes.
• All column figures should be properly aligned.
• Abbreviations should be avoided in a table to the best possible extent.
• If data happens to be large, then it should not be crowded in a single table. It
makes the table unwieldy and inconvenient.
Tabulation can also be classified as complex and simple. The former type of
tabulation gives information about one or more groups of independent variables,
whereas, the latter shows the division of data in two or more categories.
Use of statistical tools for analysis
A researcher needs to be familiar with different statistical methods so as to be able
to use the appropriate method in his research study. There are certain basic statistical
methods that can be classified into the following three groups:
• Descriptive statistics
• Inferential statistics
• Measures of central tendency and dispersion
Descriptive statistics
According to Smith, descriptive statistics is the formulation of rules and procedures
where data can be placed in a useful and significant order. The foundation of
applicability of descriptive statistics is the need for complete data presentation. The
most important and general methods used in descriptive statistics are as follows:
• Ratio: This indicates the relative frequency of the various variables to one
another.
Statistics in Measurement • Percentage: Percentages (%) can be derived by multiplying a ratio with
and Evaluation-I
100. It is thus a ratio representing a standard unit of 100.
• Frequency table: It is a means to tabulate the rate of recurrence of data.
Data arranged in such a manner is known as distribution. In case of a large
NOTES distribution tendency, larger class intervals are used. This facilitates the
researcher to acquire a more orderly system.
• Histogram: It is the graphical representation of a frequency distribution table.
The main advantage of graphical representation of data in the form of histogram
is that data can be interpreted immediately.
• Frequency polygon: It is used for the representation of data in the form of
a polygon. In this method, a dot that represents the highest score is placed in
the middle of the class interval. A frequency polygon is derived by linking
these dots. An additional class is sometimes added in the end of the line with
the purpose of creating an anchor.
• Cumulative frequency curve: The procedure of frequency involves adding
frequency by starting from the bottom of the class interval, and adding class
by class. This facilitates the representation of the number of persons that
perform below the class interval. The researcher can derive a curve from the
cumulative frequency tables with the purpose of reflecting data in a graphical
manner.
Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics enable researchers to explore unknown data. Researchers can
make deductions or statements using inferential statistics with regard to the broad
population from which samples of known data has been drawn. These methods are
called inferential or inductive statistics. These methods include the following common
techniques:
• Estimation: It is the calculated approximation of a result, which is usable,
even if the input data may be incomplete or uncertain. It involves deriving the
approximate calculation of a quantity or a degree. For example, drawing an
estimate of cost of a project; or deriving a rough idea of how long the project
will take.
• Prediction: It is a statement or claim that a particular event will surely occur
in future. It is based on observation, experience and a scientific reasoning of
what will happen in the given circumstances or situations.
• Hypothesis Testing: Hypothesis is a proposed explanation whose validity
can be tested. Hypothesis testing attempts to validate or disprove preconceived
ideas. In creating hypothesis, one thinks of a possible explanation for a
remarked behaviour. The hypothesis dictates that the data selected should be
analysed for further interpretations.
There are also two chief statistical methods based on the tendency of data to
cluster or scatter. These methods are known as measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion. You will learn about these in the subsequent section.

4.2.1 Interpretation of Data Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
Analysis of data is the process of transformation of data for the purpose of extracting
some useful information, which in turn facilitates the discovery of some useful
conclusions. Finding conclusions from the analysed data is known as interpretation NOTES
of data. However, if the analysis is done, in the case of experimental data or survey,
then the value of the unknown parameters of the population and hypothesis testing is
estimated.
Analysis of data can be either descriptive or inferential. Inferential analysis is
also known as statistical analysis. The descriptive analysis is used to describe the
basic features of the data in a study, such as persons, work groups and organizations.
The inferential analysis is used to make inferences from the data, which means that
we are trying to understand some process and make some possible predictions
based on this understanding.
Types of analysis
The various types of analyses are as follows:
• Multiple Regression Analysis: This analysis is used to predict the single
dependent variable by a set of independent variables. In multiple regression
analysis, independent variables are not correlated.
• Multiple Discriminant Analysis: In multiple discriminant analysis, there is
one single dependent variable, which is very difficult to measure. One of the
main objectives of this type of analysis is to understand the group differences
and predict the likelihood that an entity, i.e., an individual or an object belongs
to a particular class or group based on several metric independent variables.
• Canonical Analysis: It is a method for assessing the relationship between
variables. This analysis also allows you to investigate the relationship between
the two sets of variables.
Univariate, Bivariate and Multivariate Analyse
There are also many types of analyses performed according to the variance that
exists in data. They are carried out to check if the differences among three or more
variables are so significant that data has to be evaluated statistically. There are
three types of such analyses; namely, univariate, bivariate and multivariate analyses.
These types are discussed as follows:
• Univariate Analysis: In this analysis, only a single variable is taken into
consideration. It is usually the first activity pursued while analysing data. It is
performed with the purpose of describing each variable in terms of mean,
median or mode, and variability. Examples of such analysis are averages or a
set of cases that may come under a specific category amidst a whole sample.
• Bivariate Analysis: This type of analysis examines the relationship between
two variables. It tries to find the extent of association that exists between
these variables. Thus, a bivariate analysis may help you, for example, to find
whether the variables of irregular meals and migraine headaches are
Statistics in Measurement associated. It may also help to find the extent to which they may be associated.
and Evaluation-I
Here, two variables are thus statistically measured simultaneously.
• Multivariate Analysis: This type of analysis involves observation and analysis
of three or more than three statistical variables at a time. Such an analysis is
NOTES performed using statistical tests or even a tabular format. Thus, for example,
using the multivariate analysis method, you can study the variables of age,
educational qualification and annual income of a given set of population at the
same time.
Usually, these types of analyses are more convenient when performed in a
tabular format. Multivariate analysis involves, using a cross-classification or
contingency table. Such a table is made of two columns and two rows, showing the
frequencies of two variables that are displayed in rows and columns. This is more
popularly known as constructing the bivariate table. Traditionally, the independent
variable is displayed in columns and the dependent one in rows. A multivariate table,
if related to the same data, is the result of combining the bivariate tables. In this
case, each bivariate table is known as a partial table. Usually, a multivariate table is
created with the purpose of explaining or replicating the primary relationship that is
found in the bivariate table. Table 4.2(a) and (b) shows an example of a bivariate
table and a multivariate table.
Table 4.2 (a) Bivariate Table
1991 1992 1993
Percentage of students 33 per cent 38 per cent 42 per cent

failed

passed
Table 4.2 (b) Multivariate Table
1991 1992 1993
First Attempt Second Attempt Third Attempt
Percentage of students 27 per cent 35 per cent –

who passed in Maths

who passed in English
Although the data in both tables is related, as the variable of attempts is

distinct, the multivariate table has been displayed separately in this example. However,
you should note that the tables have dealt simultaneously with two or more variables
of the data.
Data interpretation
Data interpretation refers to the identification of trends in different variables. The
researcher uses statistics for this purpose. The researcher is required to be familiar
122 Self-Instructional Material with the knowledge of the scales of measurement. This enables him/her to choose
the appropriate statistical method for his/her research project. The scales of Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
measurement facilitate the allotment of numerical values to characteristics adhering
to any specific rules. This measurement is also related to such levels of measurement
of data like nominal, ordinal and internal and ratio levels. These levels can be explained
as follows: NOTES
• Nominal measurement: The nominal measurement assigns a numerical
value to a specific characteristic. It is the fundamental form of measurement.
The nominal measurement calculates the lowest level of data available for
measurement.
• Ordinal measurement: This type of measurement involves allotting a specific
feature to a numerical value in terms of a specific order. The ordinal scale
displays the way in which the entity is measured. The ordinal scale of
measurement is used to calculate and derive data pertaining to the median,
percentage, rank order, correlations and percentile.
• Interval measurement: A researcher can depict the difference between
the first aspect of a data and its another aspect using this level of measurement.
The interval scale of measurement is useful for the researcher in several
ways. It can be applied to calculate arithmetic mean, averages, standard
deviations and to determine the correlation between different variables.
• Ratio measurement: In this method, there are fixed proportions (ratios)
between the numerical and the amount of the characteristics that it represents.
A researcher should remember while measuring the ratio levels that, there
exists a fixed zero point. The ratio level of measurement facilitates researchers
in determining if the aspects of ratio measurement possess any certain
characteristic. Almost any type of arithmetical calculations can be executed
using this scale of measurement.
The most important feature of any measuring scale is its reliability and validity,
which is explained as follows:
• Reliability: This term deals with accuracy. A scale measurement can be
said to be reliable, when it exactly measures only that which it is supposed
to measure. In other words, when the same researcher repeats a test,
i.e., with a different group but resembling the original group, he/she should
get the same results as the former.
• Validity: According to Leedy, validity is the assessment of the soundness
and the effectiveness of the measuring instrument. There are several
types of validity, which include the following:
o Content Validity: It deals with the accuracy with which an instrument
measures the factors or content of the course or situations of the research
study.
o Prognostic Validity: It depends on the possibility to make judgements
from results obtained by the concerned measuring instrument. The
judgement is future oriented.
o Simultaneous Validity: This involves comparison of one measuring
instrument with another; one that measures the same characteristic
and is available immediately. Self-Instructional Material 123
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What are the functions that can be performed on data?
NOTES 2. How can coding of data be defined?
3. What is descriptive statistics?
4. When is univariate analysis performed?
4.3 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND GRAPHIC

REPRESENTATION OF DATA
Data is referred to as recorded description of the observations of an individual or

group of individuals. Examples of data may be the marks of students achieved on
any test, recorded observation regarding the availability of various types of flowers
in the park, recorded rates of various types of vegetables available in the local
market, prices of different types of laptop made by various companies, etc.
Data may be collected from the following two important sources:
1. External sources: It may be divided into the following three categories:
(i) Primary sources: These are the sources, which are original in
nature, i.e., the data is collected from the real object regarding
which the research is going on.
(ii) Secondary sources: These are the sources that use data collected
through the primary sources.
(iii) Tertiary sources: These sources filter data from secondary
sources.
2. Internal sources: The data collected or created by the organization
itself are called internal sources. Large organizations generally create
its own data. For example, the Central government generates or collects
large volume of data on population through census, data related to
enrolment of students in various levels of schooling, literacy rate at
states and national levels and so on. All reports submitted by various
committees and commissions of government constitute internal data.
Nature of Data
Data may be numerical like 2, 4, 150 and 6, and so on, or categorical, for example,
republican, democrat, etc. As there is no hierarchy in the categories, it is not ordinal
in nature. Numerical data may be discrete or continuous in nature. The discrete data
is created either from a finite number or a countable number of possible values. On
the other hand, continuous data is created from infinite number of possible values,
which may be presented in the form of points on a continuous scale having no gaps
or interruptions on it.
In other words, it may be said that the discrete data can be counted whereas
continuous data cannot be counted. Some of the examples of discrete data are
numbers of cars or motorcycles in the parking, fatal airline accidents occurred in Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
India, number of enrolled students in a course, cows grazing in a field, etc. As all
these can be counted, these data can be called discrete data. Examples of continuous
data are weight of a person, height of an individual or a child, speed of a car,
temperature measured by thermometer, quantity of water coming out of tape, etc. NOTES
All these data cannot be measured with absolute precision.
Numerical data may be classified into cardinal and ordinal. In cardinal data,
the absolute difference between the given two numbers is meaningful (e.g., 10
miles, 8 miles, 6 miles, 2 miles). Notice that there is a difference of two miles
between the first two numbers i.e. 10 miles and 8 miles. It may be said that 10 miles
is one and a quarter times more than the 8 miles, similarly, 6 miles is 2 times more
that 2 miles. The ordinal data gives a comparative picture among its various values.
In this case, the absolute difference between two numbers can only convey order
and not the absolute difference as that of cardinal data. For example, P is either
larger than Q, or equal to Q or less than Q.
Scales of measurement
Measurement is the process of assigning numbers or symbols or grades to objects
or events in a well-designed manner. There are four scales of measurements, listed
as follows:
1. Nominal scale
2. Ordinal scale
3. Interval scale
4. Ratio scale
1. Nominal scale: Statistically, this scale is the lowest measurement scale or
level used by us in data analysis. In nominal scale, we simply place data into
various categories. It has no order or structure. For example, the Yes/No or
True/False scale used in data collection and analysis is nominal scale in which
there are two categories. It does not have any order and there is no distance
between these two categories, i.e., YES and NO as well as between True
and False. The statistics, which we can apply with the data collected or
available in nominal scales are put in the non-parametric group. Examples
that come into the category of non-parametric group are mode, cross tabulation
with chi-square, etc.
2. Ordinal scale: This scale comes next to the nominal scale in terms of power
of measurement. Ranking is the simplest ordinal scale. In ordinal scale, place
the given data into various categories in terms of rank or power or considering
some particular trait or value or quality. For example, when you rank the
given five types of fruits from most tasty to least tasty depending on our own
taste or depending upon some predetermined criteria, you are basically
creating an ordinal scale of preference with regard to the taste of given
fruits. There is never an absolute or objective distance between any two
points or rank in this scale. It is subjective in nature and varies from person to
person. Ordinal scales interpret gross order only and not the relative positional
Statistics in Measurement distances between or among various ranks. This scale uses non-parametric
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statistics for analysis and interpretation of the data. Some of the examples of
statistics used for this scale are as follows:
a. Median and mode
NOTES b. Rank order correlation
c. Non-parametric analysis of variance
3. Interval scale: This scale assumes and keeps an equal distance between
two consecutive points or elements being presented on the scales of
measurement. This is the scale in which the interpretation of differences in
the distance along the scale is possible and comprehendible. It is different
from an ordinal scale. In ordinal scale, you can only present differences in
order of the various categories or points but not the differences in the degree
of the order. In interval scales, you can define by metrics such as logarithms.
In all these cases, the distances between various points on the sale are not
equal but they are strictly definable based on the metric system used. In
interval scale, parametric statistical techniques are used for data analysis.
Some of the examples of the statistics used are as follows:
• Mean
• Standard deviation
• Correlation – r
• Regression
• Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
• Factor analysis
• Full range of advanced multivariate and modeling techniques
Note: You can use non-parametric techniques with interval as well as ratio
data, but non-parametric tests are less powerful than the parametric tests.
4. Ratio scale: The ratio scale is the top level scale of measurement. It is
generally not available in the field of social science research. One of the most
important salient features of ratio scale is that it has a true zero point. The
simplest and easily comprehensible example of ratio scale is the measurement
of distance or length (disregarding any philosophical points about the method
of defining and identifying zero distance). It may be differentiated from that
of the interval and ratio scale in an easy way. For example, the centigrade
scale of temperature has a zero point, which is arbitrary in nature. Fahrenheit
scale has an equivalent of this point at -32o (0 o in centigrade scale is equal to
-32o in Fahrenheit scale). Hence, even though temperature appears to be in
ratio scale, in reality, it is an interval scale. Similar to the interval scale data,
ratio scale data also uses parametric statistical techniques. The examples of
these techniques are as follows:
• Mean
• Standard deviation
• Correlation – r
• Regression
• Analysis of variance (ANOVA) Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
• Factor analysis
• Full range of advanced multivariate and modeling techniques
4.3.1 Presentation of Data in Sequence: Grouping, Tabulation NOTES
and Graphical Representation
After the collection of data, it requires to be presented in a systematic form so that
it can be managed properly. Raw data gives no full meaning until it is arranged
properly; hence, it is very important to present data in arranged form. There are two
methods of presenting data. These are:
1. Grouping or tabular presentation
2. Graphical and diagrammatic presentation
Grouping and Tabulation of Data
Grouping and tabular presentation of data refers to the presentation of data in tables
in a systematic organization of groups, i.e., in rows and columns.
Raw data
The mass of data in its original form as collected from the field or through experiment
is called as raw data. This is the data that have not been arranged in any numerical
form. It is simply collected data and have not been treated at all. Each single item in
the raw data may be in the form of score, value, number, grade, observation, etc. An
example of raw data is given here. This data depicts the scores of students of class
IX on a test in English language having maximum marks of 20.
13, 12, 13, 12, 11, 14, 12, 11, 12, 15, 14, 10, 14, 13, 12, 13, 13, 12, 10, 11, 11, 12, 13, 14,
11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 12.
Array
When the mass of collected raw data is arranged in an order of magnitude, may be
in increasing or decreasing order, it is called as an array. The preceding raw data is
arranged in the following array:
10, 10, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 14,
14, 14, 14, 14, 15, and 15.
Frequency distribution
The commonest way of organizing raw data is to form a frequency distribution. It
may be done in the form of tally mark and frequencies (Table 4.3) and grouped
frequency distribution (Table 4.4).
In tally marks and frequency table (Table 4.4) just fill the numbers in column
1 in ascending or descending order. Fill tally marks in the second column for all
numbers or scores equivalent to the numbers it appears in the distribution. Tally
mark for the score five may be shown by drawing four lines and crossing it. Write
the total frequency of that score in the third column. This type of frequency distribution
is used when the data is small in size.
Statistics in Measurement Table 4.3 Tally Marks and Frequencies
and Evaluation-I
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
NOTES Score Tally Mark Frequency (f)
10 // 2
11 ///// 5
12 ///// //// 9
13 ///// // 7
14 ///// 5
15 // 2
Total N = 30
When the amount of data is largle, it is useful to group data into classes or
class intervals or categories as shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Grouped Frequency Distribution
Marks Obtained (Class Interval) Frequency (f)
10-11 7
12-13 16
14-15 7
Total N = 30
The chief advantage of grouped frequency is that it gives a clear picture of

overall distribution of scores or values. Classes should not be either too many or too
few. Ideally it should vary from 5 to 20. Too many class intervals tend to destroy the
patterns of distribution; on the other hand, too few classes will destroy much of the
detail present in the raw data.
Classification of data
It is the process of arranging the data according to some common characteristics
possessed by the item constituting the data. The main purpose of classifying data is
to condense it.
In Table 4.4, the second class interval or category is 12-13. The end numbers
of this class are 12 and 13 which are called the class limits for this class. 12 is the
lower class limit whereas 13 is the upper class limit. Similarly, in all class intervals,
there are always lower and upper class limits.

Class boundaries Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
In Table 4.4, the second class interval 12-13 theoretically includes the scores 11.5
and 13.5. These scores are called lower class boundary and upper class boundary,
respectively, for the second class. For any class interval, the class boundaries may
be determined by adding the upper class limit of one class to the lower class limit of NOTES
the next class and dividing the sum by 2.
Example 4.1: For the second class in Table 4.4,
lower class boundary = (11+12)/2 =23/2 = 11.5
The upper class boundary = (13+14)/2 = 27/2 =13.5
Width or class size of a given class limit or class interval
Width or class size is the difference between the lower class boundary and the
upper class boundary.
Width or class size of class limit = Upper class boundary – Lower class boundary
For the second class interval in Table 4.4, width or class size = 13.5-11.5 = 2.
Number of classes
The number of the classes for the given data is determined on the basis of:
• The number of items in the series. If the items are large, the number of
classes will be more and if the items are few, the numbers of classes will be
few.
• The range is the difference between the highest and lowest value in the
distribution. Higher the range, more is the number of class interval.
Actual class interval
Actual class interval is the size of class interval in a frequency distribution, which is
the distance from one lower limit to the next lower limit. Stated limits and actual
limits for Table 4.4 is presented in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5 Actual or real class limit
Stated limit Real limit
10-11 9.5-11.5
12-13 11.5-13.5
14-15 13.5-15.5
Midpoints of class intervals

A midpoint of class interval is the point exactly halfway between the upper and
lower real limits and can be calculated by dividing the sum of the upper and lower
limits by 2. For example,

Statistics in Measurement Mid point of class interval 14-15 = (14+15)/2=29/2=14.5
and Evaluation-I
Or (13.5 + 15.5)/2 = 29/2 = 14.5
Cumulative frequency Distribution
NOTES At times, the investigator needs to know the number of observations or scores
below a certain specific limit or point in the distribution. This is done with the help of
a cumulative frequency distribution. To develop a cumulative frequency distribution
just add one more column to Table 4.5 and give the heading to this column as
cumulative frequency as shown in Table 4.6. While filling the cumulative frequency
of any class interval just add all the frequencies of previous class intervals in the
frequency of this particular class interval. The cumulative frequency of the last
class interval will always be equal to the total size of the data or total frequency or
N.
Table 4.6 Cumulative Frequency Distribution
Marks Obtained Frequency (f) Cumulative
(Class Interval) frequency (Cf)
10-11 7 7
12-13 16 23
14-15 7 30
Total N = 30
Graphical Representation of Data

Data can also be presented through charts and graphs to make it more attractive
and informative and easily understandable. The data presented in this form are also
visually more dramatic than frequency distribution. These means of presenting data
are useful for conveying an impression of the overall shape of a distribution and
highlighting any clustering of cases or values in a particular range of scores.
Types of graphical representation of data: There are various types of graphical
representation of data; some of them are as follows:
• Histogram
• Frequency polygon
• Frequency curve
• Cumulative Prequency or ogive
• Histogram: Histogram is a diagram used to present a frequency distribution.
It consists of a set of elongated rectangles, which represent frequencies of
the various classes. If all the classes are of the same width, then all the Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
rectangles will also have the same width. The frequencies are then represented
by the heights of the rectangles.
Using histogram is appropriate for the data or frequencies given in continuous
interval scale. The following steps may be followed to construct a histogram from a NOTES
Step 1: Plot the given class interval or scores along the X axis using the real class
limits.
Step 2: Plot frequencies along the Y axis.
Step 3: For each category given in the frequency distribution, construct a bar with
heights corresponding to the number of cases in the category and with width
corresponding to the real limits of the class intervals.
Step 4: Label each axis of the graph properly.
Step 5: Give the title or heading to the graph.
• Frequency polygon: This is another way of representing frequency
distribution in the form of a graph. To present frequency distribution first of
all draw histogram as discussed earlier and then join the mid point of all the
tops of the rectangles. A frequency polygon is essentially a line graph of the
• Frequency curve: A frequency curve is a smooth and free hand curve for
the graphical representation of the frequency distribution. The objective of
drawing it is to eliminate the accidental variables that may be present in the
data. Frequency curve is not a closed curve. It is drawn in the same way as
that of the frequency polygon except drawing the rectangle in the graph. Just
draw points where the class interval or its midpoints and its frequency meet
and join all points with a line.
• Cumulative frequency curve or ogives: For the construction of cumulative
frequency curve, first develop the cumulative frequency distribution. The
cumulative frequency curves or ogives are drawn along X and Y axis in
which cumulative frequency is shown on Y axis and the class interval is
shown on the X axis. A line graph in the form of curve is plotted connective
the cumulative frequencies corresponding to the upper boundaries of the
classes. Some examples for graphical representation have been given here.
For convenience, graph paper has been used in certain examples.
Example 4.2: Construct a histogram for the following frequency distribution:

Statistics in Measurement Solution: Histogram is constructed as follows:
and Evaluation-I
NOTES
Histogram of Given Frequency
Example 4.3: The marks of 52 students are recorded here. Draw a frequency
polygon for this data.
Solution: Frequency polygon is as follows:
Frequency Polygon for Marks
Example 4.4: Suppose the heights of twenty students in inches are:

60, 68, 69, 64, 68, 67, 68, 69, 77, 69, 69, 72, 69, 65, 65, 68, 64, 71, 74, 74
The variable is height. The sample size is n = 20. The mean and the median are both Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
about 68.5 inches. The standard deviation is about 3.9 inches. Draw a frequency
histogram.
Solution: The following is a frequency histogram for the height data:
NOTES
Frequency Histogram for the Height Data
By drawing a smooth curve over the preceding histogram, the following

frequency curve is obtained:
Frequency Curve for the Height Data
Example 4.5: Draw a ‘less than’ ogive curve for the following data:
Solution: Plot the points with coordinates having abscissae as actual limits and
ordinates as the cumulative frequencies: (10, 2), (20, 10), (30, 22), (40, 40), (50, 68),
Statistics in Measurement (60, 90), (70, 96) and (80, 100) as the coordinates of the points. Joining the points
and Evaluation-I
plotted by a smooth curve forms the ogive.
NOTES
‘Less than’ Ogive Curve
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

5. What is meant by measurement?
6. What is array?
7. How will you differentiate between numerical and cardinal data?
4.4 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND

VARIABILITY
There are several commonly used measures of central tendency, such as arithmetic
mean, mode and median. These values are very useful not only in presenting the
overall picture of the entire data but also for the purpose of making comparisons
among two or more sets of data.
As an example, questions like ‘How hot is the month of June in Delhi?’ can
be answered, generally by a single figure of the average for that month. Similarly,
suppose we want to find out if boys and girls at age 10 years differ in height for the
purpose of making comparisons. Then, by taking the average height of boys of that
age and average height of girls of the same age, we can compare and record the
differences.
While arithmetic mean is the most commonly used measure of central location,
mode and median are more suitable measures under certain set of conditions and
for certain types of data. However, each measure of central tendency should meet
the following requisites :
1. It should be easy to calculate and understand.
2. It should be rigidly defined. It should have only one interpretation so
that the personal prejudice or bias of the investigator does not affect its
usefulness.
3. It should be representative of the data. If it is calculated from a sample, Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
then the sample should be random enough to be accurately representing
the population.
4. It should have sampling stability. It should not be affected by sampling
fluctuations. This means that if we pick 10 different groups of college NOTES
students at random and compute the average of each group, then we
should expect to get approximately the same value from each of these
groups.
5. It should not be affected much by extreme values. If few very small or
very large items are present in the data, they will unduly influence the
value of the average by shifting it to one side or other, so that the average
would not be really typical of the entire series. Hence, the average
chosen should be such that it is not unduly affected by such extreme
values.
Meaning of the Measures of Central Tendency
If the progress scores of the students of a class are taken and they are arranged in
a frequency distribution, we may sometime find that there are very few students
who either score very high or very low. The marks of most of the student will lie
somewhere between the highest and the lowest scores of the whole class. This
tendency of a group about distribution is named as central tendency and typical
score that lies in between the extremes and shared by most of the students is referred
to as a measure of central tendency. Tate in 1955 defined the measures of central
tendency as, ‘A sort of average or typical value of the items in the series and its
function is to summarize the series in terms of this average value.’
The most common measures of central tendency are:
1. Arithmetic Mean or Mean
2. Median
3. Mode
Let us consider the three measures of central tendency.
I. Arithmetic Mean
This is also commonly known as simply the mean. Even though average, in general,
means any measure of central location, when we use the word average in our daily
routine, we always mean the arithmetic average. The term is widely used by almost
every one in daily communication. We speak of an individual being an average
student or of average intelligence. We always talk about average family size or
average family income or Grade Point Average (GPA) for students, and so on.
Calculating arithmetic mean (M): The simplest but most useful measure of central
tendency is the arithmetic mean. It can be defined as the sum of all the values of the
items in a series divided by the number of items. It is represented by the symbol M.

