PRACTICAL FILE

OPTOELECTRONICS AND OPTICAL

COMMUNICATIONS LAB

Submitted To :
Mrs. Manisha Khulbe

Submitted By :
Vikram Jha
08010102817
ECE-II, 4 Year (7 Semester)
th th

2020

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING [ECE] AMBEDKAR INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED
COMMUNICATION AND RESEARCH GEETA COLONY, NEW DELHI
- 110031

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 INDEX
EXP. EXPERIMENTS PAGE DATE REMARK

NO.
NO.

1. To study V-I and P-I characteristics of a 03-04

LASER diode. 07-10-2020

2. To study V-I and P-I characteristics of an 05-06 14-10-2020

LED.

3. To make an analog link using optical fibre. 07-08 21-10-2020

4. To make an digital link using optical fibre. 09-10 04-11-2020

5. To study V-I and P-I characteristics of an 11-13 11-11-2020

LED as an optical source.

6. To study optical fibre losses. 14-15 18-11-2020

7. To study V-I and P-I characteristics of an LD 16-17

as an optical source. 02-12-2020

8. To study V-I and P-I characteristics of a 18-19

photo diode. 09-12-2020

9. To study V-I and P-I characteristics of an 20-21

APD. 16-12-2020

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 Experiment No-1

Aim: To study V-I and P-I characteristics of a LASER diode

Theory:
A laser diode, (LD), an injection laser diode (ILD), or diode laser is a semiconductor
device similar to a light-emitting diode in which a diode-pumped directly with electrical
current can create lasing conditions at the diode's junction. Laser diodes can directly convert
electrical energy into light. Driven by voltage, the doped p-n-transition allows for the
recombination of an electron with a hole. Due to the drop of the electron from a higher
energy level to a lower one, radiation, in the form of an emitted photon is generated. This is
spontaneous emission. Stimulated emission can be produced when the process is continued
and further generate light with the same phase, coherence, and wavelength.
The choice of the semiconductor material determines the wavelength of the emitted beam,
which in today's laser diodes ranges from infra-red to the UV spectrum. Laser diodes are the
most common type of lasers produced, with a wide range of uses that include fiber optic
communications, barcode readers, laser pointers, CD/DVD/Blu-ray disc reading/recording,
laser printing, laser scanning, and light beam illumination. With the use of a phosphor like
that found on white LEDs, Laser diodes can be used for general illumination.

V-I Characteristics and P-I Characteristics

The operating characteristics of semiconductor lasers are well described by a set of rate equations that
govern the interaction of photons and electrons inside the active region. The P–I curve characterizes
the emission properties of a semiconductor laser, as it indicates not only the threshold level but also
the current that needs to be applied to obtain a certain amount of power. A typical current Vs optical
output power is shown in Fig.

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For currents underneath the laser threshold, the spontaneous emission is dominant. Stimulated
emission is responsible for the strong increase above the laser threshold. The threshold current can be
determined by the point of intersection of the extrapolated characteristic lines of the initial and of the
lasing working mode. The rounding of the characteristic line is the result of spontaneous emission. It
also is the cause of the oscillation of several modes next to the threshold. At higher currents, the mode
spectrum becomes more and more clean.
In other words, below the threshold current the optical output power of the laser is essentially zero,
any photon emissions are due to spontaneous transitions in the laser’s semiconducting material. Once
the applied current crosses the threshold, the value of the output power rises considerably. The slope
of the current Vs power curve above the threshold is a measure of how good the laser is at converting
electrical power to optical power otherwise known as the external quantum efficiency.

The strong dependence of the current and the output power on the temperature are typical for a
semiconductor shown in figure below.

The wavelength increases with increasing temperature. The reason for this is that the refractive index
and the length of the active zone, respectively the resonator, increase with increasing temperature.
Beyond a certain temperature, the mode does not fit anymore into the resonator and another mode,
which faces conditions that are more favourable, will start to oscillate. A similar behaviour is
observed for the variation of the injection current and in consequence for the laser output power. Here
the change in wavelength is mainly the result of an increase in the refractive index, which again is
influenced by the higher charge density in the active zone. A higher output power provokes also a
higher loss of heat and an increase in temperature of the active zone.

Results :-
VI and PI characteristics of Laser Diode has been studied successfully.