Statistics in Measurement Calculation of mean in the case of ungrouped data
and Evaluation-I
Let X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6, X7, X8, X9 and X10 be the scores obtained by 10 students on
an achievement test. Then the arithmetic mean or mean score of the group of these
ten students can be calculated as:
NOTES
M = X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 + X5 +…+ X10 /10
The formula for calculating the mean of an ungrouped data is as follows:
M = ∑X/N
Where, ∑X stands for the sum of sores or values of the items and N for the
total number in a series or group.
Calculation of mean in the case of grouped data (Data in the form of
Frequency Distribution)
General Method: In a frequency distribution where all the frequencies are greater
than one, the mean is calculated by the formula:
M= ∑ f X / N
Where, X represents the mid-point of the class interval, f its respective
frequency and N the total of all frequencies.
Short-Cut Method: Mean for the grouped data can be computed easily with the
help of following formula:
M = A + ∑ f x′/N × i
Where,
A = Assumed mean
i = Class interval
f = Respective frequency of the mid-values of the class intervals
N = Total Frequency
x′ = X – A / i
Combined Mean: If the arithmetic averages and the number of items in two or
more related groups are known, the combined (or composite) mean of the entire
group can be obtained by the following formula:
n1 x1 n2 x2
X =
n1 n2
The advantage of combined arithmetic mean is that, one can determine the over, all
mean of the combined data without having to going back to the original data.
An Example:
Find the combined mean for the data given below
n1 = 10, x1 = 2, n2 = 15, x2 = 3

Solution: Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
n1 x1 n2 x2
X =
n1 n2
NOTES
10 2 15 3
=
10 15
20 45
=
25
= 2.6
For discussion purposes, let us assume a variable X which stands for
some scores, such as the ages of students. Let the ages of 5 students be 19,
20, 22, 22 and 17 years. Then variable X would represent these ages as
follows:
X: 19, 20, 22, 22, 17
Placing the Greek symbol σ(Sigma) before X would indicate a command that
all values of X are to be added together. Thus:
σ X = 19 + 20 + 22 + 22 + 17
The mean is computed by adding all the data values and dividing it by the
number of such values. The symbol used for sample average is X so that:
19 20 22 22 17
X
5
In general, if there are n values in the sample, then
X1 X2 ......... X n
X
n
In other words,
n
Xi
i 1
X , i 1, 2 ... n.
n
The above formula states, add up all the values of Xi where the value of
i starts at 1 and ends at n with unit increments so that i = 1, 2, 3, ... n.
If instead of taking a sample, we take the entire population in our calculations
of the mean, then the symbol for the mean of the population is µ (mu) and the
size of the population is N, so that:
N
Xi
i 1
, i 1, 2 ...N .
N

Statistics in Measurement If we have the data in grouped discrete form with frequencies, then the
and Evaluation-I
sample mean is given by:
f (X )
X
f
NOTES
Where, Σf = Summation of all frequencies’ n
Σf(X) = Summation of each value of X multiplied by its
corresponding frequency (f).
Example 4.6: Let us take the ages of 10 students as follows:
19, 20, 22, 22, 17, 22, 20, 23, 17, 18
This data can be arranged in a frequency distribution as follows:
(X) (f) f(X)
17 2 34
18 1 18
19 1 19
20 2 40
22 3 66
23 1 23
Total = 10 200
In the above case we have ∑f = 10 and ∑f(X) = 200, so that:
f (X )
X =
f
= 200/10 = 20
Characteristics of the mean
The arithmetic mean has three interesting properties. These are:
1. The sum of the deviations of individual values of X from the mean will
always add up to zero. This means that if we subtract all the individual
values from their mean, then some values will be negative and some
will be positive, but if all these differences are added together then the
total sum will be zero. In other words, the positive deviations must balance
the negative deviations. Or symbolically:
n
(Xi X) = 0, i = 1, 2, ... n.
i 1
2. The second important characteristic of the mean is that it is very sensitive

to extreme values. Since the computation of the mean is based upon
inclusion of all values in the data, an extreme value in the data would
shift the mean towards it, thus making the mean unrepresentative of the
data.
3. The third property of the mean is that the sum of squares of the deviations
about the mean is minimum. This means that if we take differences
between individual values and the mean and square these differences
individually and then add these squared differences, then the final figure
will be less than the sum of the squared deviations around any other Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
number other than the mean. Symbolically, it means that:
n
(Xi X )2 = Minimum, i = 1, 2, ... n.
i 1 NOTES
Advantages of mean
The following are the various advantages of mean:
1. Its concept is familiar to most people and is intuitively clear.
2. Every data set has a mean, which is unique and describes the entire data to
some degree. For instance, when we say that the average salary of a professor
is ` 25,000 per month, it gives us a reasonable idea about the salaries of
professors.
3. It is a measure that can be easily calculated.
4. It includes all values of the data set in its calculation.
5. Its value varies very little from sample to sample taken from the same
population.
6. It is useful for performing statistical procedures, such as computing and
comparing the means of several data sets.
Disadvantages of mean
The following are the various disadvantages of mean:
1. It is affected by extreme values, and hence, not very reliable when the data
set has extreme values especially when these extreme values are on one side
of the ordered data. Thus, a mean of such data is not truly a representative of
such data. For instance, the average age of three persons of ages 4, 6 and 80
years gives us an average of 30.
2. It is tedious to compute for a large data set as every point in the data set is to
be used in computations.
3. We are unable to compute the mean for a data set that has open-ended
classes either at the high or at the low end of the scale.
4. The mean cannot be calculated for qualitative characteristics, such as beauty
or intelligence, unless these can be converted into quantitative figures such as
intelligence into IQs.
II. Median
The median is a measure of central tendency and it appears in the centre of an
ordered data. It divides the list of ordered values in the data into two equal parts so
that half of the data will have values less than the median and half will have values
greater than the median.
If the total number of values is odd, then we simply take the middle value as
the median. For instance, if there are 5 numbers arranged in order, such as 2, 3, 3, 5,
7, then 3 is the middle number and this will be the median. However, if the total
number of values in the data is even, then we take the average of the middle two
values. For instance, let there be 6 numbers in the ordered data such as 2, 3, 3, 5, 7,
Statistics in Measurement 8, then the average of middle two numbers which are 3 and 5 would be the median,
and Evaluation-I
which is
(3 5)
Median = 4
2
NOTES n 1
In general, the median is th observation in the ordered data.
2
The median is a useful measure in the sense that it is not unduly affected by
extreme values and is specially useful in open ended frequencies.
Calculating Median (Md): If the items of a series are arranged in ascending or
descending order of magnitude, the measure or value of the central item in the
series is termed as median. The median of a distribution can thus be said as the point
on the score scale below which half (or 50 per cent) of the scores fall. Thus median
is the score or the value of that central item which divides the series into two equal
parts. Therefore, it should be understood that the central item itself is not the median.
It is only the measure or value of the central item that is known as the median. For
example, if we arrange in ascending or descending order the marks of 5 students,
then the marks obtained y the third student from either side will be termed as median
of the scores of the group of students under consideration.
Computation of median for ungrouped data
The following two situations could arise:
1. When N (No. of Items in a Series) is Odd: In this case where N is odd
(not divisible by 2), the median can be computed by the following formula:
Md = The measure or value of the (N + 1)/2 th item.
2. When N (No. of Items in a Series) is Even: In this case where N is even
(divisible by 2), the median can be determined by the following formula:
Md = The value of the (N/2) th item + The value of [(N/2) + 1] th item/
2
Calculation of median for grouped data (In the Form of Frequency
Distribution)
If the data is available in the form of a frequency distribution like below, then
calculation of median first requires the location of median class.
Scores f
65-69 1
60-64 3
55-59 4
50-54 7
45-49 9
40-44 11
35-39 8
30-34 4 Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
25-29 2
20-24 1
NOTES
N = 50
Actually, median is the measure or score of the central item. Therefore, it is
needed to locate the central item. It may be done through the formulae given earlier
in case of ungrouped data for the odd and even values of N (total frequencies).
Here, in the present distribution, N (= 50) is even. Therefore, median will fall
somewhere between the score of 25th and 26th items in the given distribution. In the
given frequency distribution table, if we add frequencies either above or below we
may see that the class interval designated as 40-44 is to be labeled as the class
where the score representing median will fall.
After estimating the median class, the median of the distribution may be
interpolated with the help of following formula:
Md = L + [ (N/2) – F /f] × i
Where,
L = Exact lower limit of the median class
F = Total of all frequencies before in the median class
f = Frequency of the median class
i = Class interval
N = Total of all the frequency
By applying the above formula, we can compute the median of the given
distribution in the following way:
M d = 39.5+ (50/2) –15 / 11× 5 = 39.5 + 10/11 × 5
= 39.5 + 50/11 = 39.5 + 4.55 = 44.05
Advantages of median
The following are the advantages of median:
1. Median is a positional average and hence the extreme values in the data set
do not affect it as much as they do to the mean.
2. Median is easy to understand and can be calculated from any kind of data,
even for grouped data with open-ended classes.
3. We can find the median even when our data set is qualitative and can be
arranged in the ascending or the descending order, such as average beauty or
average intelligence.
4. Similar to mean, median is also unique meaning that there is only one median
in a given set of data.
5. Median can be located visually when the data is in the form of ordered data.
6. The sum of absolute differences of all values in the data set from the median
value is minimum meaning that it is less than any other value of central tendency
in the data set, which makes it more central in certain situations. Self-Instructional Material 141
Statistics in Measurement Disadvantages of median
and Evaluation-I
The following are the disadvantages of median:
1. The data must be arranged in order to find the median. This can be very time
NOTES consuming for a large number of elements in the data set.
2. The value of the median is affected more by sampling variations. Different
samples from the same population may give significantly different values of
the median.
3. The calculation of median in case of grouped data is based on the assumption
that the values of observations are evenly spaced over the entire class interval
and this is usually not so.
4. Median is comparatively less stable than the mean, particularly for small
samples, due to fluctuations in sampling.
5. Median is not suitable for further mathematical treatment. For instance, we
cannot compute the median of the combined group from the median values of
different groups.
III. Mode
The mode is another form of average and can be defined as the most frequently
occurring value in the data. The mode is not affected by extreme values in the data
and can easily be obtained from an ordered set of data. It can be useful and more
representative of the data under certain conditions and is the only measure of central
tendency that can be used for qualitative data. For instance, when a researcher
quotes the opinion of an average person, he is probably referring to the most frequently
expressed opinion which is the modal opinion. In our example of ages of 10 students
as:
19, 20, 22, 22, 17, 22, 20, 23, 17 and 18
The mode is 22, since it occurs more often than any other value in this data.
Calculating Mode (M0): Mode is defined as the size of a variable which occurs
most frequently. It is the point on the score sale that corresponds to the maximum
frequency of the distribution. In any series, it is the value of the item which is most
characteristics or common and is usually repeated the maximum number of times.
Computation of mode for ungrouped data
Mode can easily be computed merely by looking at the data. All that one has to do is
to find out the score which is repeated maximum number of times.
For example, suppose we have to find out the value of mode from the following
scores of students:
25, 29, 24, 25, 27, 25, 28, 25, 29
Here the score 25 is repeated maximum number of times and thus, value of
the mode in this case is 25.
Computation of mode for grouped data
When data is available in the form of frequency distribution, the mode is computed
142 Self-Instructional Material from the following formula:
Mode (M0) = 3 Md – 2M Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
Where, Md is the median and M is the mean of the given distribution. The
mean as well as the median of the distribution are first computed and then, with the
help of the above formula, mode is computed.
NOTES
Another method for grouped data
Mode can be computed directly from the frequency distribution table without
calculating mean and median. For this purpose, we can use the following formula:
M0 = L + f1/ (f1 + f–1 ) × i
Where,
L = Lower limit of the model class (the class in which mode maybe supposed
to lie)
i = Class interval
f 1 = Frequency of the class adjacent to the modal class for which lower
limit is greater than that for the modal class.
f –1= Frequency of the class adjacent to the modal class for which the lower
limit is less than that for the modal class.
Advantages of mode
The following are the advantages of mode:
1. Similar to median, the mode is not affected by extreme values in the data.
2. Its value can be obtained in open-ended distributions without ascertaining the
class limits.
3. It can be easily used to describe qualitative phenomenon. For instance, if
most people prefer a certain brand of tea then this will become the modal
point.
4. Mode is easy to calculate and understand. In some cases it can be located
simply by observation or inspection.
Disadvantages of mode
The following are the disadvantages of mode:
1. Quite often, there is no modal value.
2. It can be bi-modal or multi-modal or it can have all modal values making its
significance more difficult to measure.
3. If there is more than one modal value, the data is difficult to interpret.
4. A mode is not suitable for algebraic manipulations.
5. Since the mode is the value of maximum frequency in the data set, it cannot
be rigidly defined if such frequency occurs at the beginning or at the end of
the distribution.
6. It does not include all observations in the data set, and hence, less reliable in
most of the situations.

Statistics in Measurement Weighted arithmetic mean
and Evaluation-I
In the computation of arithmetic mean we had given equal importance to each
observation in the series. This equal importance may be misleading if the individual
values constituting the series have different importance as in the following example:
NOTES The Raja Toy shop sells
Toy Cars at ` 3 each
Toy Locomotives at ` 5 each
Toy Aeroplanes at ` 7 each
Toy Double Decker at ` 9 each
What shall be the average price of the toys sold, if the shop sells 4 toys, one of each
kind?
x 24
Mean Price, i.e., x = ∑ = Rs =`6
4 4
In this case the importance of each observation (Price quotation) is equal in as
much as one toy of each variety has been sold. In the above computation of the
arithmetic mean this fact has been taken care of by including ‘once only’ the price
of each toy.
But if the shop sells 100 toys: 50 cars, 25 locomotives, 15 aeroplanes and 10
double deckers, the importance of the four price quotations to the dealer is not
equal as a source of earning revenue. In fact their respective importance is equal to
the number of units of each toy sold, i.e.,
The importance of Toy Car 50
The importance of Locomotive 25
The importance of Aeroplane 15
The importance of Double Decker 10
It may be noted that 50, 25, 15, 10 are the quantities of the various classes of
toys sold. It is for these quantities that the term ‘weights’ is used in statistical language.
Weight is represented by symbol ‘w’, and Σw represents the sum of weights.
While determining the ‘average price of toy sold’ these weights are of great
importance and are taken into account in the manner illustrated below:
w1 x1  w2 x2  w3 x3  w4 x4 wx
x = =∑
w1  w2  w3  w4 ∑w
When w1, w2, w3, w4 are the respective weights of x1, x2, x3, x4 which in turn
represent the price of four varieties of toys, viz., car, locomotive, aeroplane and
double decker, respectively.
(50  3)  (25  5)  (15  7)  (10  9)
x =
50  25  15  10
(150) (125) (105) (90) 470
= = = ` 4.70
100 100
The table below summarizes the steps taken in the computation of the weighted
arithmetic mean.
Σw = 100; Σwx = 470
wx 470
x =∑ = = 4.70
144 Self-Instructional Material ∑w 100
The weighted arithmetic mean is particularly useful where we have to compute Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
the mean of means. If we are given two arithmetic means, one for each of two
different series, in respect of the same variable, and are required to find the arithmetic
mean of the combined series, the weighted arithmetic mean is the only suitable
method of its determination. NOTES
Weighted Arithmetic Mean of Toys Sold by the Raja Toy Shop
Toys Price Per Toy Number Sold Price × Weight

`x w xw
Car 3 50 150
Locomotive 5 25 125
Aeroplane 7 15 105
Double Decker 9 10 90
Σw = 100 Σxw = 470
Example 4.7: The arithmetic mean of daily wages of two manufacturing concerns
A Ltd. and B Ltd. is ` 5 and ` 7, respectively. Determine the average daily wages
of both concerns if the number of workers employed were 2,000 and 4,000,
respectively.
Solution: (a) Multiply each average (viz., 5 and 7) by the number of workers in the
concern it represents.
(b) Add up the two products obtained in (a) above
(c) Divide the total obtained in (b) by the total number of workers.
Weighted Mean of Mean Wages of A Ltd. and B Ltd.
Manufacturing Mean Wages Workers Mean Wages ×

Concern x Employed Workers Employed
w wx
A Ltd. 5 2,000 10,000

B Ltd. 7 4,000 28,000
∑ w = 6,000 ∑ wx = 38,000
 wx
x =
w
38,000
=
6,000
= ` 6.33
The above mentioned examples explain that ‘Arithmetic Means and Percentage’
are not original data. They are derived figures and their importance is relative to the
original data from which they are obtained. This relative importance must be taken
into account by weighting while averaging them (means and percentage).
Different positional numbers
The position of value in statistics is determined using specific methods for a given
set of data or observations. The following are the popular common measures of
positions:
Statistics in Measurement • Percentiles: Percentiles are those values which divide a given data set into
and Evaluation-I
hundred equal parts. It is the value of a variable below which certain per cent
of observations fall. For instance, the 25th percentile is the value below which
25 per cent of the observations occur. The 25th percentile is also referred as
NOTES the first quartile, the 50th percentile as the median or second quartile and the
75th percentile as the third quartile.
• Quartiles: It segments the data in four regions and is commonly used to
measure the position of value in statistics. It is a number and not a range of
values.
• Standard Scores: It is also termed as Z-values, Z-scores, normal scores and
standardized variables. It is a dimensionless quantity and can be calculated
using the following formula:
Z = (X – µ)/σ
Measures of position values
We have defined the median as the value of the item which is located at the centre
of the array, we can define other measures which are located at other specidied
points. Thus, the Nth percentile of an array is the value of the item such that N per
cent items lie below it. Clearly then the Nth percentile Pn of grouped data is given
by,
nN
−C
Pn = l + 100 ×i
f
where, l is the lower limit of the class in which nN/100th item lies, i its width, f its
frequency, C the cumulative frequency upto (but not including) this class, and N is
the total number of items.
We similarly define the Nth decile as the value of the item below which (nN/10)
items of the array lie. Clearly,
nN
−C
10
Dn = P10n = l + ×i (1)
f
The other most commonly referred to measures of location are the quartiles.
Thus, nth quartile is the value of the item which lie at the n(N/4)th item. Clearly Q2,
the second quartile is the median. For grouped data,
nN
−C
Qn = P25n = l + 4 ×i (2)
f
Some measures other than measures of central tendency are often employed when
summarizing or describing a set of data where it is necessary to divide the data into
equal parts. These are positional measures and are called quantiles and consist of
quartiles, deciles and percentiles. The quartiles divide the data into four equal parts.
The deciles divide the total ordered data into ten equal parts and percentiles divide

the data into 100 equal parts. Consequently, there are three quartiles, nine deciles Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
and 99 percentiles. The quartiles are denoted by the symbol Q so that Q1 will be
such point in the ordered data which has 25 per cent of the data below and 75 per
n 1
cent of the data above it. In other words, Q1 is the value corresponding to th NOTES
4
ordered observation. Similarly, Q2 divides the data in the middle, and is also equal to
the median and its value Q2 is given by:
n 1
Q2 = The value of 2 th ordered observation in the data.
4
Similarly, we can calculate the values of various deciles. For instance,
n 1
D1 = th observaton in the data
10
n 1
D7 = 7 th observation in the ordered data.
10
Percentiles are generally used in the research area of education where people
are given standard tests and it is desirable to compare the relative position of the
subject’s performance on the test. Percentiles are similarly calculated as:
n 1
P7 = 7 th observation in the ordered data.
100
n 1
P69 = 69 th observation in the ordered data.
100
Quartiles
The formula for calculating the values of quartiles for grouped data is given as
follows.
Q = L + (j/f)C
Where,
Q = The quartile under consideration.
L = Lower limit of the class interval which contains the value of Q.
j = The number of units we lack from the class interval which contains
the value of Q, in reaching the value of Q.
f = Frequency of the class interval containing Q.
C = Size of the class interval.
Let us assume we took the data of the ages of 100 students and a frequency
distribution for this data has been constructed as shown.

Statistics in Measurement The frequency distribution is as follows:
and Evaluation-I
Ages (CI) Mid-point (X) (f) f(X) f(X)2
16 and upto 17 16.5 4 66 1089.0
17 and upto 18 17.5 14 245 4287.5
NOTES
18 and upto 19 18.5 18 333 6160.5
19 and upto 20 19.5 28 546 10647.0
20 and upto 21 20.5 20 410 8405.0
21 and upto 22 21.5 12 258 5547.0
22 and upto 23 22.5 4 90 2025.0
Totals = 100 1948 38161
In our case, in order to find Q1, where Q1 is the cut-off point so that 25 per
cent of the data is below this point and 75 per cent of the data is above, we see that
the first group has 4 students and the second group has 14 students making a total of
18 students. Since Q1 cuts off at 25 students, it is the third class interval which
contains Q1. This means that the value of L in our formula is 18.
Since we already have 18 students in the first two groups, we need 7 more
students from the third group to make it a total of 25 students, which is the value of Q1.
Hence, the value of (j) is 7. Also, since the frequency of this third class interval
which contains Q1 is 18, the value of (f) in our formula is 18. The size of the class
interval C is given as 1. Substituting these values in the formula for Q, we get
Q 1 = 18 + (7/18)1
= 18 + 0.38 = 18.38
This means that 25 per cent of the students are below 18.38 years of age and
75 per cent are above this age.
Similarly, we can calculate the value of Q2, using the same formula. Hence,
Q2 = L + (j/f)C
= 19 + (14/28)1
= 19.5
This also happens to be the median.
By using the same formula and the same logic we can calculate the values of all
deciles as well as percentiles.
Geometric mean
If α, β, γ are in GP, then β is called a geometric mean between α and γ, written as
GM.
If a1, a2, .....,an are in GP, then a2, ..., an–1 are called geometric means between
a1 and an.
Thus, 3, 9, 27 are three geometric means between 1 and 81.
Non-zero quantities a1, a2, a3, ..., an,...., each term of which is equal to the product
of preceding term and a constant number, form a Geometrical Progression (writ-
ten as G.P.).

Thus, all the following quantities are in G.P. Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
(a) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,...
1 1 1
(b) 3, –1, , , , ....
3 9 27
NOTES
(c) 1, 2 , 2, 2 2 ,....
a a a
(d) a, , 2 , 3 ,..., where a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0.
b b b
1 1 1
(e) 1, , , ,...
5 25 125
The constant number is termed as the common ratio of the G.P.
The nth Term of a G.P.

Let first term be a and r, the common ratio, By definition the G.P. is a, ar, ar2,...
1st term = a = ar0 = ar1–1
2nd term = ar = ar1 = ar2–1
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
In general, nth term = arn–1.
In examples of the preceding section, we compute 5th, 7th, 3rd, 11th and 8th
term of (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) respectively.
In (a) Ist term is 1 and common ratio = 2.
Hence, 5th term = ar4 = 1.24 = 16.
6
1 1 1
In (b) a = 3, r = , hence, 7th term = ar6 = 3 = .
3 3 243
In (c) a = 1, r = 2 , hence, 3rd term = ar2 = 2.

1 a
In (d) Ist term = a, r = , hence, 11th term = ar10 = 10 .
b b
1 1 1
In (e) a = 1, r = , hence, 8th term = ar2 = 7 = .
5 5 78125
Sum of First n Terms of a G.P.

Let a, ar, ar2,... be a given G.P. and let Sn be the sum of its first n terms.
Then, S n = a + ar + ar2 +...+ arn–1.
This gives that rSn = ar + ar2 +...+ arn–1 + arn
Subtracting, we get, Sn – r Sn = a – arn = a (1 – rn)
a 1 rn
In case r ≠ 1, Sn =
1 r
In case r = 1, S n = a + a + a + ... + a (n times)
= na.

and Evaluation-I
a 1 rn
Thus, sum of n terms of a G.P. is provided r ≠ 1.
1 r
In case r = 1, sum of G.P. is na.
NOTES Example 4.8: Find the sum of the first 14 terms of a G.P.
3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729,...
Solution: In this case a = 3, r = 3, n = 14.
a 1 rn 3 1 314
So, Sn = =
1 r 1 3
3 14
= (3 – 1).
2
Example 4.9: Find the sum of first 11 terms of a G.P. given by
1 1 1
1, − , , − ... , ...
2 4 8
1
Solution: Here, a = 1, r = , n = 11.
2
11
1
11
a 1 rn 2
So, Sn = =
1 r 1
1
2
211 1 683
= = .
3 210 1024
To insert n geometric means between two given numbers a and b

Let G1, G3, ... Gn be n geometric means between a and b. Thus, a, G1, G2, ...
Gn, b is a GP, b being (n + 2)th term = arn+1, where r is the common ratio of GP
1
n+1 b n 1
Thus, b = ar ⇒r=
a
1
1
b n 1
So, G1 = ar = a = anb n 1
a
2
1
2 b n 1
G2 = ar = a = a n 1b 2 n 1
a
... .... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ....
n 1
1
n–1 b n 1
Gn = ar =a = a 2b n 1 n 1
a
Example 4.10: Find 7 GM’s between 1 and 256.
Solution: Let G1, G2, ... G7, be 7 GM’s between 1 and 256
Then, 256= 9th term of GP,
= 1. r8, where r is the common ratio of the GP
This gives that, r8 = 256 ⇒ r = 2 Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
Thus, G1 = ar = 1.2 = 2
G2 = ar2 = 1.4 = 4
G3 = ar3 = 1.8 = 8 NOTES
G4 = ar4 = 1.16 = 16
G5 = ar5 = 1.32 = 32
G6 = ar6 = 1.64 = 64
G7 = ar7 = 1.128 = 128
Hence, required GM’s are 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128.
Example 4.11: Sum the series 1 + 3x + 5x2 + 7x3 + ... up to n terms, x ≠ 1.
Solution: Note that nth term of this series = (2n – 1) xn – 1
Let Sn = 1 + 3x + 5x2 + ... + (2n – 1) xn – 1
Then, xSn = x + 3x2 + ... + (2n – 3) xn – 1 + (2n – 1) xn
Subtracing, we get
Sn(1 – x) = 1 + 2x + 2x2 + ... + 2xn – 1 – (2n – 1) xn
 1  xn  1 
= 1 + 2x  1  x  – (2n – 1) xn
 
1  x  2 x  2 x n  (2n  1) x n (1  x)
=
1 x
1  x  2 x n  (2n  1) x n  (2n  1) x n  1
= 1 x
1  x  (2n  1) x n  (2n  1) x n  1
=
1 x
1  x  (2n  1) x n  (2n  1) x n  1
Hence, S=
(1  x)2
Example 4.12: If in a GP (p + q)th term = m and (p – q)th term = n, then find its
pth and qth terms.
Solution: Suppose that the given GP be a, ar, ar2, ar3, . . .
By hypothesis, (p + q)th term = m = ar p + q – 1
(p – q)th term = n = arp – q – 1
1/ 2q
m m
Then, = r2q ⇒ r =
n n
(p q 1) / 2 q
m
Hence, m =a ⇒ a = m(q – p + 1)/2q n(p + q – 1)/2q
n

and Evaluation-I Thus, pth term = ar p – 1 = m1/2 n1/2 = mn
2q  p p
q–1
qth term = ar = m 2q
n 2q
NOTES Example 4.13: Sum the series 5 + 55 + 555 + ... up to n terms.

Solution: Let Sn = 5 + 55 + 555 + . . . .
Sn = 5 (1 + 11 + 111 + . . . . )
5
= (9 + 99 + 999 + . . . )
9
5
= [(10 – 1) + (100 – 1) + (1000 – 1) + ...]
9
5
= [(10 + 102 + 103 + ... + 10n ) – (1 + 1 + . . . .n terms)]
9
5
= [(10 + 102 + 103 + ... + 10n) – n]
9
5 10(1 10n )
= n
9 1 10
5  10(10n  1) 
=   n
9  9 
50 5n
= (10n  1) 
81 9
Example 4.14: If a, b, c, d are in GP, prove that a2 – b2, b2 – c2 and c2 – d2 are
also in GP.
b c d
Solution: Since, =   k (say)
a b c
we have, b = ak, c = bk, d = ck
i.e., b = ak, c = ak2, d = ak3
Now, (b2 – c2)2 = (a2k2 – a2k4)2
= a4k4(1 – k2)2
Also, (a2 – b2) (c2 – d2) = (a2 – a2k2) (a2k4 – a2k6)
= a4(1 – k2) (k4 – k6)
= a4k4 (1 – k2)2
Hence, (b2 – c2) = (a2 – b2) (c2 – d2)
This gives that, a2 – b2, b2 – c2, c2 – d2 are in GP.
124
Example 4.15: Three numbers are in GP. Their product is 64 and sum is .
5
Find them.
a
Solution: Let the numbers be , a, ar
r
a 124 a
Since, + a + ar = and × a × ar = 64,
r 5 r
we have, a3 = 64 ⇒ a = 4
4 124 Statistics in Measurement
This gives, + 4 + 4r = and Evaluation-I
r 5
1 31
⇒ +1+r=
r 5
NOTES
r2  1 26
⇒ =
r 5
⇒ 5r2 + 5 = 26r
⇒ 5r2 – 26r + 5 = 0
⇒ 5r2 – 25r – r + 5 = 0
⇒ 5r (r – 5) –1 (r – 5) = 0
⇒ (r – 5) (5r – 1) = 0
1
⇒ r= or 5
5
4
In either case, numbers are , 4 and 20.
5
Example 4.16: If a, b, c are in GP and ax = b y = cz, prove that
1 1 2
+ =
x z y
Solution: a, b, c are in GP, b2 = ac

But, by = ax ⇒ a = b y/x
and, by = cz ⇒ c = b y/z
So, we get b2 = b y/x. b y/z
 1 1
y  
 x z
=b
1 1
⇒ 2 = y   
 x z
1 1 2
⇒  =
x z y
Example 4.17: Sum to n terms the series
0.7 + 0.77 + 0.777 + . . .
Solution: Given series,
= 0.7 + 0.77 + 0.777 + . . . up to n terms
= 7 (0.1 + 0.11 + 0.111 + ... up to n terms)
7
= (0.9 + 0.99 + 0.999 + ... up to n terms)
9
7  1  1   1  
=  1    1  2   1  3   ...
9  10 10 10 
7  1 1 
=  n  10  2  ... up to n terms 
9  10 

 
and Evaluation-I 1 (1  1/10n )
7 
n  10
= 9  1 

1
 10 
NOTES 7  1 1 
=  n  1  n  
9  9 10 
7 1 1 
=  n  1  n  
9 9 10 
Example 4.18: The sum of three numbers in GP is 35 and their product is 1000.
Find the numbers.
Solution: Let the numbers be , α, αr
r
α
The product of  α  αr 
1000
r
α 3 = 1000
⇒ α = 10
10
So, the numbers are , 10, 10r
r
The sum of these numbers = 35
10
⇒ + 10 + 10r = 35
r
2
⇒ + 2r = 5
r
⇒ 2r2 – 5r + 2 = 0
⇒ (2r – 1) (r – 2) = 0
1
⇒ r=2 or
2
r = 2 gives the numbers as 5, 10, 20
1
r= , gives the numbers as 20, 10, 5, the same as
2
the first set.
Hence, the required numbers are 5, 10 and 20.
Example 4.19: The sum of the first eight terms of a GP (of real terms) is five times
the sum of the first four terms. Find the common ratio.
Solution: Let the GP be a, ar, ar2, . . .
8
S8 = Sum of first eight terms = a (1  r )
1 r
a (1  r 4 )
S4 = Sum of first four terms =
1 r
a (1  r 8 ) 5a(1  r 4 )
By hypothesis, S8 = 5S4 ⇒ =
1 r 1 r
⇒ 1 – r8 = 5(1 – r4) Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
⇒ (1 – r4) (1 + r4) = 5(1 – r4)
In case, r4 – 1 = 0 we get, r2 – 1 = 0 ⇒ r = ±1
(Note that r2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ r is imaginary) NOTES
Now, r = 1 ⇒ The given series is a + a + a + . . .
but, S8 = 8a and S4 = 4a
So, S8 ≠ 5S4
In case r = –1, we get, S8 = 0 and S4 = 0, hence the hypothesis is satisfied.
Suppose now, r4 – 1 ≠ 0, then 1 + r4 = 5
⇒ r4 = 4 ⇒ r2 = 2 (r2 ≠ – 2)
⇒ r=± 2
Hence, r = –1 or ± 2
Example 4.20: If S is the sum, P the product of n term of G.P. and R the sum of
reciprocals of n terms in GP, then prove that
P2Rn = Sn.
Solution: Let a, ar, ar2, . . . be the given GP
Then, S = a + ar + ar2 + . . . up to n terms
a (1  r n )
= ...(1)
1 r
P = a ⋅ ar ⋅ ar2.... arn – 1
= an r1 + 2 + 3 + ... + (n – 1)
( n  1)
n (2  n  2)
=a r 2
 n 1
n
n  2 
= a r ...(2)
1 1 1
R=    ... up to n terms
a ar ar 2
1  1
1  n  n
=
a r = r (r  1)
1 a (r  1) r n
1
r
(1  r n )
= ...(3)
a (1  r ) r n  1
By Equations (2) and (3),
(1  r n ) n
P2Rn = a2n rn(n – 1)
a n (1  r ) n r n ( n  1)
a n (1  r n )n
= n
= Sn, by (1)
(1  r ) Self-Instructional Material 155
Statistics in Measurement Example 4.21: The ratio of the 4th to the 12th term of a GP with positive common
and Evaluation-I
1
ratio is . If the sum of the two terms is 61.68, find the sum of series to 8 terms.
256
NOTES
Solution: Let the series be a, ar, ar2, . . .,
T4 = 4th term = ar3
T12 = 12th term = ar11
T4 1
By hypothesis, =
T12 256
ar 3 1
i.e., 11
=
ar 256
1 1
8
=
r 256
⇒ r8 = 256
⇒ r = ±2
Since r is given to be positive, we reject negative sign.
Again, it is given that
T4 + T12 = 61.68
i.e., a (r3 + r11) = 61.68
a (8 + 2048) = 61.68
61.68
a= = 0.03
2056
Hence, S8 = Sum to eight terms
a (1  r 8 ) a (r 8  1)
= 
1 r r 1
(0.03) (256  1)
= (2  1) = 0.03 × 255 = 7.65
Example 4.22: A manufacturer reckons that the value of a machine which costs
him Rs 18750 will depreciate each year by 20%. Find the estimated value at the
end of 5 years.
Solution: At the end of first year the value of machine is
80 4
= 18750 × = (18750)
100 5
2
4
At the end of 2nd year it is equal to   (18750); proceeding in this manner,,
 5
5
4
the estimated value of machine at the end of 5 years is   (18750)
 5
64  16
=  18750
125  25
1024 Statistics in Measurement
=  750 = 1024 × 6 and Evaluation-I
125
= 6144 rupees
Example 4.23: Show that a given sum of money accumulated at 20 % per annum,
NOTES
more than doubles itself in 4 years at compound interest.
6a
Solution: Let the given sum be a rupees. After 1 year it becomes (it is increased
5
a
by ).
5
2
6  6a   6 
At the end of two years it becomes     a
5  5   5
Proceeding in this manner, we get that at the end of 4th year, the amount will
4
6 1296
be   a = a
 5 625
1296 46
Now, a  2a  a, since a is a + ve quantity, so the amount after 4
625 625
years is more than double of the original amount.
a a
Example 4.24: If x=a+  + ... ∞
r r2
b b
y= b  + ... ∞
r r2
c c
and z= c 2
 + ... ∞
r r4
xy ab
Show that =
z c
a ar
Solution: Clearly, x=  ,
1 r 1
1
r
b br
y= 
1  ( 1/r ) r  1
c cr 2
and, z= 
1 r2  1
1 2
r
2
xy ab r cr 2 ab
Now, = 2 2 =
z (r 1) r 1 c
Example 4.25: If a2 + b2, ab + bc and b2 + c2 are in GP, prove that a, b, c are

also in GP.
Solution: Since a2 + b2, ab + bc and b2 + c2 are in GP, we get,
(ab + bc)2 = (a2 + b2) (b2 + c2)
Statistics in Measurement b2(a2 + 2ac + c2) = a2b2 + a2c2 + b4 + b2c2
and Evaluation-I
⇒ 2ab2c = a2c2 + b4
⇒ a2c2 – 2ab2c + b4 = 0
NOTES
⇒ (ac – b2)2 = 0
⇒ ac = b2
⇒ a, b, c are in GP.
Harmonic mean
If a, b, c are in HP, then b is called a Harmonic Mean between a and c, written as
HM.
Harmonical progression
Non zero quantities whose reciprocals are in AP, or Arithmetic Progression are
said to be in Harmonical Progression, written as HP.
Consider the following examples:
1 1 1
(a) 1, , , , ... ...
3 5 7
1 1 1 1
(b) , , , , ... ...
2 5 8 11
5 10
(c) 2, , , ...
2 3
1 1 1
(d) a , a  b , a  2b , ... ... a, b  0
55 55
(e) 5, , , 11, ... ...
9 7
It can be easily checked that in each case, the series obtained by taking
reciprocal of each of the term is an AP.
To insert n harmonic means between a and b
Let H1, H2, H3, ..., Hn be the required Harmonic Means. Then,
a, H1, H2, ..., Hn, b are in HP
1 1 1 1 1
i.e., , ,
a H1 H 2
, ..., ,
Hn b are in AP
1
Then, = (n + 2)th term of an AP
b
1
= + (n + 1)d
a
Where d is the common difference of AP.
ab
This gives, d=
(n  1)ab

1 1 1 ab Statistics in Measurement
Now, = d   and Evaluation-I
H1 a a (n  1) ab
nb  b  a  b a  nb
= 
(n  1) ab (n  1) ab
NOTES
1 a  nb
So, =
H1 (n  1) ab
(n  1) ab
⇒ H1 =
a  nb
1 1 1 2 ( a  b)
Again, =  2d  
H2 a a (n  1) ab
nb  b  2a  2b 2a  b  nb
= 
(n  1) ab (n  1) ab
(n  1) ab
⇒ H2 =
2a  b  nb
1 1 3a  2b  nb
Similarly, =  3d 
H3 a ( n  1) ab
(n  1) ab
⇒ H3 = and so on,
3a  2b  nb
1 1 1 n (a  b)
=  nd  
Hn a a (n  1) ab
nb  b  na  nb
=
(n  1) ab
na  b (n  1) ab
= ⇒ Hn =
(n  1) ab na  b
Example 4.26: Find the 5th term of 2, 2 12 , 3 13 , ... ...

1 1 2 3
Solution: Let 5th term be x. Then, is 5th term of corresponding AP , , , ... ...
x 2 5 10
1 1 2 1 1 1
Then, = 4 4
x 2 5 2 2 10
1 1 2 1
⇒ =   ⇒ x = 10
x 2 5 10
1 4
Example 4.27: Insert two harmonic means between and .
2 17
1 4
Solution: Let H1, H2 be two harmonic means between and .
2 17
1 1 17
Thus, 2, , , are in AP Let d be their common difference.
H1 H 2 4
17
Then, = 2 + 3d
4

Statistics in Measurement 9 3
and Evaluation-I ⇒ 3d = ⇒ d=
4 4
1 3 11 4
Thus, =2+  ⇒ H1 =
H1 4 4 11
NOTES
1 3 7 2
=2+2×  ⇒ H2 =
H2 4 2 7
4 2
Required harmonic means are , .
11 7
Coefficient of variation
The square of standard deviation, namely σ2, is termed as variance and is more
often specified than the standard deviation. Clearly, it has the same properties as
standard deviation.
As is clear, the standard deviation σ or its square, the variance, cannot be
very useful in comparing two series where either the units are different or the mean
values are different. Thus, a σ of 5 on an examination where the mean score is 30
has an altogether different meaning than on an examination where the mean score
is 90. Clearly, the variability in the second examination is much less. To take care of
this problem, we define and use a coefficient of variation, V. Where,
σ
V= ×100
x
This is expressed as percentage.
Example 4.28: The following are the scores of two batsmen A and B in a series of
innings:
A 12 115 6 73 7 19 119 36 84 29
B 47 12 76 42 4 51 37 48 13 0
Who is the better run-getter? Who is more consistent?
Solution: In order to decide as to which of the two batsmen, A and B, is the better
run-getter, we should find their batting averages. The one whose average is higher
will be considered as a better batsman.
To determine the consistency in batting we should determine the coefficient
of variation. The less this coefficient the more consistent will be the player.
A B
Score x x2 Scores x x2
x x
12 –38 1,444 47 14 196
115 +65 4,225 12 –21 441
6 –44 1,936 76 43 1,849
73 +23 529 42 9 81
7 –43 1,849 –4 – 29 841
19 –31 961 51 18 324
119 +69 4,761 37 4 16 Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
36 –14 196 48 15 225
84 +34 1,156 13 –20 400
29 –21 441 0 –33 1,089
NOTES
∑ x = 500 17,498 ∑ x = 330 5,462
Batsman A: Batsman B:
500 330
x = = 50 x = = 33
10 10
17 , 498 5, 462
σ = = 41.83 σ = = 23.37
10 10
41.83 × 100 23. 37
V = V = × 100
50 33
= 83.66 per cent = 70.8 per cent
A is a better batsman since his average is 50 as compared to 33 of B, but B is
more consistent since the variation in his case is 70.8 as compared to 83.66 of A.
Example 4.29: The following table gives the age distribution of students admitted
to a college in the years 1914 and 1918. Find which of the two groups is more
variable in age.
Age Number of Students in
1914 1918
15 – 1
16 1 6
17 3 34
18 8 22
19 12 35
20 14 20
21 13 7
22 5 19
23 2 3
24 3 –
25 1 –
26 – –
27 1 –
Solution:
Assumed Mean–2l Assumed Mean–19
Age 1914 1918
f x' fx' fx'2 f x' fx fx'2

15 0 –6 0 0 1 –4 –4 16
16 1 –5 –5 25 6 –3 –18 54
17 3 –4 –12 48 34 –2 –68 136
18 8 –3 –24 72 22 –1 –22 22
Statistics in Measurement 19 12 –2 –24 48 –112
and Evaluation-I 20 14 –1 –14 14
–79 35 0 0 0
21 13 0 0 0 20 1 20 20
22 5 1 5 5 7 2 14 28
NOTES
23 2 2 4 8 19 3 57 171
24 3 3 9 27 3 4 12 48
25 1 4 4 16 147 +103 495
26 0 5 0 0 –9
27 1 6 6 36
63 +28 299
–51
1914 Group:
σ =
∑ fx ′ 2
−
LM
∑ ( fx ′ ) OP 2
N NN Q
=
299 FG IJ
−51
2
63
−
63H K
= 4. 476 − 0. 655 = 4. 091
= 2.02.
x = 21 +
FG −51 IJ = 21 – 8 = 20.2
H 63 K
2. 02
V = × 100
20. 2
202
= = 10
20. 2
1918 Group:
σ =
495 FG IJ
−9
2
= 3.3673 0.0037
147
−
147H K
= 3.3636 = 1.834
x = 19 +
FG −9 IJ
H 147 K
= 19 – .06 = 18.94
1.834
V = × 100
18. 94
= 9.68
The coefficient of variation of the 1914 group is 10 and that of the 1918 group 9.68.
This means that the 1914 group is more variable, but only barely so.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
8. How did Tate define measures of central tendency?
9. Define median. NOTES
10. What is mode?
4.5 CO-EFFICIENT OF CORRELATION
Correlation analysis is the statistical tool generally used to describe the degree to
which one variable is related to another. The relationship, if any, is usually assumed
to be a linear one. This analysis is used quite frequently in conjunction with regression
analysis to measure how well the regression line explains the variations of the
dependent variable. In fact, the word correlation refers to the relationship or
interdependence between two variables. There are various phenomena which are
related to each other. For instance, when demand of a certain commodity increases,
its price goes up and when its demand decreases, its price comes down. Similarly,
with age the height of children, with height the weight of children, with money the
supply and the general level of prices go up. Such sort of relationships can as well be
noticed for several other phenomena. The theory by means of which quantitative
connections between two sets of phenomena are determined is called the ‘Theory
of Correlation’.
On the basis of the theory of correlation, one can study the comparative
changes occurring in two related phenomena and their cause–effect relation can
be examined. It should, however, be borne in mind that relationships like ‘black cat
causes bad luck’, ‘filled up pitchers result in good fortune’ and similar other beliefs
of the people cannot be explained by the theory of correlation, since they are all
imaginary and are incapable of being justified mathematically. Thus, correlation is
concerned with relationship between two related and quantifiable variables. If
two quantities vary in sympathy, so that a movement (an increase or decrease) in
one tends to be accompanied by a movement in the same or opposite direction in
the other and the greater the change in one, the greater is the change in the other,
the quantities are said to be correlated. This type of relationship is known as
correlation or what is sometimes called, in statistics, as covariation.
For correlation, it is essential that the two phenomena should have cause–
effect relationship. If such relationship does not exist then one should not talk of
correlation. For example, if the height of the students as well as the height of the
trees increases, then one should not call it a case of correlation because the two
phenomena, viz., the height of students and the height of trees are not even casually
related. However, the relationship between the price of a commodity and its demand,
the price of a commodity and its supply, the rate of interest and savings, etc. are
examples of correlation, since in all such cases the change in one phenomenon is
explained by a change in another phenomenon.

Statistics in Measurement It is appropriate here to mention that correlation in case of phenomena
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pertaining to natural sciences can be reduced to absolute mathematical term, e.g.,
heat always increases with light. However, in phenomena pertaining to social sciences,
it is often difficult to establish any absolute relationship between two phenomena.
NOTES Hence, in social sciences, we must take the fact of correlation being established if in
a large number of cases, two variables always tend to move in the same or opposite
direction.
Correlation can either be positive or it can be negative. Whether correlation
is positive or negative would depend upon the direction in which the variables are
moving. If both variables are changing in the same direction, then correlation is said
to be positive, but when the variations in the two variables take place in opposite
direction, the correlation is termed as negative. This can be explained as follows:
Changes in Independent Changes in Dependent Nature of
Variable Variable Correlation
Increase (+)↑ Increase (+)↑ Positive (+)
Decrease (–)↓ Decrease (–)↓ Positive (+)
Increase (+)↑ Decrease (–)↓ Negative (–)
Decrease (–)↓ Increase (+)↑ Negative (–)
Statisticians have developed two measures for describing the correlation

between two variables, viz., the coefficient of determination and the coefficient of
correlation. These two methods are explained in detail in the following sections.
Methods of computing
The following are the various methods of computing:
I. Coefficient of determination
The coefficient of determination (symbolically indicated as r2, though some people
would prefer to put it as R2) is a measure of the degree of linear association or
correlation between two variables, say X and Y, one of which happens to be an
independent variable and the other being a dependent variable. This coefficient is
based on the following two types of variations:
( )
2
(a) The variation of the Y values around the fitted regression line, viz., ∑ Y − Yˆ ,
technically known as the unexplained variation.
(b) The variation of the Y values around their own mean, viz., ∑ (Y − Y ) ,
2
technically known as the total variation.

If we subtract the unexplained variation from the total variation, we obtain
what is known as the explained variation, i.e., the variation explained by the line of
regression. Thus, Explained Variation = (Total variation) – (Unexplained variation)
( ) ( )
2 2
∑ Y −Y
= − ∑ Y − Yˆ
2
164 Self-Instructional Material Yˆ Y
The Total and Explained as well as Unexplained variations can be shown as Statistics in Measurement
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given in Figure. 4.2.
Y-axis
d Y)
ine
100 Y) e x pla ., Y – int
–
, Y t U n n (i
.e po NOTES
Mean line of X
i.e. oin iatio ecific
i on ( ific p ar s p
iat ec v ta
var a sp a
Comsumption Expenditure (’00 Rs)
ot a l ’ at Y
80 T r‘ Y
o Explained Variation
( i.e.,Y Y ) at a
specific point
60
Y
Mean line of Y
X
40
X
on
fY
eo
lin
on
20 ssi
egre
R
X- axis
0 20 40 60 X 80 100 120
Income (’00 Rs)
Fig. 4.2 Diagram Showing Total, Explained and Unexplained Variations
Coefficient of determination is that fraction of the total variation of Y which is explained

by the regression line. In other words, coefficient of determination is the ratio of
explained variation to total variation in the Y variable related to the X variable.
Coefficient of determination can be algebraically stated as,
Explained variation
r2 = Total variation
2
Yˆ Y
= 2
Y Y
Alternatively, r2 can also be stated as,
Explained variation
r2 = 1 –
Total variation
2
Yˆ Y
= 1 – 2
Y Y
Interpreting r2
The coefficient of determination can have a value ranging from 0 – 1. The value of
1 can occur only if the unexplained variation is 0, which simply means that all the
data points in the Scatter diagram fall exactly on the regression line. For a 0 value to
occur, Σ(Y − Y )2 = Σ(Y − Yˆ )2 , which simply means that X tells us nothing about Y and
hence there is no regression relationship between X and Y variables. Values between
0 and 1 indicate the ‘Goodness of fit’ of the regression line to the sample data. The
higher the value of r2, the better the fit. In other words, the value of r2 will lie Self-Instructional Material 165
Statistics in Measurement somewhere between 0 and 1. If r2 has a 0 value then it indicates no correlation, but
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if it has a value equal to 1 then it indicates that there is perfect correlation and as
such the regression line is a perfect estimator. However, in most cases, the value of
r2 will lie somewhere between these two extremes of 1 and 0. One should remember
NOTES that r2 close to 1 indicates a strong correlation between X and Y, while an r2 near 0
means there is little correlation between these two variables. r2 value can as well be
interpreted by looking at the amount of the variation in Y, the dependant variable, that
is explained by the regression line. Supposing, we get a value of r2 = 0.925 then this
would mean that the variations in independent variable (say X) would explain 92.5
per cent of the variation in the dependent variable (say Y). If r2 is close to 1 then it
indicates that the regression equation explains most of the variations in the dependent
variable (see Example 4.30).
Example 4.30: Calculate the coefficient of determination (r2) using the provided
data. Calculate and analyse the result.
Observations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Income (X) (‘00 `) 41 65 50 57 96 94 110 30 79 65
Consumption
Expenditure (Y) (‘00 `) 44 60 39 51 80 68 84 34 55 48
Solution:
r2 can be worked out as follows:
2
Unexplained variation Y Yˆ
Since, r2 =1 =1
Total variation 2
Y Y
2 2
As, Y Y Y2 Y2 nY , we can write,
2
Y Yˆ
r2 =1
Y2 nY 2
Calculating and putting the various values, we have the following equation:
260.54 260.54
r2 = 1 2
1
2526.10
0.897
34223 10 56.3
Analysis of Result: The regression equation used to calculate the value of the
coefficient of determination (r2) from the sample data shows that, about 90 per cent
of the variations in consumption expenditure can be explained. In other words, it
means that the variations in income explain about 90 per cent of variations in
consumption expenditure.
Observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Income (X) (’00 `) 41 65 50 57 96 94 110 30 79 65
Consumption
Expenditure (Y) (’00 `) 44 60 39 51 80 68 84 34 55 48

Properties of correlation coefficient Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
The coefficient of correlation, symbolically denoted by ‘r’, is another important
measure to describe how well one variable is explained by another. It measures the
degree of relationship between the two casually related variables. The value of this
NOTES
coefficient can never be more than +1 or less than –1. Thus, +1 and –1 are the limits
of this coefficient. For a unit change in independent variable, if there happens to be
a constant change in the dependent variable in the same direction, then the value of
the coefficient will be +1 indicative of the perfect positive correlation; but if such a
change occurs in the opposite direction, the value of the coefficient will be –1,
indicating the perfect negative correlation. In practical life, the possibility of obtaining
either a perfect positive or perfect negative correlation is very remote particularly in
respect of phenomena concerning social sciences. If the coefficient of correlation
has a zero value then it means that there exists no correlation between the variables
under study.
There are several methods of finding the coefficient of correlation, but the following
ones are considered important:
(a) Coefficient of correlation by the method of least squares.
(b) Coefficient of correlation using simple regression coefficients.
(c) Coefficient of correlation through product moment method or Karl Pearson’s
coefficient of correlation.
Whichever of these three methods we adopt, we get the same value of r.
II. Method of Least Squares
Under this method, first, the estimating equation is obtained using the least square
method of simple regression analysis. The equation is worked out as,
Yˆ a bX i
2
Total variation Y Y
2
Unexplained variation Y Yˆ
2
Explained variation Yˆ Y
Then, by applying the following formulae, we can find the value of the coefficient of
correlation as,
Explained variation
r = r2
Total variation
Unexplained variation
= 1
Total variation
2
Y Yˆ
1
= 2
Y Y

Statistics in Measurement This clearly shows that the coefficient of correlation happens to be the square root
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of the coefficient of determination.
Short-cut formula for finding the value of ‘r’ by the method of least squares
can be repeated and readily written as,
NOTES
a Y b XY nY 2
r =
Y2 nY 2
Where, a = Y-intercept
b = Slope of the estimating equation
X = Values of the independent variable
Y
_ = Values of dependent variable
Y = Mean of the observed values of Y
n = Number of items in the sample
(i.e., pairs of observed data)
The plus (+) or the minus (–) sign of the coefficient of correlation worked out
by the method of least squares, is related to the sign of ‘b’ in the estimating
equation, viz., Yˆ a bX i . If ‘b’ has a minus sign, the sign of ‘r’ will also be
minus, but if ‘b’ has a plus sign, then the sign of ‘r’ will also be plus. The value
of ‘r’ indicates the degree along with the direction of the relationship between the
two variables X and Y.
III. Simple Regression Coefficients

Under this method, the estimating equation of Y and the estimating equation of X is
worked out using the method of least squares. From these estimating equations we
find the regression coefficient of X on Y, i.e., the slope of the estimating equation of
σX
X (symbolically written as bXY) and this happens to be equal to r and similarly,,
σY
we find the regression coefficient of Y on X, i.e., the slope of the estimating equation
σY
of Y (symbolically written as bYX) and this happens to be equal to r . For finding
σX
‘r’, the square root of the product of these two regression coefficients are worked
out as1
r = bXY .bYX
σ X σY
= r .r
σY σ X
= r2 = r
As stated earlier, the sign of ‘r’ will depend upon the sign of the regression
coefficients. If they have minus sign, then ‘r’ will take minus sign but the sign of ‘r’
will be plus if regression coefficients have plus sign.