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 Experiment No-2

Aim: To study V-I and P-I characteristics of an LED

Theory:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current
flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing
energy in the form of photons. The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap of the
[5]
semiconductor. White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of
[6]
light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-
[7]
intensity infrared (IR) light. Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as
those used with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of
low intensity and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet
(UV), and infrared wavelengths, with high light output.

V-I Characteristics and P-I Characteristics

Before a light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs a current to flow through
it, as it is a current dependant device with their light output intensity being directly
proportional to the forward current flowing through the LED. As the LED is to be connected
in a forward bias condition across a power supply it should be current limited using a series
resistor to protect it from excessive current flow. Never connect an LED directly to a battery
or power supply as it will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass
through and burn it out. In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, with
a series resistor, RS used to limit the forward current to a safe value from say 5mA for a
simple LED indicator to 30mA or more where a high brightness light output is needed.

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Result:
VI and PI characteristics of LED has been studied successfully.

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 Experiment No-3

Aim: To make a analog link using optical fiber

Theory:
Fiber optic links can be used for transmission of digital as well as analog signals. Basically a
fiber optic link contains three main elements transmitter and optical fiber & a receiver. The
transmitter module takes the input signal in electrical form and then transforms it into optical
(light) energy containing the same information. The optical fiber is the medium, which
carries this energy to the receiver. At the receiver, Light is converted back into electrical form
with the same pattern as originally fed to the transmitter.

PROCEDURE:
1.Set Up The interfaces used in the experiment are summarized in Table1.1. Identify them on
the OFT with the help of the layout diagram (fig 1.1). The block diagram of the subsystem
used in this experiment is shown in fig 1.2 . The 1m and 3m optical fiber provided with OFT
are to be used. Ensure that the ends of the fiber are clean and
2.Setting up the Analog Link Set the switch SW8 to the ANALOG position. Switch the
power on. The power on switch is located at the top right hand corner.
3. Feed a 1v p-p (peak to peak) sinusoidal signal at 1Khz [with zero d.c.], from a function
generator , to the ANALOG IN post P11 using the following procedure:
i)Connect a BNC-BNC cable from the function generator to the BNC socket I/O3.
ii)Connect the signal post I/O3 to the ANALOG IN post P11 using a patch cord. With this ,
the signal from the function generator is fed through to the ANALOG IN signal post P11
from the I/O3 BNC socket. Connect one end of the 1m fiber to the LED Source LED1 in the
optical Tx1 block. Observe the light output [red tinge] at the other end of the fiber. Take care
to keep the fiber at a distance from the eyes , and avoid direct eye contact with the infer-red
radiation as it can otherwise cause eye-damage. Increase and decrease the amplitude level of
the sinusoidal signal [from 0v to max 2v p-p].What happens to the light output at the other
end of the fiber? Note: To observe a fed-in-signal on an oscilloscope:
i) Use a 3-plug patch cord to connect the signal post I/O3 to the required input post. Uses the
long half of the patch cord for this, and plug the center plug into I/O3 . (Here , use the 3-plug

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patch cord to connect signal post I/O3 to the ANALOG IN post P11 in(ii) above ,instead of a
regular patch cord.)
ii) Connect a BNC-BNC cable between the BNC socket I/O2 and the oscilloscope.
iii) Connect signal posts I/O3 and I/O2 together using the short half of the 3-plug patch cord
4. Feed a 5v p-p rectangular signal at 0.5 hz at p11. Observe the signal on the oscilloscope.
Now observe the intensity of the light output at the other end of the fibre. Take care to keep
the fibre well away from the eyes. You will notice the light turning on and off (bright and
dull ) as the driving signal observed on the oscilloscope becomes positive and negative. Now
feed a 5v p-p sinusoidal signal at 0.5 hz at p11. Observe the variation in the brightness of the
light output at other end of the fibre as the driving signal varies sinusoidal.
5.connect the other end of the fibre to the detector PD1 in the optical Rx1 block.
6. Feed a sinusoidal wave of 1 khz ,1vp-p[with zero d.c.] from the function generator to
p11.the PIN detector output signal is available at P32 in the optical Rx1 block . vary the input
signal level driving the led and observe the received signsl at the PIN detector. Plot the
received signal peak to peak amplitude with respect to the input signal peak to peak
amplitude . What is the relationship?
7. Repeat step 6 using the3m fibre instead of the 1m fibre . plot the received signal amplitude at
the PIN detector as afunction of the input signal amplitude. The led output optical power is
directly proportional to the current driving it.the PIN diode current is also directly proportional to
the optical power incident on it. Therefore,the relationship between the input electrical signal and
the output electrical signal is linear. Thus, the fibre optic link is a linear element.
Gain control : The PIN detector signal at P32 is amplified , with amplifier gain controlled by
the gain potentiometer as shown in fig 1.3with a 3vp-p input signal at P11 as the gain
potentiometer is varied. Note that the signal at P31 gts clipped below 0v and above 3.5v as
shown in fig 1.4.
Bandwidth of the fibre link : 9. measure the bandwidth of the link as follows. Apply a 2vp-
p sinusoidal signal [with zero d.c.] at P11 and observe the output at P31 . adjust gain such
that no clipping take places . vary the frequency of the input signal from 100 hz to 5 mhz and
measure the amplitude of the received signal . plot the received signal amplitude as a function
of frequency [using a logarithmic scale for frequency]. Note the frequency range for which
response is flat. 10. Apply a squre wave or a triangular wave with 1vp-p and zero d.c. at the
input of the transmitter [at P11]. Vary the frequency and observe the output at P31. Note the
frequency at which the received signal starts getting distorted. Explain this using the
bandwidth obtained in the previous step.