IV. Other Measures Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
Two other measures are often talked about along with the coefficients of
determinations and that of correlation. These are as follows:
(a) Coefficient of Non-Determination: Instead of using coefficient of NOTES
determination, sometimes coefficient of nondetermination is used. Coefficient
of non-determination (denoted by k2) is the ratio of unexplained variation to
total variation in the Y variable related to the X variable. Algebrically,
2
Y Yˆ
Unexplained variation
k2 = = 2
Total variation Y Y
Concerning the data of Example 1, coefficient of nondetermination will be calculated

as follows:
260.54
k2 0.103
2526.10
The value of k2 shows that about 10 per cent of the variation in consumption
expenditure remains unexplained by the regression equation we had worked out,
viz., Ŷ 14.000 + 0.616Xi. In simple terms, this means that variable other than
X is responsible for 10 per cent of the variations in the dependent variable Y in
the given case.
Coefficient of non-determination can as well be worked out as,
k2 = 1 – r2
Accordingly for Example 1, it will be equal to 1–0.897 = 0.103.
Note: Always remember that r2 + k2 = 1.
(b) Coefficient of Alienation: Based on k2, we can work out one more measure,
namely the coefficient of alienation, symbolically written as ‘k’. Thus,
coefficient of alienation, i.e., ‘k’ = k 2 .
Unlike r + k2 = 1, the sum of ‘r’ and ‘k’ will not be equal to 1 unless one of
the two coefficients is 1 and in this case the remaining coefficients must be zero.
In all other cases, ‘r’ + ‘k’ > 1. Coefficient of alienation is not a popular measure
from a practical point of view and is used very rarely.
V. Karl Pearson’s Coefficient

Karl Pearson’s method is the most widely used method of measuring the relationship
between two variables. This coefficient is based on the following assumptions:
(a) There is a linear relationship between the two variables, which means that a
straight line would be obtained if the observed data is plotted on a graph.
(b) The two variables are casually related, which means that one of the variables
is independent and the other one is dependent.

Statistics in Measurement (c) A large number of independent causes operate on both the variables so as to
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produce a normal distribution.
According to Karl Pearson, ‘r’ can be worked out as,
NOTES ∑ XY
r = nσ σ
X Y
_
Where, X = (X – X
_)
Y = (Y – Y )
σX = Standard deviation of
X2
X series and is equal to
n
σY = Standard deviation of
∑Y 2
Y series and is equal to
n
n = Number of pairs of X and Y observed
A short-cut formula, known as the Product Moment Formula, can be derived from
the above stated formula as,
∑ XY
r = nσ σ
X Y
∑ XY
=
∑ X 2 ∑Y2
⋅
n n
∑ XY
n =
∑ X 2 ∑Y2
The above formulae are based on obtaining true means (viz., X and Y ) first and
then doing all other calculations. This happens to be a tedious task, particularly
if the true means are in fractions. To avoid difficult calculations, we make use of
the assumed means in taking out deviations and doing the related calculations. In
such a situation, we can use the following formula for finding the value of ‘r’:2
(a) In Case of Ungrouped Data:
∑ dX .dY  ∑ dX ∑ dY 
− ⋅ 
n  n n 
r = 2 2
∑ dX 2  ∑ dX  ∑ dY
2
 ∑ dY 
−  . −⋅  
n  n  n  n 
dX dY
dX .dY
n
= 2 2
2 dX 2 dY
dX dY
n n
Where, ∑dX = ∑(X – XA) XA = Assumed average of X Statistics in Measurement
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∑dY = ∑(Y – YA) YA = Assumed average of Y
∑dX2 = ∑(X – XA)2
NOTES
∑dY2 = ∑(Y – YA)2
∑dX . dY = ∑(X – XA) (Y – YA)
n = Number of pairs of observations of X and Y
(b) In Case of Grouped Data:
∑ fdX .dY  ∑ fdX ∑ fdY 

− . 
n  n n 
r = 2 2
∑ fdX 2  ∑ fdX  ∑ fdY 2  ∑ fdY 
−  − 
n  n  n  n 
 ∑ fdX . ∑ fdY 
∑ fdX .dY −  
 n 
or r = 2 2
 ∑ fdX   ∑ fdY 
∑ fdX 2 −   ∑ fdY 2 −  
 n   n 
Where, ∑fdX.dY =0∑f (X – XA) (Y – YA)

∑fdX = ∑f (X – XA)
∑fdY = ∑f (Y – YA)
∑fdY2 = ∑f (Y – YA)2
∑fdX2 = ∑f (X – XA)2
n = Number of pairs of observations of X and Y
Probable Error (P.E.) of the Coefficient of Correlation

Probable Error (P.E.) of r is very useful in interpreting the value of r and is worked
out for Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation as,
1 − r2
P.E. = 0.6745
n
If r is less than its P.E., it is not at all significant. If r is more than P.E., there
is correlation. If r is more than six times its P.E. and greater than ± 0.5, then it
is considered significant. Let us consider Example 2.

Statistics in Measurement Example 4.31: From the following data calculate ‘r’ between X and Y applying the
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following three methods:
(a) The method of least squares.
NOTES (b) The method based on regression coefficients.
(c) The product moment method of Karl Pearson.
Verify the obtained result of any one method with that of another.
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Y 9 8 10 12 11 13 14 16 15
Solution:
Let us develop the following table for calculating the value of ‘r’:
X Y X2 Y2 XY
1 9 1 81 9
2 8 4 64 16
3 10 9 100 30
4 12 16 144 48
5 11 25 121 55
6 13 36 169 78
7 14 49 196 98
8 16 64 256 128
9 15 81 225 135
n=9
∑X = 45 ∑Y = 108 ∑X2 = 285 ∑Y2 = 1356 ∑XY = 597
_ _
∴ X = 5; Y = 12
(a) Coefficient of correlation by the method of least squares is worked out as
follows:
First find out the estimating equation,
Ŷ = a + bXi
XY nXY
Where, b = 2
X2 nX
597 9 5 12 597 540 57

= = = 0.95
285 9 25 285 225 60
_ _
and a = Y – bX
= 12 – 0.95(5) = 12 – 4.75 = 7.25
Hence, Ŷ = 7.25 + 0.95Xi and Evaluation-I
Now ‘r’ can be worked out as follows by the method of least squares,
Unexplained variation NOTES

r = 1−
Total variation
2 2
Y Yˆ Ŷ Y
1
= 2 = 2
Y Y Y Y
2
a Y b XY nY
= 2
Y2 nY
This is as per short-cut formula,
2
7.25 (108 ) + 0.95 ( 597 ) − 9 (12 )
r = 2
1356 − 9 (12 )
783 567.15 1296

=
1356 1296
54.15
= = 0.9025 = 0.95
60
(b) Coefficient of correlation by the method based on regression coefficients is
worked out as,
 Regression coefficients of Y on X,
XY nXY
i.e., b YX = 2 2
X nX
597 9 5 12 597 540 57
= 285 9 5 285 225 60
Regression coefficient of X on Y,
XY nXY
i.e., bXY = 2 2
Y nY
597 9 5 12 597 540 57
= 2
1356 9 12 1356 1296 60
Hence, r = bYX . bXY
57 57 57
= × = = 0.95
60 60 60

Statistics in Measurement (c) Coefficient of correlation by the product moment method of Karl Pearson is
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worked out as,
XY nXY
r = 2 2
NOTES X2 nX Y2 nY
597 9 5 12
= 2 2
285 9 5 1356 9 12
597 540 57 57
= = = 0.95
285 225 1356 1296 60 60 60
Hence, we get the value of r = 0.95. We get the same value by applying the other
two methods also. Therefore, whichever method we apply, the results will be the
same.
Product Moment Correlation
In statistics, the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient is a measure
of the correlation (linear dependence) between two variables X and Y, giving a
value between +1 and −1 inclusive. It is sometimes referred the PPMCC or PCC
or Pearson’s r. It is widely used in the sciences as a measure of the strength
of linear dependence between two variables. It was developed by Karl Pearson
from a related idea introduced by Francis Galton in the 1880s.
Pearson’s correlation coefficient between two variables is defined as the
covariance of the two variables divided by the product of their standard deviations.
The form of the definition involves a ‘product moment’, i.e., the mean (the first
moment about the origin) of the product of the mean adjusted random variables;
hence the modifier product moment in the name.
For a Population
Pearson’s correlation coefficient when applied to a population is commonly
represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho) and may be referred to as the population
correlation coefficient or the population Pearson correlation coefficient. The
formula for ρ is:
cov( X , Y ) E ( X − µ X )(Y − µY )

=
ρ X ,Y =
σ X σY σ X σY
For a Sample
Pearson’s correlation coefficient when applied to a sample is commonly represented
by the letter r and may be referred to as the sample correlation coefficient or
the sample Pearson correlation coefficient. We can obtain a formula for r by
substituting estimates of the covariances and variances based on a sample into
the above formula. That formula for r is:
∑in=1 ( X i − X )(Yi − Y )
r=
(X −X) (Y − Y )
n 2 n 2
=i 1 =
i i 1 ∑ ∑ i

An equivalent expression gives the correlation coefficient as the mean of the Statistics in Measurement
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products of the standard scores. Based on a sample of paired data (Xi, Yi), the
sample Pearson correlation coefficient is as follows:
1 n  X i − X  Yi − Y  NOTES
r= ∑ 
n − 1 i =1  s X  sY 

Where,
Xi − X
, X , and s are the standard score, sample mean, and sample standard
sX X
deviation, respectively.
How to Calculate Product Moment Correlation Coefficient?
The product moment correlation coefficient allows you to work out the linear
dependence of two variables (referred to as X and Y). Let us consider an
example, suppose you are the owner of a restaurant. You record the time of
every 10th customer stayed in your restaurant (X in minutes) and the amount
spend (Y, in rupees). If it is considered that the longer time the customer stayed
the bigger is the amount spend, then this would be a positive correlation. Or it can
also be considered in the other way, i.e., the richer the client the lesser time he
takes for lunch in restaurant, then this would be a negative correlation. Pearson
Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient or PMCC can be calculated to find the
correlation in a situation.
Step 1: Remove Incomplete Pairs: After removing incomplete pairs, use only
those observations where both X and Y are known. However, do not exclude
observations just because one of the values equals zero.
Step 2: Summarize the Data into the Values needed for the Calculation:
These are:
• n: The number of data.
• ΣX: The sum of all the X values.
• ΣX2: The sum of the squares of the X values.
• ΣY: The sum of all the Y values.
• ΣY2: The sum of the squares of the Y values.
• ΣXY: The sum of each X value multiplied by its corresponding Y value.
Step 3: Calculate SXY, SXX and SYY using these values:
• SXY =ΣXY − (ΣXY ÷ n)
• SXX =ΣX2 – (ΣX ΣX ÷ n)
• SXY =ΣY2 – (ΣY ΣY ÷ n)
Step 4: Insert these Values into the Equation below to Calculate the
Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r): The value should be between
1 and –1.
and Evaluation-I S xy
r=
S xy S yy
• If a value is close to 1 implies strong positive correlation. The higher the

NOTES
X, the higher the Y.
• If a value close to 0 implies little or no correlation.
• If a value close to −1 implies strong negative correlation. The higher the
X, the lower the Y.
Rank Correlation
If observations on two variables are given in the form of ranks and not as numerical
values, it is possible to compute what is known as rank correlation between the two
series.
The rank correlation, written as ρ, is a descriptive index of agreement
between ranks over individuals. It is the same as the ordinary coefficient of
correlation computed on ranks, but its formula is simpler.
6ΣDi2
ρ = 1−
n ( n 2 − 1)
Here, n is the number of observations and Di , the positive difference between
ranks associated with the individuals i.
Like r, the rank correlation lies between –1 and +1. Consider Examples 3 and
4 for better understanding
Example 4.32: The ranks given by two judges to 10 individuals are as follows:
Rank given by
Individual Judge I Judge II D D2
x y = x–y
1 1 7 6 36
2 2 5 3 9
3 7 8 1 1
4 9 10 1 1
5 8 9 1 1
6 6 4 2 4
7 4 1 3 9
8 3 6 3 9
9 10 3 7 49
10 5 2 3 9
ΣD2 = 128

Solution: Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
The rank correlation is given by,
6ΣD 2 6 × 128
ρ= 1− 3 = 1− 3 =1 − 0.776 = 0.224
n −n 10 − 10 NOTES
The value of ρ = 0.224 shows that the agreement between the judges is not high.
Example 4.33: Consider Example 3 and compute r and compare.
Solution:
The simple coefficient of correlation r for the previous data is calculated as follows:
x y 2 y2 xy
1 7 1 49 7
2 5 4 25 10
7 8 49 64 56
9 10 81 100 90
8 9 64 81 72
6 4 36 16 24
4 1 16 1 4
3 6 9 36 18
10 3 100 9 30
5 2 25 4 10
Σx = 55 Σy = 55 Σx2 = 385 Σy2 = 385 Σxy = 321
55 55
321 − 10 × ×
10 10 18.5 18.5
r = = = = 0.224
2 2 82.5 × 82.5 82.5
 55   55 
385 − 10 ×   385 − 10 ×  
 10   10 
This shows that the Spearman ρ for any two sets of ranks is the same as
the Pearson r for the set of ranks. However, it is much easier to compute ρ.
Often, the ranks are not given. Instead, the numerical values of observations are
given. In such a case, we must attach the ranks to these values to calculate ρ.
Example 4.34: Show by means of diagrams various cases of scatter expressing
correlation between x, y.
Solution:
(a) (b) Y
Y
O X
Positive slope
Direct linear relationship
High scatter r low, positive
O X
Negative slope
Inverse linear relationship
High scatter r low, negative Self-Instructional Material 177
and Evaluation-I (c) Y (d) Y
NOTES
O X O X
Slope = 0 No relationship
r=0 r~–0
(e) Y (f) Y
O X
Direct
O X curvilinear relationship
Inverse
curvilinear relationship
(g) Y
O X
Perfect relationship
But, r = 0 because of
non-linear relation
Correlation analysis helps us in determining the degree to which two or more

variables are related to each other.
When there are only two variables, we can determine the degree to which
one variable is linearly related to the other. Regression analysis helps in determining
the pattern of relationship between one or more independent variables and a dependent
variable. This is done by an equation estimated with the help of data.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

11. What is theory of correlation?
12. What does correlation analysis help us in determining?

4.6 PERCENTILE AND PERCENTILE RANK and Evaluation-I
Percentile is the point below which the given percent of cases lies. We know that
median is the point in the distribution below which 50% of the case lies. We also NOTES
know how to calculate median and quartile deviation. It was discussed earlier that
Q1 and Q3 mark points in the distribution below which lie 25% and 75% of the cases
respectively. By using the same method we can compute points below which any
percent of cases, say 10%, 45%, 70%, 80%, 85% or any percent of the scores or
cases lie. These points are called as percentiles and are represented by the symbol
‘Pp’, the P referring to the percentage of cases below the given value or score.
Thus P15 refers to the point below which 15% of the scores lie, P85 refers the point
or score below which 85% of the scores lies. Suppose a student is declared as
achieving 84th percentile (P84) in a test, it means that his position in the test is very
good as 84% of the examinees have achieved marks which are less than this student.
In other words 84% of the students of his class are inferior to him, or he is better
than 84% of the students of his class.
The method of finding out the percentile is essentially the same as we have
seen and used in computing median and quartile deviation. Following formula may
be used to compute percentile:
Pp = l + [(pN – F)/fp] x i
Where,
P = percentage of the distribution to be calculate, such as 15%, 30%, 50% (median),
70% etc.
l = Exact lower limit of the class interval upon which Pp lies.
pN = Part of N to be counted off in order to reach Pp.
f = Sum of all scores upon intervals below l.
fp = Number of scores within the interval upon which Pp falls.
i = Size or length of the class interval.
Percentile is the very useful concept to represent the exact position of an individual
in the class. Merely percentage of marks such as 80% in mathematics does not give
much information about the learner progress or achievement. It simply gives
information that this student has got 80 % marks. May be this 80% marks is the
highest in the class or may be that this marks is the lowest in the class or may be that
this is the average marks obtained by students in the class. In the other way if we
present marks of student in percentile then it represent exact performance of students
with reference to the class. For example if we say that a student A has got P80 (80th
Percentile) in the class then it gives information that 80% of his or her classmates
have scores below him or her i.e. the learner is very-very good in comparison to
others in the class. He or she is one of the 20% good performers of the class.

Statistics in Measurement Use of Quartile Deviation, Standard Deviation and Percentile in
and Evaluation-I
Classroom Situation
Quartile deviation (QD) should be used when :
NOTES • The median is the measure of central tendency.
• There are scattered scores in the distribution or there are extreme scores in
the distribution which can influence the standard deviation of the distribution
disproportionately.
• The interest of the researcher is the concentration of scores around the median,
in other words the middle 50% of the cases.
Standard deviation (SD) should be used when:
• The statistics having the greatest stability is required by the researcher.
• The extreme deviations exercise a proportionally greater effect upon the
variability.
• Coefficient of correlation and other statistics are subsequently to be calculated.
Percentile should be used when:
• You wish to evaluate and compare the achievement of a given student in
tests of different subjects.
• You are interested in locating the exact position of a student in the class in
terms of his or her performance.
• You want to find out how much percent of students are below a particular
score in the class.
Skewness
Skewness refers to lack of symmetry in a distribution. In a symmetrical distribution, the
mean, median and mode coincide. Positive and negative skewness is shown in Figure
4.3.
180 Self-Instructional Material Fig. 4.3 Skewness

In a positively skewed distribution, the longer tail is on the right side and the Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
mean is on the right of the median.
In a negatively skewed distribution, the longer tail is on the left and the mean
is on the left of the median.
NOTES
In a skewed distribution, the distance between the mean and the median is
nearly one-third of that between the mean and the mode.
How to check the presence of skewness in a distribution
In the following cases skewness is present in the data:
(a) The graph is not symmetrical.
(b) The mean, median and mode do not coincide.
(c) The quartiles are not equidistant from the mean.
(d) The sum of positive and negative deviations from the median is not zero.
(e) Frequencies are not similarly distributed on either side of the mode.
Measure of skewness
A measure of skewness gives a numerical expression and the direction of asymmetry
in a distribution. It gives information about the shape of the distribution and the
degree of variation on either side of the central value.
We consider some relative measures of skewness that are as follows:
(a) Pearson’s coefficient of skewness
x − M O 3( x − M d )
PSk
= =
s s
It may have any value, but usually it lies between –1 and +1.
Example 4.35: If for a given data it is found that
x = 10, Mode = 8, s = 4, we have

x − M O 10 − 8
PSk
= = = 0.5
s 4
(b) Bowley’s coefficient of skewness
Q3 − Q1 − 2 M d
BSk =
Q3 − Q1
Its value lies between –1 and +1.
Example 4.36: If for a given data=
Q1 2,=
Q3 8,=
Md 5
Q3 + Q1 − 2 M d 8 + 2 − 5
BSk
= = = 0.83
Q3 − Q1 8−2
(c) Kelley’s coefficient of skewness
1
KSk =P50 − ( P10 + P90 ) Self-Instructional Material 181
2
and Evaluation-I
where P10 , P50 and P90 are the 10th, 50th and 90th percentiles of the data.
(d) Method of moments
NOTES If µ 2 , µ 3 are moments about the mean we have the coefficient of skewness
µ 23
=
β1 = 3
µ 23 / σ 6
µ2
Sometimes, we define the coefficient of skewness as follows:
µ 23 µ 3
=
γ1 =
β1 =
µ 32 σ 3
Kurtosis
Kurtosis is a measure of peakedness of a distribution. It shows the degree of convexity
of a frequency curve.
If the normal curve is taken as the standard, symmetrical and bell-shaped
curve then kurtosis gives a measure of departure from the normal convexity of a
distribution. The normal curve is mesokurtic. It is of intermediate peakedness. The
flat-topped curve, broader than the normal, is termed platykurtic. The slender, highly
peaked curve is termed leptokurtic.
Measures of kurtosis
4 μ
(a) Moment Coefficient of Kurtosis : β 2 =μ 2
2
Instead of β 2 we often use γ 2 = β 2 − 3 which is positive for a leptokurtic
distribution, negative for a platykurtic distribution and zero for the normal
distribution.
Q 1
(b) Percentile Coefficient of Kurtosis k = =
, where Q ( Q3 − Q1 )
P90 − P10 2
is the semi-interquartile range.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

13. What is skewness?
14. What occurs in a skewed distribution?
4.7 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE
In probability theory, the normal probability curve or normal (or Gaussian) distribution
is considered as the most frequently occurring continuous probability distribution.
Normal distributions are exceptionally significant in statistics and are typically used

in the context of natural and social sciences generally for real-valued random variables Statistics in Measurement
whose distributions are not known. The curve of normal distribution is illustrated and Evaluation-I
using the normal probability curve and is the most common type of distribution.
Typically, a normal distribution is a very important statistical data distribution pattern
occurring in many natural phenomena, such as height, blood pressure, lengths of NOTES
objects produced by machines, etc. Certain data, when graphed as a histogram
(data on the horizontal axis, amount of data on the vertical axis), creates a bell-
shaped curve known as a normal probability curve or normal distribution.
The graph of the normal distribution depends on two factors - the mean
(average) and standard deviation (σ, sigma). The mean of the distribution determines
the location of the center of the graph and the standard deviation determines the
height and width of the graph. If the standard deviation is large, the curve is short
and wide while if the standard deviation is small, the curve is tall and narrow. All
normal distributions look like a symmetric, bell-shaped curve. Thus, a normal
probability curve shows the theoretical shape of a normally distributed histogram.
The shape of the normal probability curve is also based on two parameters: mean
(average) and standard deviation (σ, sigma). Thus, the normal distribution is a very
important class of statistical distribution. All normal distributions are symmetric and
have bell-shaped density curves with a single peak. Specifically, in any normal
distribution, two quantities have to be specified, the mean µ where the peak of the
density occurs and the standard deviation σ which indicates the spread or girth of
the bell curve.
Among all the probability distributions, the normal probability distribution is by
far the most important and frequently used continuous probability distribution. This
is so because this distribution fits well in many types of problems. This distribution is
of special significance in inferential statistics since it describes probabilistically the
link between a statistic and a parameter (i.e., between the sample results and the
population from which the sample is drawn). The name Karl Gauss, 18th century
mathematician–astronomer, is associated with this distribution and in honour of his
contribution, this distribution is often known as the Gaussian distribution.
Normal distribution can be theoretically derived as the limiting form of many discrete
distributions. For instance, if in the binomial expansion of (p + q)n, the value of ‘n’is
1
infinity and p = q = , then a perfectly smooth symmetrical curve would be obtained.
2
Even if the values of p and q are not equal but if the value of the exponent ‘n’
happens to be very very large, we get a curve of normal probability smooth and
symmetrical. Such curves are called normal probability curves (or at times known
as normal curves of error) and such curves represent the normal distributions.1
The probability function in case of normal probability distribution2 is given as:
1  x −μ  2
1 −  
f ( x) = e 2 σ 
σ. 2π
Where, µ = The mean of the distribution.
σ2 = Variance of the distribution.
The normal distribution is thus defined by two parameters viz., µ and σ2. This
distribution can be represented graphically as in Figure 7.1.

Statistics in Measurement Characteristics of Normal Distribution
and Evaluation-I
The characteristics of the normal distribution or that of a normal curve are, as given
as follow:
NOTES 1. It is a symmetric distribution.
2. The mean µ defines where the peak of the curve occurs. In other words, the
ordinate at the mean is the highest ordinate. The height of the ordinate at a
distance of one standard deviation from the mean is 60.653% of the height of
the mean ordinate and similarly the height of other ordinates at various standard
deviations (σs) from mean happens to be a fixed relationship with the height
of the mean ordinate (see Figure 4.4).
3. The curve is asymptotic to the base line which means that it continues to
approach but never touches the horizontal axis.
4. The variance (σ2) defines the spread of the curve.
5. Area enclosed between mean ordinate and an ordinate at a distance of one
standard deviation from the mean is always 34.134% of the total area of the
curve. It means that the area enclosed between two ordinates at one sigma
(SD) distance from the mean on either side would always be 68.268% of the
total area. This can be shown as follows:
(34.134% + 34.134%) = 68.268%

Area of the total
curve between µ ± 1(σ)
X or X
–3σ –2σ –σ µ +σ +2σ +3σ
Fig. 4.4 Area of the Total Curve between µ ± 1 (σ)
Similarly, the other area relationships are as follows:

Between Area Covered to Total Area of the
Normal Curve 4
µ ±1 S.D. 68.27%
µ ±2 S.D. 95.45%
µ ±3 S.D. 99.73%
µ ± 1.96 S.D. 95%
µ ± 2.578 S.D. 99%
µ ± 0.6745 S.D. 50%
6. The normal distribution has only one mode since the curve has a single peak.
In other words, it is always a unimodal distribution.
7. The maximum ordinate divides the graph of normal curve into two equal parts.
8. In addition to all the above stated characteristics the curve has the following
properties:
_
(a) µ = x
(b) µ2= σ2 = Variance
(c) µ4=3σ4 Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
(d) Moment Coefficient of Kurtosis = 3
Family of Normal Distributions

We can have several normal probability distributions but each particular normal NOTES
distribution is being defined by its two parameters viz., the mean (µ) and the standard
deviation (σ). There is, thus, not a single normal curve but rather a family of normal
curves (see Figure 4.5). We can exhibit some of these as under:
Normal curves with identical means but different standard deviations:
Curve having small standard
deviation say (σ = 1)
Curve having large standard
Curve having very large standard
µ in a normal
distribution
Normal curves with identical standard deviation but each with different means:
Normal curves each with different standard deviations and different means:
Fig. 4.5 Family of Curves
How to Measure the Area under the Normal Curve

We have stated above some of the area relationships involving certain intervals of
standard deviations (plus and minus) from the means that are true in case of a
normal curve. But what should be done in all other cases? We can make use of the
statistical tables constructed by mathematicians for the purpose. Using these tables
we can find the area (or probability, taking the entire area of the curve as equal to 1)
that the normally distributed random variable will lie within certain distances from
the mean. These distances are defined in terms of standard deviations. While using
the tables showing the area under the normal curve we talk in terms of standard

Statistics in Measurement variate (symbolically Z ) which really means standard deviations without units of
and Evaluation-I
measurement and this ‘Z’ is worked out as under:
X −μ
Z=
σ
NOTES Where, Z = The standard variate (or number of standard deviations from X to the
mean of the distribution).
X = Value of the random variable under consideration.
µ = Mean of the distribution of the random variable.
σ = Standard deviation of the distribution.
The table showing the area under the normal curve (often termed as the standard
normal probability distribution table) is organized in terms of standard variate (or Z)
values. It gives the values for only half the area under the normal curve, beginning
with Z = 0 at the mean. Since the normal distribution is perfectly symmetrical the
values true for one half of the curve are also true for the other half. We now
illustrate the use of such a table for working out certain problems.
Example 4.37: A banker claims that the life of a regular savings account opened
with his bank averages 18 months with a standard deviation of 6.45 months. Answer
the following: (a) What is the probability that there will still be money in 22 months in
a savings account opened with the said bank by a depositor? (b) What is the probability
that the account will have been closed before two years?
Solution: (a) For finding the required probability we are interested in the area of the
portion of the normal curve as shaded and shown in figure given below:
σ = 6.45
μ = 18
z=0 X = 22
Let us calculate Z as under:

X −μ 22 − 18
Z = = = 0.62
σ 6.45
The value from the table showing the area under the normal curve for Z = 0.62 is
0.2324. This means that the area of the curve between µ = 18 and X = 22 is 0.2324.
Hence, the area of the shaded portion of the curve is (0.5) – (0.2324) = 0.2676 since
the area of the entire right hand portion of the curve always happens to be 0.5. Thus,
the probability that there will still be money in 22 months in a savings account is
0.2676.

(b) For finding the required probability we are interested in the area of the portion Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
of the normal curve as shaded and shown in figure given below:
σ = 6.45 NOTES
μ = 18 X = 24
z=0
For the purpose we calculate,

24 18
Z 0.93
6.45
The value from the concerning table, when Z = 0.93, is 0.3238 which refers to the
area of the curve between µ = 18 and X = 24. The area of the entire left hand portion
of the curve is 0.5 as usual.
Hence, the area of the shaded portion is (0.5) + (0.3238) = 0.8238 which is the
required probability that the account will have been closed before two years, i.e.,
before 24 months.
Example 4.38: Regarding a certain normal distribution concerning the income of
the individuals we are given that mean=500 rupees and standard deviation =100
rupees. Find the probability that an individual selected at random will belong to
income group,
(a) ` 550 to ` 650 (b) ` 420 to `570
Solution: (a) To find the required probability we are interested in the area of the
portion of the normal curve as shaded and shown below:
= 100
= 500
µ = 500 X = 650
z = 0 X = 550
To find the area of the curve between X = 550 to 650, let us do the following
calculations:
550 − 500 50
Z
= = = 0.50
100 100
Corresponding to which the area between µ = 500 and X = 550 in the curve as per
table is equal to 0.1915 and,

and Evaluation-I 650 500 150
Z 1.5
100 100
Corresponding to which, the area between µ = 500 and X = 650 in the curve, as per
NOTES table, is equal to 0.4332.
Hence, the area of the curve that lies between X = 550 and X = 650 is,
(0.4332) – (0.1915) = 0.2417
This is the required probability that an individual selected at random will belong to
income group of ` 550 to ` 650.
(b) To find the required probability, we are interested in the area of the portion of
the normal curve as shaded and shown below:
To find the area of the shaded portion we make the following calculations:
= 100
= 100
z=0
z=0
X = 420 X = 570
570 − 500
=Z = 0.70
100
table is equal to 0.2580.
420 − 500
and Z= = −0.80
100
table is equal to 0.2881.
Hence, the required area in the curve between X = 420 and X = 570 is,
(0.2580) + (0.2881) = 0.5461
This is the required probability that an individual selected at random will belong to
income group of ` 420 to ` 570.
1''
Example 4.39: A certain company manufactures 1 all-purpose rope using
2
imported hemp. The manager of the company knows that the average load-bearing
capacity of the rope is 200 lbs. Assuming that normal distribution applies, find the
1''
standard deviation of load-bearing capacity for the 1 rope if it is given that the
2
188 Self-Instructional Material rope has a 0.1210 probability of breaking with 68 lbs. or less pull.
Solution: Given information can be depicted in a normal curve as shown below: Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
Probability of this
area (0.5) – (0.1210) = 0.3790
σ = ? (to be found out) NOTES
Probability of this area

(68 lbs. or less)
as given is 0.1210
μ = 200
X = 68 z=0
If the probability of the area falling within µ = 200 and X = 68 is 0.3790 as stated
above, the corresponding value of Z as per the standard statistical tables showing
the area of the normal curve is – 1.17 (minus sign indicates that we are in the left
portion of the curve).
Now to find σ, we can write,
X −μ
Z=
σ
68 − 200
or −1.17 =
σ
or −1.17σ =
−132
or σ = 112.8 lbs. approx.
Thus, the required standard deviation is 112.8 lbs. approximately.
Example 4.40: In a normal _distribution, 31 per cent items are below 45 and 8 per
cent are above 64. Find the X and σ of this distribution.
Solution: We can depict the given information in a normal curve as shown below:
X X
X
X
If the probability of the area falling within µ and X = 45 is 0.19 as stated above, the
corresponding value of Z from the table showing the area of the normal curve is –
0.50. Since, we are in the left portion of the curve, we can express this as under,
45 − μ
−0.50 = (1)
σ
Similarly, if the probability of the area falling within µ and X = 64 is 0.42, as stated
above, the corresponding value of Z from the area table is, +1.41. Since, we are in
the right portion of the curve we can express this as under, Self-Instructional Material 189
Statistics in Measurement 64 − μ
and Evaluation-I 1.41 = (2)
σ
If we solve Equations (1) and (2) above to obtain the value of µ or X , we have,
− 0.5 σ = 45 – µ (3)
NOTES 1.41 σ = 64 – µ (4)
By subtracting Equation (4) from Equation (3) we have,
− 1.91 σ = –19
∴ σ = 10
Putting σ = 10 in Equation (3) we have,
− 5 = 45 – µ
∴ _ µ = 50
Hence, X (or µ)=50 and σ =10 for the concerning normal distribution or probability
curve.
Applications of normal distribution or probability curve
The following are the applications of normal distribution or probability curve:
1. Random Processes: Many naturally occurring random processes tend to
have a distribution that is approximately normal. Examples can be found in
any field, these include: SAT test scores of college bound students and body
temperature of a healthy adult.
2. Approximation of Binomial Distribution: When np>5 and n(1-p)>5, the
normal distribution provides an good approximation of the binomial distribution.
Distributions that are based on multiple observations, for example the Binomial
distribution, approach the normal distribution when n gets large. The value n
>30 is usually considered large.
3. Standardization: It is used where it is usually hypothesize that the theoretical
distribution of a certain variable is normal, whereas the measurement of such
variable may not give a normal distribution.
For example, in the introductory classes of Statistics there are 200 students
and it has been assumed that the performance of all the students in the
examination should be normally distributed. In addition, for giving reasonable
distribution of marks, the mean should be 55 and the standard deviation should
be 10. After the examinations being over, the lecturer marked all the papers,
and the mean and standard deviation of the raw scores given by the lecturer
are 50 and 6, respectively. For converting the raw score to standardize score,
the follows steps were taken:
(a) The standard score is obtained by Z= (X-50)/6.
(b) Then the converted (standardized) = 10(Z) + 55.
Hence, a raw score of 56 will be converted into 65.
4. Composite Scores: When more than one measure is used to measure a
variable, the distribution of each measure usually differs from each other. In
order to obtain an unbiased measure using several different measurements,
each sub-measure is standardized before added together.

For example, if the marks are awarded according to the average of the marks Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
given by the Marker I and Marker II, then clearly the final grades are greatly
affected by the Marker I than by Marker II as Marker I is awarded the
marks with higher standard deviation as shown in table below:
For computing the composite score, the standardized scores of Marker I and NOTES
Marker II should be averaged. If the ideal average score (µ) and standard
deviation (σ) is taken to be 60 and 10, respectively, then the Z scores is
converted into the standard score for each marker. The following table shows
the resulted average standardized score 60 for every student.
5. Probability Distribution: The probability distribution of X for large n is the

normal distribution. The Central Limit Theorem states that if the observations
are independent for one population which has a mean (µ) and standard deviation
(σ) then for large n (n>30) X has a normal distribution with the same mean
and a standard deviation of σ / √n.
Normal Probability Curve and its properties and uses
The Normal Probability Curve (NPC), simply known as normal curve, is a symmetrical
bell-shaped curve. This curve is based upon the law of probability and was discovered
by French mathematician Abraham Demoivre (1667–1754) in the 18th century. In
this curve, the mean, median and mode lie at the middle point of the distribution. The
total area of the curve represents the total number of cases and the middle point
represents the mean, median and mode. The base line is divided into six sigma units
(σ units). The scores more than the mean come on the + σ side and the scores less
than the mean come on the – σ side. The mean point (middle point) is marked as
zero (0). All the scores are expected to lie between – 3σ to + 3σ.
Properties of Normal Probability Curve
The NPC or Normal Probability Curve has several features which are essential to
understand for its use. The major characteristics are limited. They are as follows:
• It is a bell-shaped curve.
• The measures of central tendency are equal, i.e, mean, mode and median
concentrate on one point.
• The height of the curve is 0.3989.
• It is an asymptotic curve. The ends of the curve approach but never touch
the X-axis at the extremes because of the possibility of locating in the population,
Statistics in Measurement in cases where scores are still higher than our highest score or lower than our
and Evaluation-I
lowest score. Therefore theoretically, it extends from minus infinity to plus
infinity as illustrated in Figure 4.6. Here, M is the mean or expectation (location
of the peak) and σ is the standard deviation.
NOTES
Fig. 4.6 Normal Curve Showing Areas at Different Distances from the Mean
• It has 50 per cent frequency above and 50 per cent below the mean. The
mean is zero and it is always reference point.
• Standard deviation of a normal curve is always 1.
• The points of inflection of the curve occur at points –1 unit above and below
mean.
• The distribution of frequency per cent has the definite limits.
• There is a definite relation between quartile deviation and standard deviation
in a normal distribution curve.
• It is a mathematical curve and is an open-ended curve.
Some limits are as follows:
• The middle 68 per cent frequency is between –1 and +1.
• The middle 95 per cent frequency is between –1.96 and + 1.96.
• The middle 99 per cent frequency is between –2.58 and + 2.58.
The total area under the normal curve is arbitrarily taken as 10,000. Every score
should be converted into standard score (Z score) by using the following formula:
X −M
Z=
σ
The area in proportion should be converted into a percentage at the time of
reading the table. From the table, we can see the areas from mean to σ and also we
can read the value of σ scores from the mean for the corresponding fractional area.
Uses of Normal Probability Curve: Determining Mean and Median
The uses of normal probability curve are discussed in this section.

NPC is used to Determine the Percentage of Cases within Given Limits Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
Example 4.41: Given a distribution of scores with a mean of 15 and a standard
deviation of 5, what percentage of cases lie between 18 and 25. Refer to Figure
given below to calculate the answer.
NOTES
(18-25)
25.15%
-3σ -2σ -1σ 1σ 2σ 3σ

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Solution: Both the raw scores (18 and 25) are to be converted into Z scores.
X −M 18 − 15
Z score of 18 = =
σ 5
3
=
5
= 0.6σ
X −M 25 − 15
Z score of 25 = =
σ 5
10
=
5
According to the table of area of a normal probability curve, the total
percentage of cases lie between the mean and 0.6σ is 22.57. The percentage of
cases lie between the mean and 2σ is 47.72. So, the total percentage of cases that
fall between the scores 18 and 25 is 47.72 – 22.57 = 25.15.
NPC is used to determine the limit which includes a given percentage
of cases
Example 4.42: Given a distribution of scores with a mean of 12 and an σ of 6, what
limits will include the middle 70 per cent of the cases? Refer to Figure given below
to calculate the answer.
70%
35% 35%
-3σ -2σ -1σ mean 1σ 2σ 3σ
Mean = 12, σ = 6

Statistics in Measurement Solution: The middle 70 per cent of the cases in a normal distribution signifies that
and Evaluation-I
35 per cent cases above the mean and also 35 per cent cases below the mean.
According to the table of area under NPC, 35 per cent of cases fall between the
mean and 1.04 σ. So the middle 70 per cent of the cases will lie between –1.04σ to
NOTES + 1.04σ.
The value of 1 σ = 6
So 1.04 σ = 6 × 1.04 = 6.24
The value of mean = 12
So the lowest limit for the middle 70 per cent cases of the distribution is:
12 – 6.24 = 5.76.
The highest limit for the middle 70 per cent cases of the distribution is:
12 + 6.24 = 18.24.
Thus, the middle 70 per cent cases lie in between 5.76 and 18.24.
NPC is used to Determine the Percentile Rank of a Student in his
Class
Example 4.43: The score of a student in a class test is 70. The mean for the whole
class is 50 and the σ is 10. Find the percentile rank of the student in the class. Refer
the Figure given below to find the answer.
M=50
S D= 10
97.72-PR
-3σ -2σ -1σ 1σ 2σ 3σ

20 30 40 60 70 80
70 − 50
Solution: The Z score for the score 70 is = 2σ
10
As per the table of area under the NPC, the area of the curve that lies
between mean and 2σ is 47.72 per cent. The total percentage of cases below 70 is:
50 + 47.72 = 97.72 per cent or 98 per cent.
Thus, the percentile rank of the student is 98.
NPC is used to Find out the Percentile Value of a Student whose Percentile
Rank is Known
Example 4.44: The percentile rank of a student in a class test is 80. The mean of
the class in the test is 50 and the σ is 20. Calculate the student’s score in the class
194 Self-Instructional Material test. Figure given below illustrates the case.
and Evaluation-I
80%
M=50 NOTES
SD=20
50% 30%
Score = 66.8
-3σ -2σ -1σ 84σ 1σ 2σ 3σ
Solution: The student has scored 30 per cent scores above the mean. According to
the table of area under NPC, 30 per cent cases from the mean is 0.84σ.
1σ = 20.
0.84σ = 20 × .84 = 16.8
Thus, the percentile value of the student is 50 + 16.8 = 66.8.
NPC is used to Divide a Group into Sub-Groups According to
their Capacity
Example 4.45: Suppose there is a group of 100 students in a Commerce class. We
want to divide them into five small groups A, B, C, D and E according to their ability,
the range of ability being equal in each sub-group. Find out how many students
should be placed in each category.
D B
E A
-3σ -1.8σ -.6σ Mean .6σ 1.8σ 3σ
Solution: The total area under NPC is –3σ to + 3σ, that is 6σ. This 6σ should be
divided into five parts, so 6σ ÷ 5 = 1.2σ.
According to the table of area under NPC:
3.5 per cent of the cases lie between 1.8 σ to 3σ (Group A, the high scorers).
23.8 per cent of the cases lie between .6σ to 1.8σ (23.8 per cent of the cases for B
and also 23.8 per cent of the cases for D), the middle 45 per cent of the cases lie –
0.6σ to + 0.6σ (Group C), and the lowest 3.5 per cent of the cases lie between –3σ
to – 1.8σ (Group E)

Statistics in Measurement In category ‘A’ the number of students = 3.5 per cent = 3 or 4 students.
and Evaluation-I
In category ‘B’ the number of students = 23.8 per cent = 24 students.
In category ‘C’ the number of students = 45 per cent = 45 students.
NOTES In category ‘D’ the number of students = 23.8 per cent = 24 students.
In category ‘E’ the number of students = 3.5 per cent = 3 or 4 students.
NPC is used to Compare the Scores of Students in Two Different Tests
Example 4.46: Suppose, a student scored 60 marks in English test and 80 marks in
statistics test. The mean and SD for the English test is 30 and 10 respectively,
whereas for the statistics test the mean is 70 and SD is 10. Find out, in which subject
the student performed better. Refer to Figure given below.
-3σ -2σ -1σ 1σ 2σ 3σ -3σ -2σ -1σ 1σ 2σ 3σ

0 10 20 40 50 60 40 50 60 80 90 100
M = 30 Mean = 70
SD = 10 SD = 10
English Test Statistics Test
Solution: In case of the English test:
Raw score = 60
Mean = 30
SD =10
X − M 60 − 30 30
So Z score for the English test = = = = 3σ
σ 10 10
In case of statistics test raw score = 80
Mean = 70
SD = 10
X − M 80 − 70 10
So Z Score for the statistics test = = = = 1σ
σ 10 10
So, the student has done better in the English than the statistics on.
NPC is Used to Determine the Relative Difficulty Level of Test Items
Example 4.47: In a standardized test of psychology, question numbers A, B, C and
D were solved by the students, 45 per cent, 38 per cent, 30 per cent and 15 per cent
respectively. Assuming the normality, find out the relative difficulty level of the
questions. Also explain the difficulty levels of questions. Table 4.7 displays the Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
information in tabular form.
Solution:
Table 4.7 Determining the Difficulty Level of Test Items NOTES
Question Percentage of Percentage of Percentage Difficulty Level

Number Successful Unsuccessful distance of Mean
Students Students of Unsuccessful
Students
A 45 55 55-50=5 0.13σ
B 38 62 62-50=12 0.31σ
C 30 70 70-50=20 0.52σ
D 15 85 85-50=35 1.04σ
As we know that in an NPC, 50 – 50 cases lie both the sides of mean. The
mean of NPC is that point which is shown as 0. In an NPC, the explanation of
difficulty level is done on the basis of σ — distance. Therefore, if a question is at the
positive side of the NPC and σ has more distance from the mean, the question of a
test will be much difficult. The relative difficulty value of the test items has been
shown:
The question
A to B is 0.18σ is more difficult (0.31σ –0.13σ = 0.18σ)
A to C is 0.39σ is more difficult (0.52σ –0.13σ = 0.39σ)
A to D is 0.91σ is more difficult (1.04σ –0.13σ = 0.91σ)
B to C is 0.21σ is more difficult (0.52σ –0.31σ = 0.21σ)
B to D is 0.73σ is more difficult (1.04σ –0.31σ = 0.73σ)
C to D is 0.52σ is more difficult (1.04σ –0.152σ = 0.52σ)
Statistical Significance
Statistical significance is the result that is not likely to occur randomly, but rather it is
likely to be attributable to a specific cause. Statistical significance can be strong or
weak and is important feature of research in many mathematics and science related
fields. Statistical significance does not always indicate practical significance. In
addition, it can be misinterpreted when researchers do not use language carefully in
reporting their results.
The calculation of statistical significance (significance testing) is subject to a
certain degree of error. The researcher must define in advance the probability of a
sampling error which exists in any test that does not include the entire population.
Sample size is considered as an important component of statistical significance
because larger samples are less prone to accidents. Only random, representative
samples should be used in significance testing.
The level at which one can accept whether an event is statistically significant
is known as the significance level or P value. Hence, statistical significance is the
Statistics in Measurement number called a P value and defines the probability of the result being observed
and Evaluation-I
given that the null hypothesis is true. If this P value is sufficiently small, the
experimenter can safely assume that the null hypothesis is false.
In experiments of statistics one must define a level of significance at which a
NOTES correlation will be estimated to have been verified, though the option is often actually
made after the event. It is significant to know that however small the value of P is
there is always a finite chance that the result is a pure accident. A typical level at
which the threshold of P is set would be 0.01, which means there is a one per cent
chance that the result was accidental. The significance of such a result would then
be indicated by the statement P < 0.01. Further, in some cases the researcher can
use the much lower levels of significance. A level frequently referenced is P < 0.05.
This means that there is a one in twenty chance that the whole object was accidental.
It is difficult to generalize, but on the whole P < 0.01 would normally be
considered significant and P < 0.001 highly significant. The origin of the P < 0.05
criterion goes back to the great pioneer of significance testing, R A Fisher, who did
not in fact proved this. Many leading scientists and mathematicians today believe
that the emphasis on significance testing is grossly overdone. P < 0.05 had become
an end in itself and the determinant of a successful outcome to an experiment.
Tests for Statistical Significance
Tests for statistical significance are specifically used to answer the question, such
as what is the probability that what we think is a relationship between two variables
is really just a chance occurrence? If number of samples is selected from the same
population then can we still find the same relationship between these two variables
in every sample? If we could do a census of the population, would we also find that
this relationship exists in the population from which the sample was drawn? Or is
our finding due only to random chance?
Tests for statistical significance tell us what the probability is and also the
relationship that occurs only due to random chance. This illustrates what the probability
is and what would be the error if it is assumed that the relationship exists. It is
always not 100% certain that a relationship exists between two variables. There are
too many sources of error to be controlled, for example, sampling error, researcher
bias, problems with reliability and validity, simple mistakes, etc. But using probability
theory and the normal probability curve, the probability of being wrong can be estimated
if it is assumed that the finding a relationship is true. If the probability of being wrong
is small, then it is assumed that the observation of the relationship is a statistically
significant finding.
Statistical significance means that there is a good chance that one may
accurately find that a relationship exists between two variables. But statistical
significance is not the same as practical significance. We can have a statistically
significant finding, but the implications of that finding may have no practical application.
The researcher must always examine both the statistical and the practical significance
of any research finding. For example, consider that there is a statistically significant
relationship between a citizen’s age and the satisfaction level with city recreation
services. It may be that older citizens are 5% less satisfied than younger citizens
with city recreation services. But is 5% large enough difference to be concerned.
At times, when differences are small but statistically significant which is due to a Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
very large sample size then in a sample of a smaller size, the differences would not
be enough to be statistically significant. The following are some significant tests for
testing statistical significance.
NOTES
Steps in testing for statistical significance
1. State the research hypothesis
2. State the null hypothesis
3. Select a probability of error level (α or Alpha Level)
4. Select and compute the test for statistical significance
5. Interpret the results
There is always a possibility that the researcher will make a mistake regarding the
relationship between the two variables. There are two possible mistakes or errors.
The first is called a Type I error. This occurs when the researcher assumes that a
relationship exists when in fact the evidence is that it does not. In a Type I error, the
researcher should accept the null hypothesis and reject the research hypothesis, but
the opposite occurs. The probability of committing a Type I error is called alpha (α).
The second is called a Type II error. This occurs when the researcher assumes that
a relationship does not exist when in fact the evidence is that it does. In a Type II
error, the researcher should reject the null hypothesis and accept the research
hypothesis, but the opposite occurs. The probability of committing a Type II error is
called beta ( β).
Researchers generally specify the probability of committing a Type I error,
i.e., the value of alpha. Most researchers select an alpha as 0.05. This means that
there is a probability of 5% of making a Type I error assuming that a relationship
between two variables exists when it is really does not. However, an alpha of 0.01
is also used when researchers do not want to have a probability of being wrong
more than 0.1% of the time or one time in a thousand.
The level of alpha can vary, but the smaller the value, the more stringent the
requirement for reaching statistical significance becomes. Alpha levels are often
written as the ‘P value’ or ‘P = 0.05’. Usual levels are P = 0.05 or the chance of one
in 20 of making an error; P = 0.01 or the chance of one in 100 of making an error; P
= 0.001 or the chance of one in 1,000 of making an error. When accounting the level
of alpha, it is usually accounted as being ‘less than’ some level, using the ‘less than’
sign or ‘<’. Thus, it is accounted as P < 0.05 or P < 0.01, etc.
For nominal and ordinal data, Chi-square test is used as a test for statistical
significance. To calculate Chi-square, we compare the original, observed frequencies
with the new, expected frequencies. t-test is considered as the important test for
statistical significance and is used with interval and ratio level data. t-tests can be
used in several different types of statistical tests.
Tests for statistical significance are used to estimate the probability that a
relationship observed in the data occurred only by chance and that the probability
variables are really unrelated in the population.