Result:
Analog link using optical fiber was implemented.

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 Experiment No-4

Aim: To make a digital link using optical fiber

Theory:
The OFT can be used to set up two fiber optic digital links, one at a wavelength of 650 nm
and the other at 850 nm. LED1, in the Optical Tx1 block, is an 850 nm LED, and LED2, in
the Optical Tx2 block, is a 650 nm LED. PD1, in the Optical Rx1 block, is a PIN detector
which gives a current proportional to the optical power falling on the detector. The received
signal is amplified & converted to a TTL signal using a comparator. The GAIN control plays
a crucial role in this conversion. PD2, in the optical Rx2 block, is another receiver which
directly gives out a TTL signal. Both the PIN detectors can receive 650 nm as well as 850 nm
signals, though their sensitivity is lower at 650 nm.
PROCEDURE:
Set up:
1. The interfaces used in the experiment are summarized in Table given below. Identify them
on the OFT with the help of layout diagram shown in fig.1 The block diagram of the
subsystems used in this experiment is shown in fig 2. Set the jumpers & switches as given in
Table to start the experiment. Setting up a digital Link at 850 nm:
2. Set the switch SW8 to the DIGITAL position.
3. Connect a 1m optical fiber between LED1 and the PIN diode PD1. Remove the shorting
plugs of the coded data shorting links, S6 in the Manchester coder block & S26 in the
Decoder & clock recovery block. Ensure that the shortening plug of jumper JP2 is across the
posts B & A1[for PD1 receiver selection].
4. Feed a TTL signal of about 20KHz from the function generator to post B of S6. Use the
BNC I/Os for feeding & observing signals. Observe the received analog signal at the
amplifier post P31 on channel 1 of the oscilloscope [trigger the oscilloscope with the channel
1 signal] . note that the signal at P31 gets cut off above 3.5V . Increase & decrease the GAIN
& observe the effect.
5. Observe the received signal at post A of S26 on channel 2 of the oscilloscope while still
observing the signal at P31 on channel 1 [trigger the oscilloscope on channel 1]. Note that the
signal at S26 is the inverted version of the signal at P31. Vary the GAIN potentiometer setting.
Note that even through the received signal at P31changes with gain, the output at S26 does not.
Reduce the gain till the signal at P31 is less than 0.5V. [if the signal does not drop below 0.5V
even at the lowest gain setting,pull the fibre out slightly at the receiver to reduce the level below
0.5V]. Note that the signal at S26 as shown in fig 3. The comparator reference voltage is 0.55V,
& unless the signal amplitude is greter than 0.55V, the comparator output is high.
6. Set the signal gain such that the signal at P31 is about 2V. observe the input signal from
the function generator on channel 1 and the received TTL signal at post A of S26 on channel
2. Vary the frequency of the input signal and observe the output response. What is the
maximu bit rate that can be transmitted on this digital link?
7. Repeat steps 4, 5 & 6 with the 3m fibre. Setting up a digital Link at 650 nm:

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8. Use the 1m fibre and insert it into LED2 . Observe the light output at the other end of the
fibre [keeping it away from the eye]. The output is bright red signal. This is because the light
output at around 650nm is in the visible range. The other end of the fibre should now be
inserted into PD1.
9. Repeat steps 4, 5 & 6 with this new link.
10. Use the 3m fibre & set up the 650nm digital link between LED2 and PD1. Repeat 4, 5, &
6. Setting up a TTL to TTL digital Link at 650 nm:
11. Change the shorting plug in jumper JP2 across the posts B & A2 [for selection of PD2
receiver]. Use the 1m fiber to connect LED2 & optical receiver PD2.
12. Feed a TTL signal of 20KHz at post B of S6 and observe the received TTL signal at post A
S26. Display both the signals on oscilloscope on channels 1 & 2 respectively [triggering with
channel 1]. Note that the GAIN control does not play any role now in the operation of the link.
The receiver at PD2 is an integrated PIN diode & comparator that directly gives out a TTL signal.
Vary athe frequency & find the maximum bit rate that can be transmitted on this link.
13. Repeat steps 11 & 12 using 3m fibre. Setting up a 850nm TTL to Direct digital Link:
14. Use the 1m fibre to connect LED1 & PD2. Feed a TTL signal at 20KHz at post B of S6
and observe the received signal at post A of s26. Display both the signals on the oscilloscope.
An 850nm TTL to direct digital link is obtained. Vary the frequency & find the maximum
bit-rate that can be transmitted on this link.
15. Repeat step 14 with 3m fibre. Comparing responsitivity of PIN diode at 850 nm and 650nm:
16. Change the shorting plug in JP2 to connect A1 and B(for PD1 receiver selection). Using
the 1m fibre connect LED1 (850nm) and PD1. Let the GAIN control be at the minimum
level. Feed a 20KHz TTL signal at post B of S6. Measure the peak to peak voltage at P31 &
designated it as V1.
17. Now connect the fibre between LED2 (650nm) & PD1 without changing any other
setting. Measure the peak to peak voltage at P31 & designated it as V2.
18. The factory setting for the light output at the end of 1m fibre for LED1 is 3db higher (two
times) than that of LED2. The PIN diode current “I” can be written as I= ρP Where P is the
optical intensity of the light fallin on the detector & ρ is the responsitivity. The voltage at P31
is directly proportional to the PIN diode current “I”. Using the results of steps 16 & 17,
compare the responsitivity of the diode at 650 nm & 850 nm using the expression
V1/V2={ρ1P1/ρ2P2}
Where P1 is twice P2 (at factory setting) & ρ1and ρ2 are responsitivities of the diode at 850
nm & 650 nm respectively.
Result:
A digital link using optical fiber was implemented.

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 Experiment No-5

Aim: To study V-I and P-I characteristics of an LED as an optical source

Theory :
The role of the optical transmitter is to convert an electrical input signal into the
corresponding optical signal and then launch it into the optical fiber serving as a
communication channel. The major component of optical transmitters is an optical source.
Fiber-optic communication systems often use semiconductor optical sources such as light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) and semiconductor lasers because of several inherent advantages
offered by them. Some of these advantages are compact size, high efficiency, good reliability,
right wavelength range, small emissive area compatible with fiber core dimensions, and
possibility of direct modulation at relatively high frequencies.
Light Emitting Diode(LED)
A forward-biased p–n junction emits light through spontaneous emission, a phenomenon
referred to as electroluminescence. In its simplest form, an LED is a forward biased p–n
homo-junction. Radiative recombination of electron–hole pairs in the depletion region
generates light; some of it escapes from the device and can be coupled into an optical fiber.
The emitted light is incoherent with a relatively wide spectral width (30–60nm) and a
relatively large angular spread.
The characteristic curve of output power versus input current for a LED is linear over a
suitable range of current for a particular LED as shown in Fig. This range generally extends
from a few milli-amperes up to approximately 50milli amperes for a LED without a heat
sink, or up to 150 milli-amperes for a LED with a heat sink. At lower currents the electron
photon conversion efficiency is low while at higher currents a saturation phenomenon occurs
due to the heating of the semiconductor.

Several key characteristics of LEDs determine their usefulness in a given application.