and Evaluation-I 4.8 DERIVED SCORES (Z-SCORE, STANDARD
SCORE AND T-SCORE)
NOTES In the words of American psychologists Thorndike and Hagen, ‘Norms are defined
as the average performance on a particular test made by a standardization sample’.
Frank S. Freeman defines a norm in measurement as ‘the average or standard
score on a particular test made by a specified population’.
Norms are representations of average performance based upon the results
of testing a specified group of students. It is a device of transforming raw scores
into standard scores in a group. Educational measurement is not a case of physical
measurement, but a case of mental measure. Therefore, educational measurement
is relative. In case of this, we have to go for the evaluation of an individual in relation
to other in a class or a group. Let us take an example. Suppose Prakash is a student
of Class X. In the classroom examination, he scored 60 in English and 75 in
Mathematics. If a layman analyses the result of Prakash, he will say that Prakash is
better in Mathematics than in English. Prakash scored the highest marks in English
test but the lowest marks in Mathematics in the class. So the interpretation made by
the layman was wrong because the two scores are raw scores.
In order to get a valid and reliable result, we should go for a norm, through
which we can get the perfect place of an individual in a group. For this purpose of
interpretations, the raw scores are to be converted into derived scores. Norms tell
us where a student or a class stands in relation to a reference group. Norms are
representation of average performance based upon the results of testing a specified
group of students. It is a statistical procedure to minimize the interpretive error of a
test score. The norms of any educational test represent the average test performance
of the standardized group or sample selected from a specified population. In this, an
individual score is compared with the standardized sample as a reference group.
The importance of norms in the field of measurement and evaluation are explained
as follows:
• Norms are the basis of interpreting raw scores into derived scores.
• Norms place an individual in the exact place within a group.
• Norms are helpful for selection and classification of students.
• Norms are helpful in provision of guidance and counselling the students.
• Norms speak about the attainment of instructional objectives by the students.
• Norms help in minimizing the interpretive error of a measuring instrument.
Types of Norms
In the field of educational and mental measurement, we use four types of norms,
which are as follows:
(i) Age norm
The concept of age norm was developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet in
1908. It basically deals with mental age. This age norm is also known as ‘mental age
norms’ or ‘age equivalent norms’. The ‘age norm’ is defined as the average Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
performance of a representative sample of certain age group on the measure of
intelligence or ability. Let us consider a suitable example to have clarity about age
norms.
Suppose the average score of students of age 15 years 2 months on an NOTES
achievement test is 80. So the age norm for the score of 80 will be 15 years 2
months. Suppose Mohan is 12 years old and he scores 80 in the achievement test.
Here, though his chronological age is 12, Mohan’s mental age is 15 years 2 months.
So, when that age norm is fixed, standardized test is given to a representative
sample of students of a particular age level and the average score is calculated, and
this score is considered as the norm for the group. The students who achieve that
score are considered within that age norm.
Limitations of age norm
The limitations of age norm are as follows:
• It is very difficult to get a true representative sample of individuals of a selected
age group.
• In case of very high and very low scores, it is difficult to interpret it with age
norms.
• Mental age units are not fixed in case of different tests; it may vary.
• It has the limited scope to be used in some psychological and educational
tests.
• Age norms lack a standard and uniform unit throughout the period of growth
of physical and psychological traits.
• It is the difficult and a time consuming task to develop the age norms and
mental age.
• The mental age of a particular age group may differ from locality to locality
and test to test.
(ii) Grade norm
Grade norms are also like age norm. However, here, measurement is based upon
class or grade level, not on age level. Grade norms have been widely used with
standardized achievement tests, especially at the elementary school level. The grade
equivalent that corresponds to a particular raw score is identified as the grade level at
which the typical student obtains that raw score. A grade norm corresponding to a raw
score is the grade level of those pupils whose average raw score is the raw score in
question.
Suppose we conducted a test on the VIIIth grade students. After getting the
result, we get 60 to be the average of that test. Therefore, 60 will be the grade norm
for the students of VIIIth grade. Grade norms are based on the average performance
of students at various grade levels. Grade norms are most useful for reporting growth
in the basic skills during the elementary school period. They are least useful for
comparing a student’s performances on different tests.
Statistics in Measurement Limitations of grade norms
and Evaluation-I
The limitations of grade norms are as follows:
• The rate of growth from grade to grade is not uniform throughout.
NOTES • Grade norms lack a comparability of scores on different tests.
• When a student of VIIth grade gets a credit of IXth grade, it does not mean
that the student has the ability to be a student of IXth grade.
• Fractional grades do not have any meaning.
• Grade norms are affected by quality of schools, quality of teachers and quality
of students.
• The interpretation of grade norm is very confusing because it provides only
level of performance with respect to a subject rather than the educational
level of the students.
(iii) Percentile norm
Percentile norms are about the position of an individual in relation to the norming
group. ‘Percentile norm’ is a point on the scale of measurement determined by the
percentage of individuals in given populations that lie below this point. It describes a
student’s performance in terms of the percentage of other students in some clearly
defined group that earn a lower score. This might be a grade or age group, or any
other group that provides a meaning comparison. If the percentile norm of a score
60 is 65, we mean that 65 per cent of the students of the normative group lie below
a score of 60.
Percentiles should not be confused with the common ‘percentage score’.
The percentage scores are raw scores, whereas percentiles are transformed scores.
It provides a basis for interpreting an individual’s score on a test in terms of his own
standing in a particular standardization sample. It should be based upon a sample
which has been made homogeneous with respect to age group, sex group grade
level, socio-economic status, etc. This is applicable for all types of tests: intelligence,
attitude, aptitude and achievement.
Limitations of percentile norm
• The percentile units are not equal on all parts of the scale. The percentile
difference of 5 near the middle of the scale (e.g., 45 to 50) represents a much
smaller difference in test performance than the same percentile difference at
the ends (e.g., 85 to 90), because a large number of students receive scores
near the middle, whereas relatively few students have extremely high or low
scores.
• Percentile norms are generally confused with percentage scores which affects
the interpretation.
• Percentile norm indicates only the relative position of an examinee in the
standardization sample. It conveys nothing regarding the amount of the actual
difference between the scores.
• Percentile rank of one group cannot be compared with percentile rank of
202 Self-Instructional Material another group.
• Conversion of raw scores to percentile scores give more differences in the Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
middle than at the extremes.
We can use the following formula to compute percentile rank of raw scores:
Pn – f b NOTES
PP = L + ×i
fa
where PP = Percentile point of a raw score
L = Lower limit of the raw score falls in the particular class
interval
P n = Percentage of the frequency
f b = Frequency below the class interval
fa = Actual frequency of the class interval
i = Size of the class interval
(iv) Standard score norms
The most important method used to indicate an individual’s relative position in a
group by showing how far his achieved score is above or below average. This is the
approach of standard score and standard scores express performance of the
individuals in terms of standard deviation units from the mean. There are numerous
types of standard scores used in testing. They are as follows:
(a) Z-Scores: Z-score represents test performance directly as the number of
standard deviation units a raw score is above or below the mean. The Z-
scores are the units of normal probability curve, ranges from – 3σ to + 3σ,
with mean value zero and standard deviation one.
X−M
The formula for computing Z-score is =
SD
Where,
X = Raw score
M = Arithmetic mean of raw scores
SD = Standard deviation of raw score
A Z-score is always negative when the raw score is smaller than the mean.
(b) T-Scores: T-scores are also the standard scores but the mean value is 50 and
standard deviation is 10. T-scores can be obtained by multiplying the Z-score
by 10 and adding the product to 50. Thus,
T-score = 50 + (10 Z)
One reason that T-scores are preferred to Z-scores for reporting test results
is that only positive integers are produced in T-scores.
(c) Stanines: The stanine norm is developed by the technique of normalized
standard scores. It was developed by the US Air Force during the World War
II. Stanines are single digit scores ranging from 1 to 9. This system of scores
is so-called because the distribution of raw scores is divided into nine equal
parts. Stanine 5 is in the centre of the distribution and includes all cases within
Statistics in Measurement one-fourth of a standard deviation of either side of the mean. Here, the mean
and Evaluation-I
score is 5 and standard deviation is 1.96 or 2. When raw scores are transformed
into stanine scores, the distributions of scores take the shape of normal curve.
In the Stanine system, a 9-point scale is used, in which 9 is high, 1 is low and
NOTES 5 is average. Stanines are normalized standard scores that make it possible to compare
a student’s performance on different tests.
The stanines are distributed on normal curve. The area of normal probability
curve has been divided into nine standards with a fixed percentage. The first stanine
includes 4 per cent, second stanine includes 7 per cent, third stanine includes 12 per
cent, fourth stanine includes 17 per cent, fifth stanine includes 20 per cent, sixth
stanine includes 17 per cent, seventh stanine includes 12 per cent, eighth stanine
includes 7 per cent and the ninth stanine includes 4 per cent of the total cases.
Stanine Description Percentage Stanine’s
position
1, 9 Bottom and top 4 (lst)
(9th)
2, 8 Above bottom 7 (2nd)
and below top (8th)
3, 7 Near to second 12 (3rd)
or eighth (7th)
4, 6 Above or below 17 (4th)
mean (6th)
5 Middle or mean 20 (5th)
Judging the adequacy of norms

• Test norms should be relevant to the reference group.
• Test norms should be comparable with other norms.
• A clear description is necessary for every test norm.
• Test norms should be changed from time to time.
• Test norm should represent the whole group.
Limitations of standard score norms
The limitations of standard score norms are as follows:
• The interpretation of the standard scores becomes problematic when the
distribution is not normal.
• It needs expertise knowledge to deal with the standard scores.
• The minus values are very confusing in case of educational and mental
measurement.
• Sometimes the raw scores are not normally distributed; they are positively
skewed or negatively skewed. This linear transformation is based on the
204 Self-Instructional Material assumption of normal distribution.
4.9 SUMMARY and Evaluation-I
• Processing of data involves analysis and manipulation of the collected data

by performing various functions. NOTES
• The functions that can be performed on data are as follows:
o Editing
o Coding
o Tabulation
o Classification
• Editing of data involves the testing of data collection instruments in order to
ensure maximum accuracy. This includes checking the legibility, consistency
and completeness of the data.
• Data is classified on the basis of similar features as follows:
o Descriptive classification
o Simple classification
o Manifold classification
• There are certain basic statistical methods that can be classified into the
following three groups:
o Descriptive statistics
o Inferential statistics
o Measures of central tendency and dispersion
• There are also two chief statistical methods based on the tendency of data to
cluster or scatter. These methods are known as measures of central tendency
and measures of dispersion.
• Analysis of data is the process of transformation of data for the purpose of
extracting some useful information, which in turn facilitates the discovery of
some useful conclusions.
• Data interpretation refers to the identification of trends in different variables.
The researcher uses statistics for this purpose. The researcher is required to
be familiar with the knowledge of the scales of measurement.
• Measurement is the process of assigning numbers or symbols or grades to
objects or events in a well-designed manner. There are four scales of
measurements, listed as follows:
o Nominal scale
o Ordinal scale
o Interval scale
o Ratio scale
• After the collection of data, it requires to be presented in a systematic form
so that it can be managed properly. Raw data gives no full meaning until it is
arranged properly; hence, it is very important to present data in arranged
form. There are two methods of presenting data. These are:
Statistics in Measurement (i) Grouping or tabular presentation
and Evaluation-I
(ii) Graphical and diagrammatic presentation
• There are several commonly used measures of central tendency, such as
arithmetic mean, mode and median. These values are very useful not only in
NOTES
presenting the overall picture of the entire data but also for the purpose of
making comparisons among two or more sets of data.
• Correlation analysis is the statistical tool generally used to describe the degree
to which one variable is related to another. The relationship, if any, is usually
assumed to be a linear one. This analysis is used quite frequently in conjunction
with regression analysis to measure how well the regression line explains the
variations of the dependent variable.
• Percentile is the point below which the given percent of cases lies. The method
of finding out the percentile is essentially the same as we have seen and used
in computing median and quartile deviation.
• A measure of skewness gives a numerical expression and the direction of
asymmetry in a distribution. It gives information about the shape of the
distribution and the degree of variation on either side of the central value.
• Kurtosis is a measure of peakedness of a distribution. It shows the degree of
convexity of a frequency curve.
• If the normal curve is taken as the standard, symmetrical and bell-shaped
curve then kurtosis gives a measure of departure from the normal convexity
of a distribution. The normal curve is mesokurtic. It is of intermediate
peakedness. The flat-topped curve, broader than the normal, is termed
platykurtic. The slender, highly peaked curve is termed leptokurtic.
• In probability theory, the normal probability curve or normal (or Gaussian)
distribution is considered as the most frequently occurring continuous probability
distribution.
• Normal distributions are exceptionally significant in statistics and are typically
used in the context of natural and social sciences generally for real-valued
random variables whose distributions are not known.
• The curve of normal distribution is illustrated using the normal probability
curve and is the most common type of distribution.
• Statistical significance is the result that is not likely to occur randomly, but
rather it is likely to be attributable to a specific cause. Statistical significance
can be strong or weak and is important feature of research in many mathematics
and science related fields.
• Statistical significance does not always indicate practical significance. In
addition, it can be misinterpreted when researchers do not use language
carefully in reporting their results.
• In words of American psychologists Thorndike and Hagen, ‘Norms are defined
as the average performance on a particular test made by a standardization
sample’. Frank S. Freeman defines a norm in measurement as ‘the average
or standard score on a particular test made by a specified population’.
4.10 KEY TERMS and Evaluation-I
• Data: It refers to facts and statistics collected together for reference or

analysis. NOTES
• Median: Something that denotes or relates to a value or quantity lying at the
midpoint of a frequency distribution of observed values or quantities, such
that there is an equal probability of falling above or below it.
• Mode: It means the type of average that refers to the most-common or
most-frequently occurring value in a series of data.
• Mean: It refers to the mean or average that is used to derive the central
tendency of the data in question.
• Correlation analysis: It is the degree and type of relationship between any
two or more quantities (variables) in which they vary together over a period.
• Normal probability curve: It refers to a family of distributions that are bell
shaped.
• Kurtosis: It is a measure of peakedness of a distribution. It shows the degree
of convexity of a frequency curve.
1. The functions that can be performed on data are as follows:

• Editing
• Coding
• Tabulation
• Classification
2. Coding of data can be defined as representing the data symbolically using
some predefined rules.
3. According to Smith, descriptive statistics is the formulation of rules and
procedures where data can be placed in a useful and significant order. The
foundation of applicability of descriptive statistics is the need for complete
data presentation.
4. Univariate analysis is performed with the purpose of describing each variable
in terms of mean, median or mode, and variability.
5. Measurement is the process of assigning numbers/symbols/grades to objects
or events in a well-designed manner.
6. When the mass of collected raw data is arranged in an order of magnitude, in
increasing order or decreasing order, it is called an array.
7. Numerical data may be classified as cardinal and ordinal data whereas in
cardinal data, absolute difference between any two given numbers is
meaningful.

Statistics in Measurement 8. Tate defined the measures of central tendency as, ‘A sort of average or
and Evaluation-I
typical value of the items in the series and its function is to summarize the
series in terms of this average value’.
9. Median is the value of the item which is located at the centre of the array.
NOTES
10. Mode can be defined as the most frequently occurring value in the data. It is
not affected by extreme values in the data and can be easily obtained from an
ordered set of data.
11. The theory by means of which quantitative connections between two sets of
phenomena are determined is called the ‘Theory of Correlation’.
12. Correlation analysis helps us in determining the degree to which two or more
variables are related to each other.
13. Skewness refers to a lack of symmetry in a distribution.
14. In a skewed distribution, the distance between the mean and the median is
nearly one-third of that between the mean and the mode.
15. Normal distributions are exceptionally significant in statistics and are typically
used in the context of natural and social sciences generally for real-valued
random variables whose distributions are not known.
16. The Normal Probability Curve (NPC), simply known as normal curve, is a
symmetrical bell-shaped curve. It is based upon the law of probability.
17. The steps in testing for statistical significance are as follows:
(i) State the research hypothesis
(ii) State the null hypothesis
(iii) Select a probability for error level
(iv) Select and compute the test for statistical significance
(v) Interpret the results
18. In the words of American psychologists Thorndike and Hagen, ‘Norms are
defined as the average performance on a particular test made by a
standardization sample’. Frank S. Freeman defines a norm in measurement
as ‘the average or standard score on a particular test made by a specified
population’.
1. What does the editing of data involve?
2. What is inferential statistics?
3. List the characteristics of mean.
4. How is median for ungrouped data calculated?
5. List the assumptions of Karl Pearson’s method.

6. When is quartile deviation and standard deviation used? Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-I
7. What is normal probability curve? What are its characteristics and application?
8. What are norms? Discuss its different types.
Long-Answer Questions NOTES
1. Discuss how data is represented on a graph.
2. Illustrate how arithmetic mean is calculated with the help of an example.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of mode? Describe how mode is
calculated.
4. What is coefficient of determination? Illustrate with the help of an example
how it can be calculated?
5. Discuss with the help of an example how relative measures of skewness can
be calculated.
6. What is statistical significance? Discuss the different tests for statistical
significance.

Green &Co.
Sons & Co.

UNIT 5 STATISTICS IN and Evaluation-II
MEASUREMENT AND
NOTES
EVALUATION-II
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit Objectives
5.2 Reliability: Concept and Determining Factors
5.2.1 Methods of Determining Different Reliability Coefficient
5.3 Validity: Concept and Uses
5.4 Trends in Evaluation: Grading, Credit System, Cumulative Record Card
5.5 Computer in Evaluation
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key Terms
5.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you were introduced to some statistical concepts in measurement
and evaluation. In it, the measures of central tendency and variability were discussed.
Measures of central tendency are of various types, such as arithmetic mean, mode
and median. Also discussed was the normal probability curve and the coefficient of
correlation. In this unit, the discussion on statistical concepts in measurement and
evaluation will continue. In it, you will learn about the methods of determining different
reliability coefficients, as well as validity coefficients. The unit will also discuss the
emerging trends in evaluation.
5.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

• Discuss the different methods of determining reliability coefficient
• Describe the different methods of determining validity
• Examine the relation between reliability and validity
• Discuss the concept of grading
• Describe the use of computers in evaluation
and Evaluation-II 5.2 RELIABILITY: CONCEPT AND DETERMINING
FACTORS
NOTES Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement, which is how stable test scores
or other assessment results are from one measurement to another. It means the
extent to which a measuring device yields consistent results upon testing and retesting.
If a measuring device measures consistently, it is reliable. The reliability of a test
refers to the degree to which the test results obtained are free from error of
measurement or chance errors.
Characteristics
The characteristics of reliability are as follows:
• It refers to the degree to which a measuring tool yields consistent results
upon testing and retesting.
• It indicates the level to which a test is internally consistent, i.e., how accurately
the test is measuring.
• It refers to the results obtained with measuring instrument and not to the
instrument itself.
• An estimate of reliability refers to a particular type of stability with the test
result.
• Reliability is necessary but not a sufficient condition for validity.
• Reliability is a statistical concept.
• It refers to the preciseness of a measuring instrument.
• It is the coefficient of internal consistency and stability.
• It is the function of the length of a test.
Factors affecting reliability
The reliability of a test is affected by a couple of factors which are explained in the
following manner:
(i) Length of the test: There is positive correlation between the number of
items in a test and the reliability of a test. The more the number of items the
test contains, the greater is its reliability. In several tests, the scores of sub-
tests and whole tests are calculated separately and their reliability is also
calculated separately. The reliability of the whole test is always more than
the sub-test, because whole test means more items, which is better
representation of the content.
(ii) Construction of the test: The nature of items, their difficulty level, objectivity
of scoring, item interdependence and alternative responses are factors which
affect the reliability. More alternative responses will increase the reliability of
the test.

(iii) Nature of the group: Reliability of a test will be more if the test is administered Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
to a heterogeneous group. The more the variability, the higher the reliability
coefficient.
(iv) Testing conditions: If the testing conditions are not similar at all the places,
then differences in scores are obtained. The physical conditions of the tests NOTES
and the environmental factors around the test-taker affect the reliability of a
test.
(v) Guessing and chance errors: Guessing paves the way to increase error
variances and it reduces reliability. If there are more opportunities for guessing
in the test, the test will yield less reliable results.
(vi) Test instructions: If instructions in the test are complicated or difficult to
understand, there will be less consistency in the scores. If the test-taker will
not understand the instruction properly, his way of response will be wrong
and this will hamper the reliability of test.
(vii) Too easy or too difficult items: Too easy or too difficult items fail to
distinguish between good and bad students which otherwise affects the
reliability of a test.
The other factors which affect the reliability of tests are: subjectivity of the
examiner, clerical error, interval between testing, effect of practice, etc.
5.2.1 Methods of Determining Different Reliability
Coefficient
When examining the reliability coefficient of standardized tests, it is important to
consider the methods used to obtain the reliability estimates. American Psychological
Association (APA) introduced several methods of estimating reliability. The methods
are similar in that all of them involve correlating two sets of scores, obtained either
from the same assessment procedure or from equivalent forms of the same procedure.
The chief methods of estimating reliability are shown here. The reliability coefficient
resulting from each method must be interpreted according to the type of consistency
being investigated.
We will consider each of these methods of estimating reliability in detail in
Table 5.1.
(i) Test-retest method
To estimate reliability by means of the test-retest method, the same assessment is
administered twice on the same group of pupils with a given time interval between
the two administrations. The resulting assessment scores are correlated and this
correlation coefficient provides a measure of stability, i.e., it indicates how stable the
assessment results are over a given period of time. If the result shows that the
students who were at good position at the first administration, and also they are at
good position in the second administration, the test has stability. The closer the
agreement between the two administrations of the test, the greater is the reliability
co-efficient or co-efficient of stability.

Statistics in Measurement Table 5.1 Methods of Estimating Reliability
and Evaluation-II
NOTES
A high test–retest reliability or coefficient of stability shows that there is low

variable error in the sets of obtained scores. A low coefficient of stability indicates
that there is high variable error in the obtained scores. The error variance contributes
inversely to the coefficient of stability. Such stability is indicated by a large correlation
coefficient, that a perfect positive relationship is indicated by 1.00, perfect negative
correlation by –1 and no correlationship by 0.00. Measures of stability in the 0.80
range are generally reported for standardized tests. The Pearson’s method of
correlation is mostly used for obtaining the coefficient of reliability.
When we are dealing with the measures of stability, it is more important to
keep in mind about the time gap between assessments. If the time gap is short, say
a day or two, the consistency of the results will be inflated because a student
remembers the tasks and responses accordingly. If the time interval is a long one,
the results will be influenced not only by the instability of the assessment procedure
but also by actual changes in the student over that period of time. The best time
interval between assessment administrations depends largely on the use to be made
of the results.
Limitations of test–retest method
The limitations of test-retest method are as follows:
• Testing conditions during test and retest may vary which result in instability in Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
the scores.
• The individual’s health, emotional conditions, mental health, motivational
conditions and mental set do not remain the same in both the administrations
at two occasions. NOTES
• If the test is repeated immediately, the test-taker may recall the first answer.
This may increase the scores. Besides the memory effects, practice and
confidence induced by familiarity with the test will almost affect the scores
the second time. This is known as ‘the carry-over effect’ or ‘transfer effect’
or ‘memory effect’ or ‘practice effect’.
• If the time gap between two administrations is a lengthy one, additional learning
or changes in the characteristics of the individual will affect the scores at the
later administration, and it may decline the reliability of a test.
(ii) Equivalent forms method
This method of reliability is also known as parallel forms reliability/equivalent forms
reliability/comparable forms reliability. Two parallel forms of a test can be constructed
by selecting the samples in each form from the same universe of contents. By
parallel forms, we mean that the forms of tests are equivalent as far as the content,
objectives, format, difficulty level and discriminating value of items, length of the
test, etc., are concerned. Parallel tests have equal mean scores, variance and equal
inter-correlation among items. So the two parallel forms of a test must be similar in
all respects, but there should not be a duplication of test items. The equivalent forms
method of establishing reliability is widely used in standardized testing because for
most standardized tests, two or more forms are available when the two forms are
virtually alike, reliability is too high; when they are not sufficiently alike, reliability
will be too low. Pearson’s method of correlation is used for calculating the coefficient
of correlation between two sets of scores obtained by administering the two forms
of the test. This coefficient of correlation is termed as the ‘coefficient of
equivalence’.
Limitations of equivalent forms method
The limitations of equivalent forms method are as follows:
• Construction of equivalent test forms is too difficult in comparison to others.
• There is a chance of memory effect or practice effect to operate at the
administration of the second form.
• The testing conditions while administering the two forms may be different
and the test-takers may not be in a same physical, mental or emotional state
at both the time of administration.
(iii) Split-half method
Reliability can also be calculated from a single administration of a single test. The
test is administered to a group of pupils and then is divided into half for scoring. To
divide the test into halves that are equivalent, the procedure is to score the
Statistics in Measurement evennumbered and the odd-numbered items separately. This results two scores for
and Evaluation-II
every student which when correlated, gives a measure of internal consistency. This
coefficient indicates the degree to which consistent results are obtained from the
two halves of this test and may be thought of as the half-length test reliability estimate.
NOTES Among the different methods of dividing the test, the odd and even split is
used mostly. Here, items no.1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc., (the odd-numbered items) constitute
one half, and items no. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, etc., (the even-numbered items) constitute the
other half of the test. Scores of individuals on these two halves are correlated to
know the degree of reliability between the two. The coefficient of correlation is
usually denoted by the symbol (rhh). The reliability coefficient of the whole test (rxx)
is estimated from the value of rhh using the following:
Spearman-Brown formula:
2rhh
rxx =
1 + rhh
2 × reliability of half test

=
1 + reliability of half test
Where,
rxx = Reliability of whole test
rhh = Reliability of half test
Limitations of split-half method
The limitations of split-half method are as follows:
• The whole test can be divided into two parts in a number of ways. As such,
reliability coefficient obtained through this method may vary from method to
method.
• As the test is once administered, the factor chance error may affect the
scores on the two halves, and thus, tend to make the reliability coefficient too
high.
• It is very difficult to divide the test into two halves in such, way that both
halves are of equivalent difficulty levels and discriminating power.
• This method cannot be used in power test.
(iv) Kuder–Richardson method
This method of reliability was developed by G. F. Kuder and M. N. Richardson. This
is also known as rational equivalence method of reliability. It is most useful for
homogenous test reliability. Like the split-half method, the Kuder–Richardson method
provides an internal consistency but it does not require splitting the assessment in
half for scoring purposes. This method enables us to calculate the inter-correlation
of the items of the test and the correlations of the items with the test as a whole. All
the items in the test measure the same ability—the correlation between the items Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
are equal, that all the items are of same difficulty and that all the items are highly
homogeneous. When we use Kuder–Richardson formula, it is required that all the
items of the test should be psychologically homogeneous and that every item in the
test has a high correlation with every other item. This is referred to as inter-item NOTES
consistency. This coefficient is called the ‘coefficient of rational equivalence’. This
coefficient provides some signals of how internally consistent or homogeneous the
items of the test are.
Kuder–Richardson formula used to compute the internal consistency
coefficient of test items is:
 n   σx – Σpq 
2
rtt =   
 n – 1   σx
2

Where,
r tt = Reliability index
n = Number of items in the test
p = Proportion of right responses
q = Proportion of wrong responses
Example 5.1: A test consisting of 50 items and standard deviation of test score is
7.5 and the sum of the product of proportion of right and wrong responses on the
item is 10.43. Calculate the reliability.
Solution:
 n   σx – Σpq 
2
rtt =   
 n – 1   σx
2

 50   7.5 –10.43 
2
=  
 50 –1   7.52 
The reliability coefficient of the test is 0.84.
The KR-21 method is also a simple one for calculating reliability of a test.
The test is administered once on a group to determine quickly the reliability. The
mean and variance are calculated and then the following formula KR-21 is used.
n σ x 2 – M (n –M)
rtt =
σx 2 (n – 1)
Where,
rtt = Reliability of the whole test
n = Number of items in the test
M = Mean of the test scores
σx = Standard deviation
Statistics in Measurement Example 5.2: An objective test of 100 multiple items have been administered to a
and Evaluation-II
small group of students. The mean of test score is 50 and standard deviation is 10.
Calculate the reliability coefficient of the test.
Solution:
NOTES
nσx 2 – M (n –M)
rtt =
σx 2 (n – 1)
100 × 102 – 50 (100 –50)

=
102 (100 –1)
100 × 100 – 50 (50)

=
100 × 99
10000 – 2500
=
9900
= 0.76
The reliability coefficient of the test is 0.76.
Limitations of Kuder–Richardson method
The limitations of Kuder–Richardson method are as follows:
• Kuder–Richardson formulae are not suitable for speed assessments—
assessments with time limits that prevent students from attempting all the
items.
• The formulae indicate the consistency of student response from one day to
the other.
• It cannot be used for power test and heterogeneous tests.
• The different Kuder–Richardson formula results differ in reliability coefficient.
• In case all the items of the tests are not highly homogeneous, this method will
produce lower reliability coefficient.
(v) Inter-rater method
This method assesses reliability through scoring/evaluating, done by two or more
independent judges for every test.The various scores given by the judges are then
compared to determine the consistency of estimations.The way the comparison is
carried out is: each rater assigns each test item a score, which would be on a scale
from 1 to 10.Then the correlations between any two ratings are calculated. There is
another method for testing inter-rater reliability. In this method, raters identify a
category for each observation and then compute the percentage of agreement among
the raters. For instance, if the raters are in agreement 7 times out of 10, the test will
be said to have a 70 per cent inter-rater reliability rate.
In case the raters seem to be in disagreement, it would imply that either the
raters need to be trained again or the scale is defective. Sometimes, it so happens
that various raters would have different opinions about measurement results emerging Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
from the same object, such as a scientific experiment or a test, wherein first the test
is carried out, then its results are interpreted, recorded and presented. At any of
these stages, the rater may become affected by rater’s bias (the tendency to rate in
the direction of what the rater expects). There may also be discrepancy during NOTES
interpretation and presentation of results, for instance, the round-off may be different
in terms of higher or lower digit next to the decimal.
Limitations of inter-ratermethod
The limitations of inter-rater method are as follows:
• The method can be tedious because inter-rater reliability statistics need to be
calculated separately for every item and every pair of raters.
• It is a lengthy and difficult task to train the raters such that they are able to
reachan exact agreement.
• Even when they are trained, the forced consensus might render the ratings
inaccurate and this would be a threat to the validity of the student’s scores.
• The resulting estimates might turn out to be too conservative if two raters
show differences in the method used on the rating scale.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Define reliability.
2. On what does the best time interval between assessment administrations
depend?
5.3 VALIDITY: CONCEPT AND USES
The validity of a test is determined by measuring the extent to which it matches with
a given criterion. It refers to the very important purpose of a test, and it is the most
important characteristic of a good test. A test may have other merits, but if it lacks
validity, it is valueless.
Characteristics of Validity
The characteristics of validity are as follows:
• Validity is a unitary concept.
• It refers to the truthfulness of the test result.
• In the field of education and psychology, no test is perfectly valid because
mental measurement is not absolute but relative.
• If a test is valid, it is reliable; but if a test is reliable, it may or may not be valid.
• It is an evaluative judgment on a test. It measures the degree to which a test
measures what it intends to measure.

Statistics in Measurement • It refers to the appropriateness of the interpretation of the result, and not to
and Evaluation-II
the procedure itself.
• It refers to degree means high validity, moderate validity and low validity.
NOTES • No assessment is valid for all the purpose. A test is valid for a particular
purpose only.
Types
Validity is a specific characteristic of a test. There are different ways of calculating
the validity of a test based on the objectives with which we validate the test. The six
types of validity are discussed below.
(i) Face validity: When a test appears to measure what the test user wishes or
intends to measure, it is said to possess face validity. Thus, face validity
refers not to what the test measures, but what the test appears to measure,
i.e., whether it seems to be relevant to its various objectives. Test contents
should not appear to be inappropriate or irrelevant. If a test measures what
the test author desires to measure, we say that the test has face validity. Face
validity does not require any statistical technique. It is based on subjective
judgment. Whenever a test is prepared, it is submitted to experts to assess if
it measures what it intends to measure. It is the first step in validating the test.
Once the test is validated at face, we may proceed further to compute validity
coefficient. For example, suppose we prepare a test to measure ‘skill in
division’. If all the questions on the test are related to division, we can say
that the test has face validity.
(ii) Content validity: An analysis of the content of an assessment evaluates the
appropriateness of the content and determines the extent to which the
assessment tasks provide a relevant and representative sample of the content
under consideration. Content considerations are especially very important
when validating achievement testing or constructing classroom tests. Content
validity refers to the extent to which a test contains items representing the
behaviour that we are going to assess. It is generally assessed by a critical
scrutiny of the test contents to determine whether they cover a representative
sample of behaviour or not. As it is measured from the content, such type of
validity is referred to as content validity. Content validity of a test is estimated
by assessing the presence of the content to be assessed in the test paper.
Suppose we want to construct an achievement test on English. So all the
questions of the test should be related to prose, poetry, novel, grammar, etc.,
and all the items must measure the different behavioural objectives like
knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
Content validity rests upon an expert analysis on the items included in the
test. Content validity is also known as ‘curricular validity’ or ‘rational validity’
or ‘logical validity’.
(iii) Concurrent validity: The term ‘concurrent validity’ is used to refer the
process of validating a new test by correlating it with some available source
of information which might have been obtained shortly before or shortly after
the new test is given. Concurrent validity indicates to which extent the test
scores correspond to already accepted measures of performance (or status Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
made at the same time). Suppose we want to administer an intelligence test
upon an individual. Now the test is administered upon the individual and the
intelligence scale is administered upon the same individual. If the coefficient
of correlation is high, the intelligence test is said to have high concurrent NOTES
validity. Concurrent validity is relevant to the tests employed for diagnosis.
When new tests are validated against previous tests, these previous or
established tests are known as criteria for the new tests.
(iv) Construct validity: A ‘construct’ is an individual characteristic that we assume
exists in order to explain some aspect of behaviour. Whenever we wish to
interpret assessment results in terms of some individual characteristics (e.g.,
reasoning, problem-solving activity), we are concerned with a construct. The
construct validity of a test is the extent to which the test may be said to
measure a theoretical construct or trait. Examples of such construct are
scholastic aptitude, mechanical comprehension, anxiety, neuroticism, etc.
Construct validation requires the gradual accumulation of information from a
variety of sources. When we interpret assessment results as a measure of a
particular construct, we are implying that there is such a construct that differs
from other constructs, and that the results provide a measure of the construct,
i.e., little influenced by extraneous factors. Verifying such implications is the
task of construct validation. Although construct validation has been commonly
associated with theory building and theory testing, it also has usefulness for
the practical use of assessment results. It takes place primarily during the
development and try-out of a test or an assessment, and is based on an
accumulation of evidence from many different sources. When selecting a
published test that presumably measures a particular construct, such as logical
reasoning or writing comprehension, the test manual should be tested to
determine what evidence is represented to support the validity of the proposed
interpretations.
(v) Predictive validity: Predictive validity of a test refers to the predictive
capacity of a test. It refers to the effectiveness of a test in predicting future
outcomes in a particular area.The word ‘prediction’ may be used in more
ways than one. In the broader sense, it would mean prediction from the test
to a criterion situation. In the limited sense, however, it would imply prediction
over a time period. When used in the limited context, it may be referred to in
the sense of ‘predictive validity’. Predictive validation provides the most
relevant information for tests used in the selection and classification of
personnel. Some other uses include hiring job applicants, selecting students
for admission to college or professional schools, and assigning military personnel
to occupational training programmes. Take an example where we have
prepared an entrance test for admission into B.Ed. course, and based on the
scores, we have admitted the candidates. These candidates completed the
B.Ed. course and appeared for the final B.Ed. examination. The scores of

Statistics in Measurement the entrance test and the scores of the final B.Ed. examination are correlated.
and Evaluation-II
If the coefficient of correlation is high, we say that the entrance test has high
predictive validity.
(vi) Criterion validity: Criterion validity evidence tells us just how well a test
NOTES corresponds with particular criteria. Criterion validity includes both predictive
validity and concurrent validity. A test may be validated against as many
criteria as there are specific uses for it. Whenever test scores are to be used
to predict future performance or to estimate current performance on some
valued measure other than the test itself (called a criterion), we are especially
concerned with evaluating the relationship between the test and the criterion.
For example, speaking-readiness test scores might be used to predict a
student’s future a achievement in speaking, or a test of dictionary skills might
be used to estimate the student’s current skills in the actual use of the dictionary.
The first example is of predictive validity and the second example is of
concurrent validity.
Different types of validity needs different methods for assessment. The methods
used for assessing the validity of a test are discussed below.
(i) Correlation method: Correlation method is used in most of the cases for
calculating the validity of a test. Multiple correlation is used where more than
two measures are involved in which English mathematician and biometrician
Karl Pearson’s ‘r’ is used. Several methods are used for this, but the following
method is a popular one.
N ∑ XY × ∑ X ∑ Y
r=
√ [N ∑ X – ( ∑ X)2 ] [N ∑ Y 2 – ( ∑ Y)2 ]
2
Where,
r = Validity index
N = Size of sample
X = Raw scores in the test X
Y = Raw scores in the test Y
XY = Sum of the products of each X score multiplied with its
corresponding Y score
In order to make the calculation an easy one, we can use the above formula
in this way:
N ∑ dxdy – ∑ dx ∑ dy
r=
√ [N ∑ dx – ( ∑ dx) 2 ] [N ∑ dx 2 – ( ∑ dx) 2 ]
2
Where,
r = Validity index
N = Size of the sample
dx = X – M Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
dy = Y – M
X = Raw score of X group
Y = Raw score of Y group NOTES
M = Mean
Sometimes, we need to predict the future result of somebody with reference
to the present result. The following regression equation is used for this purpose:
σy
y= r (X − Mx) + My
σx
Where, Y = Predicted value
My = Mean of predicted score (Y)
Mx = Mean of test score (X)
σy = Standard deviation of predicted score (Y)
σx = Standard deviation of test score (X)
X = Test scores (basis of prediction)
Y = Predicted value
(ii) Cross validation: Cross validation indicates a process of validating a test by
using a population sample that is different from the sample on which it was
originally standardized. It is necessary because the validity data may be high
or low due to chance factors peculiar to the standardization sample. When
test is administered to various samples in a variety of situations, it is being
cross-validated. The different types of cross validation are: validity extension,
validity generalization and psychometric signs.
Numerous factors tend to make assessment results invalid for their intended use.
Factors affecting validity
Let us have a discussion regarding the factors which affect the validity of a test.
(i) Lack of clarity in directions: Instructions that do not clearly indicate to the
student how to respond to the tasks and how to record the responses decreases
the validity of a test. If the directions are not clear, the students will
misunderstand the purpose of the test, and this in turn will hamper the validity
of the test.
(ii) Ambiguity: Ambiguous statements lead to confusion and misinterpretation.
Ambiguity sometimes confuses the good students more than it does the poor
students. So no question of the test should be ambiguous.

Statistics in Measurement (iii) Length of the test: Lengthening of a test not only increases its reliability but
and Evaluation-II
also its validity. If a test is too short to provide a representative sample of the
performance we are interested in, its validity will suffer accordingly.
(iv) Nature of the group: A test may be valid for one group, but may not be valid
NOTES for another. In heterogeneous groups, the scores are widely distributed and
the validity coefficients are likely to be higher.
(v) Difficult reading vocabulary and sentence structure: Vocabulary and
sentence structure that are too complex for the students taking the assessment,
result in the measuring of reading comprehension and aspects of intelligence,
which will lessen the validity of a test.
(vi) Inadequate time: Sometimes, the importance is given upon speed test instead
of power test. In the field of achievement test, if sufficient time will not be
given to the students, it reduces the validity of interpretations of results.
However, assessments of achievement should minimize the effects of speed
on student performance.
(vii) Poorly constructed test items: Sometimes, the test items are very subjective,
vague, unclear, not objective, etc., and this affects the validity of a test.
(viii) Improper arrangement of items: The items in a test should be arranged
according to the difficulty order. It means the items should be arranged from
easy to difficult. If difficult items are placed first, it will take time and makes
the student confused. So the items of a test should be arranged properly in
order to develop the validity of a test.
(ix) Identifiable pattern of answers: Correct answers in some systematic order
enables a student to guess the right answers more easily, and it affects the
validity of a test.
(x) Factors in administration and scoring: In the case of teacher-made tests,
the factors like insufficient time, unfair aid to individual students who ask for
help, cheating and unreliable scoring by students tend to lower validity. In
case of a standardized test, failure to follow the standard directions and time
limits, or giving students unauthorized assistance or errors in scoring similarly
contribute to lower validity. So, all these factors should be checked for ensuring
validity of a test.
(xi) Cultural influences: Cultural influence, socio-economic status, social class
structure, etc., affect the test scores as well as validity of a test.
(xii) Criterion correlated to the test: The criterion, for which the validity is
assessed, should be a reliable one and free from bias, or else it will affect the
validity.
Relationship between Validity and Reliability
Reliability and validity are closely related, even though they cannot be interchanged.
An assessment that has very low reliability will also have low validity; quite obviously,
a measurement that has low levels of accuracy or consistency is not likely to suitably

fulfil its objective. However, at the same time, the factors necessary for achieving a Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
considerably high degree of reliability can affect validity negatively. For instance,
consistent assessment settings lead to better degree of reliability because they
minimize the ‘noise’ (variations) in the results. Alternatively, something that can
enhance validity is flexibility in assessment exercises and settings. Such flexibility NOTES
enables assessment to be customized to the learner’s context and to be made specific
and suitable for certain groups of students. Insistence on entirely consistent assessment
settings for achieving high reliability will lead to minimum flexibility, and may, in turn,
bring down validity.
For every dimension of interest and specific query or set of queries, there are
multiple ways to devise questions. Even though the focal point should always remain
the predetermined purposes of the research, there are good or poor questions for
any particular operationalization. How can you evaluate the measures?
Two chief criteria of evaluation in any measurement or observation are as follows:
1. If we are measuring what we set out to measure
2. If the same measurement process always shows the same results
These two criteria are validity and reliability.
The key concerns of ‘reliability’ are stability and consistency. This means
that if you are using a certain tool to make measurements, is that tool giving you the
same result each time you use it? To understand the concept more clearly, consider
measurement processes in different contexts, such as for woodwork or construction
work, a tape measure is an extremely reliable measuring tool.
Suppose you have a piece of wood that is 2½ feet long. You measure it once
with the tape measure and find that it is of 2½ feet. Suppose you measure it again
and you get the same result—2½ feet. If you measure it over and over again and
you get the measurement of 2½ feet each time, this means that the tape measure is
capable of giving you reliable results.
Validity is concerned with the extent of measurement of what we hope to
measure (and what we think we are measuring). To continue with our previous
example of measuring the wood block, a tape measure that shows accurately spaced
inches, feet, etc., should show up valid results as well. Measuring the wooden block
with a ‘reliable’ tape measure should give an accurate measurement of the block’s
length.
When applying these concepts to educational research, it is better to use
measurement tools that are both reliable and valid. So, this means that a test should
have questions that receive consistent answers even when asked a number of times–
this is reliability. Similarly, a test should contain questions that get correct responses
from respondents – this is validity.

and Evaluation-II
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
3. How is validity of a test determined?
NOTES 4. What does concurrent validity indicate?
5. When is correlation method used?
5.4 TRENDS IN EVALUATION: GRADING, CREDIT

SYSTEM, CUMULATIVE RECORD CARD
Grades in the realm of education are standardized measurements of varying levels

of comprehension within a subject area. Grades can be assigned in letters (for
example, A, B, C, D, or E, or F), as a range (for example 4.0–1.0), as a number
out of a possible total (for example out of 20 or 100), as descriptors (excellent,
great, satisfactory, needs improvement), in percentages, or, as is common in some
post-secondary institutions in some countries, as a Grade Point Average (GPA).
Most nations have individual grading systems unique to their own schools. However,
several international standards for grading have arisen recently.
Concept of Grading
The old Indian education system was changed as per the need of time and a new
system was introduced in 2009–10 after studying the consequences of the existing
system. This new system is called the grading system which is not only concerned
with academics but other skills of the students are also considered in this system. Its
main purpose is to reduce the stress of the child and undertake continuous evaluation
in various areas.
The grading system focuses only on academics; it also provides opportunity
to a child to explore his other abilities. For this, it gives stress on practical aspects of
learning. This system provides a varied range of opportunities, so that the students
can prove their talent and pursue their interests traditionally.
The implementation of the system encourages students to cope with the stress.
Students are evaluated on a 9-point grading system, which will diminish the difference
between a student scoring 99 per cent and the one scoring 91 per cent. Both students
will get the A+ grade.
Merits of grading system
The merits of the grading system may be summarized as follows:
• It is useful in comparing the result of various examination institutions, because
score got by the students are not considered to be very relevant in comparison
to grades.
• It is more reliable technique of evaluation.
• It works as a common scale for comparing educational achievement of the
students of various subjects of faculties.
• It helps students in the selection of future course as per their aptitude and Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
ability.
• It minimizes discrimination of students on the basis of marks.
• It helps in eliminating unhealthy competition among high achievers.
NOTES
• It provides more flexibility for the learner by reducing pressure of competition.
• It creates a better learning environment with a feeling of positive competition
and create stress free learning environment.
A grading system must be comprehensive and take into account all aspects of a
student’s development, besides the marks scored in tests and examinations. To
achieve an effective, all-round grading system:
1. Teachers must collaborate on it and come up with the grading system jointly
so that everyone’s style of teaching is included.
2. All the class projects, unit tests, homework assignments must be factored
into the grading system so that everything the student contributes is taken into
account and the progress monitored. Each of these should be assigned a
percentage as per its learning value and the total percentage must add up to
100%.
3. There should be a section, which lists the penalty deduction of marks for
factors such as lateness, sloppy work, lack of concentration in class etc.
4. The basic points of the grading system should be shared with the students so
that they know how to improve their grades and the areas on which they
need to focus or they may lose points.
5. Exceptional performance must be rewarded.
Types and application of grading
The Ministry of Human Resources Development (HRD) and the CBSE have made
the board examination optional from the year 2010-11. They have started a new
system of evaluation called ‘Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)’
that is totally based on grades. It is based on the twice-a-year evaluation system, i.e,
two terms in one academic session. Continuous and Comprehensive evaluation refers
to a system of school based assessment that covers all aspects of student’s
development. It emphasizes two fold objectives: continuity in evaluation and
assessment of broad- based learning, and behavioral out come.
The grading assessment system includes a variety of tools and techniques for
assessment of the learners.
1. Scholastic evaluation: It includes:
• Academic evaluation
• Work experience
• Physical and health education
• Art education

Statistics in Measurement 2. Co- scholastic evaluation: It includes:
and Evaluation-II
• Life skills
• Attitudes and values
• Outdoor activities
NOTES
The total academic evaluation system is divided into two forms:
1. Formative evaluation (done in the mid of the session)
2. Summative evaluation (done at the end of the session)
1. Formative evaluation
The characteristics of formative evaluation are as follows:
• It is to evaluate and grade class work, homework, assignment and
project work.
• There is one term end examination for each term.
• The first term examination carries 20 marks.
• The second term examination carries 40 marks.
2. Summative evaluation
The characteristics of summative evaluation are as follows:
• It is based on term end examination.
• There will be two academic evaluations in the session.
• Final result will be the sum of both.
Application of scholastic and co-scholastic grading system
Grades in scholastic areas are decided on the basis of both formative as well as
summative evaluation. It follows a grade point system prepared by experts as indicated
in Table 5.2
Table 5.2 Grading System for Scholastic Assessment
Marks Grade Grade point

91—100 A1 10
81—90 A2 9
71—80 B1 8
61—70 B2 7
51—60 C1 6
41—50 C2 5
33—40 D 4
21—32 E1 —
20 & below E2 —
In co-scholastic areas, A+, A, B+, B and C grades are given.

Indicators for Grading: CBSE and State- Evolved Indicators Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
CBSE initiated this system of awarding grades in place of marks. No students will
get compartment or will fail in the examination. Students will get result in two forms,
namely ‘Eligible for qualifying certificate (QUAL)’ and ‘Eligible for improvement of
NOTES
performance (EIOP)’. Even if a candidate fails in all subjects, he will now have five
chances to improve their performance without having to repeat a year.
Criteria for scholastic evaluation
The criteria for scholastic evaluation may be discussed as under:
• External assessment of both theory and practical examinations is in numerical
form. In case of internal assessment subjects, only grades are shown.
• In an internal examination, the assessment is done on a five-point scale, i.e.,
A, B, C, D and E.
• The grades are based on the scores got in the external examination. In case
of subjects of internal assessment, the grades are awarded by the schools.
• In an external examination, the qualifying percentage is 33, separately in
theory and practical.
Till high school, average percentage is provided. A percentage over 80 is
considered excellent; candidates securing marks between 60–80 are awarded ‘first
division’; and candidates securing marks between 40–60 are awarded ‘second
division’.
Indicators of assessment of life skills
The life skill assessment includes thinking skills, social skills and emotional skills.
The indicators for these three categories of skills are discussed as follows:
1. Thinking skills: Students demonstrate the ability to:
• Be original, flexible and imaginative.
• Raise questions, identify and analyse problems.
• Implement a well thought out decision and take responsibility
• Generate new ideas with fluency
• Elaborate/build on new ideas
2. Social skills: Students demonstrate the ability to:
• Identify, verbalize and respond effectively to others’ emotions in an
empathetic manner.
• Get along well with others.
• Take criticism positively
• Listen actively
• Communicate using appropriate words, intonation and body language

Statistics in Measurement 3. Emotional skills: Students demonstrate the ability to:
and Evaluation-II
• Identify their own strengths and weaknesses
• Be comfortable with their own self and overcome weaknesses for positive
self-concept
NOTES • Identify causes and effects of stress on themselves
• Develop and use multi-faceted strategies to deal with stress
• Express and respond to emotions with an awareness of the consequences
Note: Refer to Appendix 1 for CBSE’s Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)
Manual for Teachers (Classes VI–VIII).

There are many debatable issues involved in the assessment and evaluation of learners,
such as marking vs grading issue, non-detention policy, and objectivity vs subjectivity
issue.
Marking vs Grading System
Before we discuss the merits and demerits of marking and grading systems of
assessment, we need to know what these two systems are. You have already learned
about the characteristic features of the grading system. Here an overview of marking
system is given. A marking scheme is a set of criteria used in assessing students’
learning. Evaluating the students is not an easy task. It determines students’
understanding of the subject. It is a powerful means to judge the quality of teaching–
learning process. It provides continuous feedback of content and effectiveness of
methodology used. All these give an idea of individual’s growth.
Marking scheme depends on the type of tests. If the test is of objective type,
the answer key (scoring key) is prepared well before time to avoid wastage of time.
Teacher cannot be biased with any student. It does not need unnecessary hard
work. The second type of test is the subjective type test. In this, questions may
carry different values, such as 10- mark questions, 5-mark questions and 2- mark
questions. The marks are given on some pre- decided criteria. After checking of all
types of questions is done, then grand total of marks is determined, which determines
the academic ability of the student.
Arguments for the grading system
The grading system is a good step to change the very old mark-based education
system of our country. Our country has progressed and developed in many fields.
Thus, the colonial educational system is no longer relevant in the changed
circumstances. The grading system of evaluation is going to relax most of the students
and parents. Under the marking system of evaluation, the students and guardians
were used to go under unnecessary pressure and stress twice— in class X and
class XII. No student would fail under the grading system, which was a characteristic

feature of the marking system. Those who fail under the marking system are Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
depressed and the victims of inferiority complex. The marking system can also lead
to the perception that high marks, rather than real knowledge, are important.
If knowledge enhancement and overall development of students is the primary
goal, the grading system is preferable. Under this system, students of similar caliber NOTES
are placed on an equal footing. This removes complexes and negativity among them.
Education becomes a pleasant pastime and not just a chore. Eventually, both the
students and the teachers emerge wiser.
Arguments for the marking system
Marks help students identify their exact scores. Under the marking system, even
if two students are of similar calibre, one can ace out the other by a fraction of
a point. This level of assessment encourages competitiveness. To score that one
extra mark, students devote more time to study and pay attention to detail. What
will be motivational factor if there will be no competition in education? Grading
system is like killing the sense of competition and removing all motivation from
the education system. The marking system tells the students where they actually
stand.
Non-detention policy
The role of Universal Elementary Education (UEE) for strengthening the social
fabric of democracy through provision of equal opportunities to all has been
accepted since the inception of our Republic. The original Article 45 in the
Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution mandated the State to
endeavour to provide free and compulsory education to all children up to age
fourteen in a period of ten years. The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986
states: ‘In our national perception, education is essentially for all… Education has
an acculturating role. It refines sensitivities and perceptions that contribute to
national cohesion, a scientific temper and independence of mind and spirit - thus
furthering the goals of socialism, secularism and democracy enshrined in our
Constitution’.
Over the years there has been significant spatial and numerical expansion of
elementary schools in the country. Access and enrollment at the primary stage of
education have reached near universal levels. The number of out-of-school children
has reduced significantly. The gender gap in elementary education has narrowed
and the percentage of children belonging to scheduled castes and tribes enrolled is
proportionate to their population. Yet, the goal of universal elementary education
continues to elude us. There remains an unfinished agenda of universal education at
the upper primary stage. The number of children, particularly children from
disadvantaged groups and weaker sections, who drop out of school before completing
upper primary education, remains high. The quality of learning achievement is not
always entirely satisfactory even in the case of children who complete elementary
education. The gross enrolment ratio (GER) and Retention rates at elementary level
remain low in the country.
Statistics in Measurement It is against this backdrop that the Government of India has been emphasizing
and Evaluation-II
on the policy of non-detention at the primary and elementary levels of education in
the country. Currently, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is implemented as India’s
main programme for universalizing elementary education. Its overall goals include
NOTES universal access and retention, bridging of gender and social category gaps in education
and enhancement of learning levels of children. Section 13 of the Right to Education
(RTE) Act has banned any kind of screening procedure for children and parents at
the time of admission, has barred detention or expulsion of a child, and even disallowed
the conduct of Board examinations till a child completes elementary schooling (class
VIII). This is to give the child adequate time to develop her learning and understanding
fully through an enabling educational environment, and through a system of continuous
and comprehensive assessment which enhances learning.
The government has taken several initiatives in pursuance of its no detention
policy, which may be discussed under the following heads:
For children
• Stress on the holistic development of the child that is physical, social, mental,
language, emotional etc.
• To provide support service at the centers wherever it is possible to encourage
working girls of weaker sections.
• These programmes are prepared child-oriented, focused around play and the
individuality of the child. Formal methods and introduction of the 3 R’s will be
discouraged at this stage. The local community will be fully involved in these
programmes.
• Through ECCE child care and pre-primary education is catered for the purpose
to strengthen human resources development in future. Health education is
also promoted.
• Three main aspect of elementary education are:
(i) Universal access and enrolment
(ii) Universal retention of children up to 14 years of age
(iii) A substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable all children
to achieve essential levels of learning
Child- centered education
To motivate the child to attend the school a child- centred and activity-based process
of learning is adopted in the schools at primary stage. Component of cognitive learning
will be increased with various skill development as child grows.
The policy of non-detention at the primary stage will be retained, making
evaluation negligible. Corporal punishment will be firmly excluded from the
educational system and school timings as well as vacations also adjusted to the
convenience of children.

Facilities available in the school Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
• It is made sure that some basic facilities are essentially available in the school.
• Separate toilets for boys and girls.
• At least three large rooms NOTES
• Blackboard, maps, charts, toys, other necessary learning aids
• School library
• At least three teachers should work in every school, the number of teachers
should increase with the increase in students.
• At least 50% teachers should be women.
Non- formal education
• This programme is specially meant for school dropouts, children who can not
avail facility in their areas, working children and girls who cannot attend
whole-day schools.
• In these centers provision for using modern technology and other aids are
used to improve the learning environment. Talented and dedicated young
men and women from the local community will be chosen to serve as instructors,
training is also provided to them if necessary. All necessary action will be
taken to ensure the quality of centres.
• Major steps will be taken to prepare curriculum that should be based on the
needs of the learner and on the lines of the national core curriculum. It should
also cater to the local environmental need.
• Learning material of high quality will be developed and provided free of
charge to all pupils. A provision to provide participatory learning environment,
and activities such as games and sports, cultural program, excursions, etc. is
also made.
• Government, few voluntary agencies and Panchayati Raj will take care of
these institutions.
Secondary education
• At this level of education students are exposed to various streams like
science, the humanities and social sciences, history, civics to understand their
constitutional duties .
• It is equally important to emphasize on enrolment of girls, SCs and STs,
particularly in science, commerce and vocational streams. Concerned boards
will be responsible to maintain the quality.
• Effort will be made to provide computer education also to prepare the student
for a technological world.
• Provision for conducting aptitude test to find out children with special talent is
also made. The centres should come forward in providing good quality
education, irrespective of their capacity to pay for it.

Statistics in Measurement • Residential schools and Navodaya Vidyalayas are committed to fulfil this
and Evaluation-II
purpose and have been opened all over the country. These institutions are
also committed to provide equal opportunity to children of backward area and
SC, ST candidates.
NOTES
Implementation of the non-detention policy
Table 5.3 summarizes the state-wise implementation of non-detention policy in
primary classes in India.
Table 5.3 State-Wise Implementation of Non-Detention
Policy in Primary Classes
State Method of evaluation

Bihar State follows non-detention policy. However, annual
examinations are being conducted by every school for
promoting students to next class
Goa Follows continuous comprehensive evaluation and useful
assessment procedure. No detention up to class III
Gujarat Examination is taken in all classes of primary schools. In
lower standard, promotion is on the basis of
attendance/examination
Karnataka Continuing with the system of annual examination and
80% attendance as criteria for promotion to next class
Mahasashtra Annual examination system is in existence for class V
onwards. Competency based tests are given for
continuous evaluation of standards in class I-IV
Tamil Nadu Promotion is based on annual examination performance
Uttar Praesh There is a system of examination in all classes. Children
are promoted based on attendance and examination
West Bengal No formal examination system at primary level. From
class V to VIII, there prevails an annual exam system
A & N Island Students are promoted to next class on the result of annual
exam and 75% attendance
Chandigarh Promotion to next class is based on annual examination.
Continuous evaluation is also been introduced in all
classes
Dadra & Nagar There is no examination system up to class IV. Students
Haveli are promoted on the basis of attendance.
Pondicherry Students in class I and II are promoted invariably to next
class. But class III annual exam is taken for promotion.
Source: Ministry of Human Resources Development

Table 5.4 summarizes the state-wise implementation of free distribution of Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
textbooks in schools— an important component of the no-detention policy of the
government.
Table 5.4 Incentive Schemes: Free Distribution of Textbooks in Schools
NOTES
State Status
Arunachal Pradesh Free textbooks are given to APST girls up to class XII
and to APST boys up to class VIII
Bihar All girls and SC & ST boys are provided with free
textbooks at primary level
Gujarat Free textbooks to all students of primary schools run by
local bodies
Karnataka Free textbooks are distributed to all children in class I-IV.
V-VII to SC/ST. Now been extended to all children class
V-VII
Mahasashtra Free textbooks are provided in backward blocks to
children of backward communities
Manipur No scheme, but girl student of class I-VIII are given some
selected books in low female literacy districts
Tamil Nadu Being provided
Tripura Free textbooks are given to all ST students from class I-
XII
Uttar Pradesh Free textbooks are distributed to all SC/ST/OBC children
and girls
West Bengal Nationalized textbooks are issued free of cost to all
children of primary schools
A & N Island Free textbooks are provided to all students up to class V
Dadra & Nagar Free textbooks are distributed to SC/ST and low income
Haveli group students
Daman & Diu Free textbooks are given to girl students and SC/ST
students
Pondicherry Free textbooks are supplied at the beginning of the
academic year
Table 5.5 summarizes the status of the government’s incentives for promoting
education among SC, ST, OBC and minority children.

Statistics in Measurement Table 5.5 Status of Incentives to SC/ST/OBC and Minority Communities
and Evaluation-II
State Status
Arunachal Stipend in lieu of ration is given to the APST hostel
Pradesh boarders. Free textbooks are supplied to APST girls up to
NOTES class XII and boys up to VIII. Free uniform are supplied to
students up to VIII depending on availability of funds.
Education is free up to XII
Bihar SC/ST students enrolled at primary level are provided free
text books
Goa Free text books, uniform, rain coats, scholarship,
opportunity cost for SC/ST/Cash Incentives
Karnataka Free textbooks to all children I-IV. Free uniforms, supply of
school bags etc. are given to SC/ST girls in class V-VIII in
Government school. Started pre-matric hostels and pre-
matric scholarships for students of classes V-X
Tamil Nadu Cooked meal, free text books, dress, free transport, ` 500/-
as incentive scholarship to SC/ST (III to VI), ` 1000/- VI
onwards being given
Tripura SC/ST girl students are provided dress grant and attendance
scholarships. Pre-matric scholarships has been introduced
for all SC/ST students from class VI-X
Uttar Pradesh Students belonging to SC/ST/OBC are provided with free
textbooks and all SC/ST/OBC/Handicaped/Miniority
children are given scholarships at the beginning the session
West Bengal Free uniform is provided to all students belonging to SC/ST
categories
A & N Island Incentives such as free books, note books, mid day meals,
full attendance scholarships etc. are being provided to all
Tribal students
Daman & Diu Stipend, free uniform, free shoes, socks and free stationery
are given to SC/ST students. Hostel and Ashram Shalas are
run for SC/ST students
Pondicherry Free hostel facility, food, clothing and accommodation to Sc
students is provided. Training of cutting and tailoring to SC
school drop outs with stipend of ` 100/- per month is given.
Pre-matric scholarships is given to such students studying in
VI to VIII, ` 150/- per annum and IX and C standard
` 200/- per annum. Free supply of text books, stationery,
uniform cloth and reimbursement of the cost of medium
textbooks to all SC students. Provision of tutorial facilities
to Sc school students. Special assistance of
` 250/- to Sc girl students to undertake primary education
from I to V. Grant of special incentive of ` 300/- is given to
each Sc student who score 65% of marks and above in class
X public examination.
Reporting Student Performance

A report card is that card which contains the results of different assessments,
evaluation, and judgments held from time to time during the course study of a student.
A cumulative record is an account of the child’s history in the school. It begins as Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
soon as the child enters the school and continues till he leaves the school for good. It
contains information regarding all aspects of the life of the child—his physical, mental,
social, moral and psychological. It seeks to give as comprehensive a picture as
possible of the personality of a child. ‘Periodically the significant information gathered NOTES
on students through the use of various techniques—tests, inventories, questionnaires,
observation, interview, case study, case conferences and the like—should be
assembled in summary form on a cumulative record,’ writes Jane Warters.
Contents of students’ report card
Report card usually contains the following sections:
1. Cumulative records of personal data
2. Home circumstances
3. Profile of health information
4. Psychological report
5. Scholastic progress report
6. Performance in co-curricular activities/Open house
7. Personality Characteristics
8. General Overall Remarks
Format of students’ report card
The format of the report card is as follows:
Name of the Pupil...................................
Name of the Father..................................
Occupation of Parent/Guardian.......................
Address of Parent/Guardian...........................
Date of Birth........................................
SCHOOLS ATTENDED
Name of Month and Class in Month and Reasons for

School year of which year of leaving
enrolment enrolled leaving
HOME CIRCUMSTANCES
1. Economic status of the family ...........................................................
................................................................................................................
2. Child’s position in the family (whether only child, eldest or youngest
child) ........................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
Statistics in Measurement 3. Type of family (whether Joint or unitary) ..................................................
and Evaluation-II
................................................................................................................
4. Education of the Parent/Guardian .............................................................
NOTES ................................................................................................................
5. Special circumstances ..............................................................................
................................................................................................................
ATTENDANCE
Date Number of Number Nature of long absence, if any

school days of days
attended
PHYSICAL DATA
Year Height Weight Any serious illness or physical

disability
REPORT OF THE MEDICAL OFFICER
PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT (IF ANY)

SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS REPORT Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
(Average percentage of marks or corresponding letter grade based on the
result of periodical and annual tests).
Group Subject Class ___ NOTES

Marks/Grade
Language and
Literature
General Science and

Science
Social Studies and

Social Sciences
Any other Group
Craft/Work
Experience
PERFORMANCE IN CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES/OPEN HOUSE
(Average Grade of the Child)
Activities Grade
1. Sports and Athletics
2. Personal Hygiene
3. Literary (debating etc.)
4. Dramatics
5. Community service (sanitation drive,
literacy campaigns etc.)
6. Any other activity
Notable Proficiency and Skill in different fields or special merit obtained or

position of responsibility held, if any

and Evaluation-II
Years In Scholastic In Bal- In In In Any
and Achievement Sabha Scouts Sports Social other
class Troop Service
NOTES
PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS
Nature Remarks/Grade
1. Honesty
2. Punctuality
3. Courtesy
4. Habits of work
5. Co-operativeness
6. Sociability
7. Self-confidence
8. Emotional stability
9. Leadership
10. Initiative
GENERAL REMARKS
Class Signature of the Sign or Stamp of the Head

Class Teacher
Main characteristics of students’ report card

1. Validity: The facts recorded must be authentic. It is better not to write any
information than to give untrue information.
2. Comprehensiveness: A report card should contain information as complete
and comprehensive as possible.
3. Accuracy: The information in the card should be accurately recorded from
the original source. If instead of 105 one writes 150 as score of an individual
in English, one can imagine the difference in the educational guidance of that
student.
4. Objectivity: Personal opinion and judgements should be reduced to the
minimum.
5. Economy of space: The criterion of a good report card is that the maximum Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
possible information should be included in the space available.
6. Recency: Any piece of information should be recorded as soon as it is
obtained.
NOTES
7. Outcome of a co-operative enterprise: It should be the result of group
thinking.
8. Evaluation: Students should be evaluated often so that they can be guided
properly.
Open house: An open house is a periodic event conducted by the school where the
parents of students are invited. This event is mainly to facilitate free communication
between teachers and parents. Teachers can give a holistic report of the progress of
the child and a detailed feedback on the child’s progress in the specific testing areas
to the parents. Besides this, the parents can voice concerns, offer ideas, and provide
feedback to the teachers regarding their child’s weaknesses and areas that require
special attention from the teacher.
5.5 COMPUTER IN EVALUATION
Over the last so many years, computers have entered into each and every place in
our society. We see computer-dependence all around – in our homes, private
workplaces, government departments, schools, colleges, hospitals, railway/air ticket
booking outlets, banks, etc. So, it has become essential to equip a child with computer
skills to enable him/her to use computer with ease in education and numerous day-
to-day tasks. The computer enhances cognition, alertness, technical skills, imagination
power, creativity, etc. of the student. It enhances learning environment and creates
a positive competition among the students. The computer is so easy and interesting
to learn that anyone can learn it at any age.
Advantages of computer in education
Some advantages of the computer are as follows:
• It adds a lot of ease to the teaching-learning process thus enhancing the
achievements of the teacher and the student.
• It enables the students to think logically.
• Computer training helps students compete in the high-tech world confidently.
• As today no aspect of life is without interference of the computer, it has
opened a lot many job avenues for the students.
• The use of the Internet through the computer connects the students with the
students in their own country or other countries. This helps them understand
the culture of each other and also discuss their academic problems.
• The computer-enabled Internet also helps the students to stay in touch with
their teachers even after leaving the school, thus form the alumni community.

Statistics in Measurement • Teachers can use computer to send regular reports of the students to their
and Evaluation-II
parents, or even parents can check the status of their wards at the school
website through the computer-enabled Internet.
• Educated ladies can start online tuitions with the help of the computer and the
NOTES Internet.
• Learning to do so many things in the right way using the computer enhances
the confidence level of the students.
Disadvantages of computers in education
The following issues arise from a heavy dependence of the students on the computer.
The teachers and the students have to be on guard so as not to allow these issues
pose insurmountable problems.
• What happens to a student who gets used to learning with the computer?
• Is he/she going to like or understand a normal class without the computer?
• How the student’s interest in reading and studying through books can be kept
alive that is necessary for conceptual and other development?
• How can the concentration necessary for various extra-curricular activities
be increased?
• Will the computer-obsessive student not take any interest in extra-curricular
activities?
• Does the computer damage traditional learning methods?
• How will cognitive skills be developed?
• How will it impact the eyes, finger muscles and shoulders of the students?
• What will happen to the social/physical development of the student if he/she
is engaged in computer games instead of going out to play?
• Will not the computer affect the development of mathematical, analytical and
critical thinking?
Some precautions for computer use
The working space presented by computers is absolutely well-defined. However, it
is believed that real creativity does not happen in well-defined spaces but in ill-
defined ones, such as those involving handicrafts, arts, humanities and social
interaction. Some say that the development of logic-symbolic thinking forced by the
computer in fact hinders real creativity in non-logical, formal symbolic areas.
The computer looks to be an excellent tool for learning, and it is a big attraction
for the children of all age groups. However, the important thing is that we need to
identify whether this attraction is for some academic reason or for some cosmetic
reason. Children are fascinated by video games. Fascinating pictures, music,
multimedia, video games, etc are lots of computer-related activities that can divert
the attention of the students. Therefore, the teachers and the parents need control
the computer use by the children because the computer is a machine for the use of
humans, it should not rule humans.

The teacher should present his/her own content and use the computer in a Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
right mix. He/she must know how much use of the computer should be appropriate
for his/her students as per their age. The teacher must use computer less than his/
her own content.
Educational software does not have the ability of ‘knowing’ what a student NOTES
has learned the week or even the year before, what has been happening around or
in the world, etc. Whatever knowledge it has, is all fed by humans. So, it is the
teacher who can assess the impact of the computer-aided learning on the student.
No, doubt, the computer accelerates the children’s development. By forcing
a virtual setting, a formal language and a logic-symbolic thinking, the computer forces
the children, particularly teenagers, to physically and mentally behave like adults. It
is not good for a child to sit on a chair for long hours while using the computer.
Besides, the computer also hinders a child’s imagination. If the child does not use
his/her imagination, or fantasize about some higher goal or happy moments (this
would happen while hearing a fairy tale, for instance), it adversely affects his/her
thinking ability. As with TV, educational software full of images leaves no space for
the child’s imagination.
Excessive use of computer may distract the child not only from the studies
but also from his own people. But, social and family interaction is equally important.
Social sites may help the child to associate with friends and other people. But is this
social interaction equally good as compared to the social interaction that the child
has while playing with the children in the neighbourhood? Do we want our children
to be initiated into social interactions by a machine or through their real-life interactions
with people around them?
Multimedia means organization of educational or other content using a combination
of different content forms such as text, audio, still images, animation, video,
or interactivity content forms. The term multimedia can be used as a noun (a medium
with multiple content forms) or as an adjective describing a medium which has
multiple content forms. The term is used in contrast to such media that use only
rudimentary computer display such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or
hand-produced material.
In education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses
(popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopaedia and almanacs. A
CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations of text about a particular
topic and associated illustrations in various information formats. Edutainment is an
informal term used to describe combining education with entertainment, especially
multimedia entertainment.
In the past decade, teaching and learning practices have expanded dramatically
because of the introduction of multimedia. Several lines of research have evolved
(e.g. cognitive load and multimedia learning).

Statistics in Measurement Categories of multimedia
and Evaluation-II
The two main types of multimedia in use are as follows:
1. Linear Multimedia: Linear active content progresses without any navigation
NOTES control by the viewer. Linear multimedia is similar to cinema presentation.
2. Non-linear Multimedia: Non-linear content offers the user interactivity to
control its progress, Examples of non-linear multimedia are computer games
or self-paced computer based training. Non-linear content is also known as
hypermedia content.
Multimedia presentations
Multimedia presentations can be recorded or live. A recorded presentation may
allow interactivity via a navigation system. A live multimedia presentation may allow
interactivity via interaction with the presenter.
Benefits of Multimedia
Some important benefits of multimedia are as follows:
• Multimedia applications provide students opportunities to represent and express
their prior knowledge.
• They allow students to function as designers, using tools for accessing and
interpreting information, organizing their personal knowledge, and representing
what they know to others.
• Multimedia applications engage students and provide them valuable learning
opportunities.
• They empower students to create and design rather than ‘absorbing
representations created by others.’
• They encourage deep reflective thinking.
• Multimedia can be used in a wide variety of areas such as entertainment,
training in various areas such as military or industrial training.
• Multimedia teaching brings students into a class where they can interact with
the teacher and the subject.
• Multimedia teaching is more intuitive than old ways; the teachers can simulate
situations in real life.
• In many circumstances, the teachers don’t have to be there. The students
will learn by themselves in the class.
• Multimedia provides the teachers more approaches to stimulate the students’
passion for learning.
Demerits of multimedia
Some demerits of multimedia are as follows:
• Multimedia requires high-end computer systems. Sound, images, animation
and video constitute a large amount of data in multimedia, which slows down
or even may not fit into a low-end computer.
• It can be used only on good quality computers.

• It may not be accessible to a large section of intended users if they do not Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
have access to multimedia-capable machines.
• It is highly costly and time consuming.
Internet in education NOTES
The Internet is a network millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks of computers, of local to global scope, that are linked by a
broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The computer
networks on the Internet use a standard internet protocol suit (IP address) (often
called TCP/IP, although not all applications use TCP) to serve billions of users
worldwide. Just as the postal system enables sending of mails to various addresses,
a computer’s IP address gives the Internet routing protocols the unique information
they need to route packets of information to anybody’s desktop from anywhere
across the internet.
If a machine needs to contact another by a domain name, it first looks up the
corresponding IP address with the domain name service. The IP address is the
geographical descriptor of the virtual world, and the addresses of both the source
and destination systems are stored in the header of every packet that flows across
the Internet.
The IP address of a Windows computer can be found by opening an MSDOS
or command window and typing one of these commands — ‘winipcfg’ or ‘ipconfig’.
Benefits of Internet in education
Some benefits of the Internet in the field of education are as follows:
• Anytime anywhere availability of the Internet; access to people from all over
the world.
• Access to interactive and dynamic material available on the Internet.
• A million new web pages/day can be visited as per need.
• More than 200 million people are connected with e-mail.
• Publication work can be done with the help of the Internet.
• Information can be sent in seconds to as many people as we wish.
• It is full of freedom and gives rise to independent learning.
• It provides a solid platform for group and/or real-world projects.
• Students can communicate with the students in their own and other countries.
They can gain from others’ knowledge and experiences, participate in chat
rooms, share ideas and solutions and learn about the many diverse cultures
out there.
• The Internet not only helps the students but also gives benefits to the parents
and teachers. The interactive learning that the Internet provides can help the
students and their parents with little or no English skills to learn English.
Parents can become more involved in their children’s education by connecting
the school with homes, libraries or other access ports.
Statistics in Measurement • The teachers can adjust to the different learning styles in the classroom.
and Evaluation-II
They can also set their own pace of teaching.
• Individual teaching techniques can become easily available which has proved
to be a factor in student achievement.
NOTES
• Teachers can teach at more than one place simultaneously. They may be in a
small town but through the Internet, they can be linked to the students in cities
or metros.
• Also, the Internet enables administrators and teachers to spend less time on
administration and recordkeeping. This would also give them more time to
spend with their students.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

6. In the grading system, how are grades in scholastic areas decided?
7. What is a report card?
8. What is multimedia?
5.6 SUMMARY
• The reliability of a test refers to the degree to which the test results obtained
are free from error of measurement or chance errors.
• Reliability is necessary but not a sufficient condition for validity.
• When examining the reliability coefficient of standardized tests, it is important
to consider the methods used to obtain the reliability estimates.
• American Psychological Association (APA) introduced several methods of
estimating reliability. These are:
(i) Test-retest method
(ii) Equivalent forms method
(iii) Split-half method
(iv) Kuder-Richardson method
(v) Inter-rater method
• The validity of a test is determined by measuring the extent to which it matches
with a given criterion. It refers to the very important purpose of a test, and it
is the most important characteristic of a good test.
• A test may have other merits, but if it lacks validity, it is valueless.
• The six types of validity are discussed below.
(i) Face validity
(ii) Content validity
(iii) Concurrent validity
(iv) Construct validity
(v) Predictive validity Statistics in Measurement
and Evaluation-II
(vi) Criterion validity
• The methods used for assessing the validity of a test are:
o Correlation method NOTES
o Cross validation
• Reliability and validity are closely related, even though they cannot be
interchanged. An assessment that has very low reliability will also have low
validity; quite obviously, a measurement that has low levels of accuracy or
consistency is not likely to suitably fulfil its objective.
• At the same time, the factors necessary for achieving a considerably high
degree of reliability can affect validity negatively.
• Grades in the realm of education are standardized measurements of varying
levels of comprehension within a subject area.
• It has become essential to equip a child with computer skills to enable him/her
to use computer with ease in education and numerous day-to-day tasks.
• The computer enhances cognition, alertness, technical skills, imagination power,
creativity, etc. of the student. It enhances learning environment and creates a
positive competition among the students.
5.7 KEY TERMS
• Validity: It is the extent to which a concept, conclusion or measurement is

well-founded and corresponds accurately to the real world.
• Ambiguity: It refers to the quality or state of being ambiguous especially in
meaning.
• Grade Point Average: It is a number representing the average value of the
accumulated final grades earned in courses over time.
• Open House: An open house is a periodic event conducted by the school
where the parents of students are invited. The event is mainly to facilitate
free communication between teachers and parents.
1. Reliability means the extent to which a measuring device yields consistent

results upon testing and retesting.
2. The best time interval between assessment administrations depends largely
on the use to be made of the results.
3. The validity of a test is determined by measuring the extent to which it matches
with a given criterion.
4. Concurrent validity indicates to which extent the test scores correspond to
already accepted measures of performance (or status made at the same time).
Statistics in Measurement 5. Correlation method is used in most of the cases for calculating the validity of
and Evaluation-II
a test.
6. Grades in scholastic areas are decided on the basis of both formative as well
as summative evaluation.
NOTES
7. A report card is that card which contains the results of different assessments,
evaluation, and judgements held from time to time during the course study of
a student.
8. Multimedia means organization of education or other content using a
combination of different content forms such as text, audio, still images,
animation, video or interactivity content forms.
1. What are the characteristics of reliability?
2. What are the factors upon which the reliability of a test is dependent?
3. What is the test-retest method? What are its limitations?
4. What is the concept of grading? What are the merits of the grading system?
5. List the criteria for scholastic evaluation.
6. How do states implement the non-detention policy in primary classes in India?
7. What are the two main types of multimedia in use?
1. Explain the various types of validity.
2. Discuss the different methods of determining reliability coefficient.
3. Describe the different methods of determining validity.
4. Discuss the relation between reliability and validity.

Green &Co.
Sons & Co.

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MEASUREMENT AND

Directorate of Distance Education

Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

Unit - I Unit 1: Measurement and Evaluation

UNIT 1 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION IN EDUCATION: OVERVIEW 3-46

UNIT 2 MAJOR TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN 47-73

UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING 75-109

UNIT 4 STATISTICS IN MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION-I 111-209

UNIT 5 STATISTICS IN MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION-II 211-248

UNIT 1 MEASUREMENT AND Evaluation in

The process of measurement is an essential component of the learning system.

1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

Let us begin by discussing the concept of measurement and measurement sales.

1.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEASURING SCALES

‘Scaling’ in social sciences refers to the process of measuring. Scaling techniques

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

NOTES Evaluation is a process of judgement of value or worth of a process or product,

5. Limited content area and ability 4. Gives broad generalizations

6. What are the goals of placement assessment?

1.5 ROLE OF TEACHERS IN AN EVALUATION

Teaching remains central to both learning and assessment. There is an interrelatedness

1.6 TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

The study of classification is known as taxonomy. You have various objectives of

Fig. 1.1 Domains of Educational Objectives

Category Key Words (Verbs)

NOTES CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

• Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of

1.9 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’

1. Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of

1.10QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1.11 FURTHER READING

Bloom, B. S. Taxonomy of Objectives of Cognitive Domains. New York: Longmans

UNIT 2 MAJOR TOOLS AND in Educational Evaluation

2.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

NOTES 2. True false type questions

4. Fill in the blanks

2.2.2 Essential Qualities of Good Measuring Instruments

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.3 EDUCATION TESTS

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.4 MEASUREMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT

An achievement test is an instrument designed to measure the relative achievement

Closed form Open form Pictorial

Mailed Personally administered

Fig. 2.1 Types of Questionnaires

Commonly used questionnaires are:

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

(1) 43 (2) 54 (3) 67 67

(1) 78 (2) 96 (3) 52 52

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

• Tools or question papers prepared by the teachers to evaluate their own

2.7 KEY TERMS

2.8 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’

1. Tools or question papers prepared by the teachers to evaluate their own

2.9 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

2.10 FURTHER READING

Bloom, B. S. Taxonomy of Objectives of Cognitive Domains. New York: Longmans