These are:

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Peak Wavelength: This is the LED emits most power at central wavelength; therefore, it
should be matched to the wavelengths (850 nm and 1310 nm) that are transmitted with the
least attenuation through optical fiber.
Spectral Width: Ideally, all the light emitted from an LED would be at the peak wavelength,
but in practice, the light is emitted in a range of wavelengths centered at the peak wavelength.
This range is called the spectral width of the source.
Emission Pattern: The pattern of emitted light affects the amount of light that can be
coupled into the optical fiber. The size of the emitting region should be similar to the
diameter of the fiber core.
Speed: A source should turn on and off fast enough to meet the bandwidth limits of the system.
LEDs have slower rise and fall times than lasers.
Linearity: is another important characteristic for some applications. Linearity represents the
degree to which the optical output is directly proportional to the electrical current input.
LEDs are generally more reliable than lasers, but both sources will degrade over time. This
degradation can be caused by heat generated by the source and uneven current densities.
LEDs and laser diodes are very similar devices. In fact, when operating below their threshold
current, all laser diodes act as LEDs.
➢ V-I Characteristics and P-I Characteristics
Before a light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs a current to flow through
it, as it is a current dependant device with their light output intensity being directly
proportional to the forward current flowing through the LED. As the LED is to be connected
in a forward bias condition across a power supply it should be current limited using a series
resistor to protect it from excessive current flow. Never connect an LED directly to a battery
or power supply as it will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass
through and burn it out. In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, with
a series resistor, RS used to limit the forward current to a safe value from say 5mA for a
simple LED indicator to 30mA or more where a high brightness light output is needed.

Result:
V-I and P-I characteristics of an LED as an optical source was studied.

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 Experiment No-6

Aim: To study optical fibre losses

Theory :
When light propagates through an optical fiber, a small percentage of light is lost through
different mechanisms. The loss of optical power is measured in terms of decibels per km for
attenuation losses.
LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBERS
When light propagates through an optical fiber, a small percentage of light is lost through
different mechanisms. The loss of optical power is measured in terms of decibels per km for
attenuation losses.
ATTENUATION:
It is defined as the ratio of optical power output (Pout) from a fiber of length ‘L’ to the power
output (Pin)

Since attenuation plays a major role in determining the transmission distance, the following
attenuation mechanisms are to be considered in designing an optical fiber.
1. Absorption:
Usually absorption of light occurs due to imperfections of the atomic structure such as missing
molecules, (OH-), hydroxyl ions, high density cluster of atoms etc., which absorbs light.
2. Scattering:
Scattering is also a wavelength dependent loss, which occurs inside the fibers. Since the glass
is used in fabrication of fibers, the disordered structure of glass will make some variations in
the refractive index inside the fiber. As a result, if light is passed through the atoms in the
fiber, a portion of light is scattered (elastic scattering) .this type of scattering is called Raleigh
scattering.

3. Radiative loss:
Radiative loss occurs in fibers due to bending of finite radius of curvature in optical fibers.
The types of bends are :-
a. Macroscopic bends:
If the radius of the core is large compared to fiber diameter, it may cause large-curvature at the
position where the fiber cable turns at the corner. At these corners the light will not satisfy the
condition for total internal reflection and hence it escapes out from the fiber. This is called as
macroscopic / macro bending losses. Also note that this loss is negligible for small bends.

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b. Microscopic bends:
Micro-bends losses are caused due to non-uniformities or micro bends inside the fiber as
shown. This micro bends in fiber appears due to non uniform pressures created during the
cabling of the fiber or even during the manufacturing itself. This lead to loss of light by
leakage through the fiber.
Remedy:
Micro-bend losses can be minimized by extruding (squeezing out) a compressible jacket
over the fiber. In such cases, even when the external forces are applied, the jacket will be
deformed but the fiber will tend to stay relatively straight and safe, without causing more
loss.
DISTORTION AND DISPERSION
The optical signal becomes increasingly distorted as it travels along a fiber. This distortion
is due to dispersion effect.
Dispersion:
When an optical signal or pulse is sent into the fiber the pulse spreads /broadens as it
propagates through the fiber. This phenomenon is called dispersion as shown in the figure.

From figure we can see that the pulse received at the output is wider than the input pulse.
Hence the output pulse is said to be distorted, due to dispersion effect.
The pulse broadening or dispersion will occur in three ways, viz.,
1. Inter-modal dispersion
2. Material dispersion or chromatic dispersion
3. Waveguide dispersion

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Intermodal dispersion:
When more than one mode is propagating through the fiber, then the inter modal dispersion
will occur. Since, many modes are propagating; they will have different wavelengths and will
take different time to propagate through the fiber, which leads to intermodal dispersion.

Explanation:
When a ray of light is launched into the fiber, the pulse is dispersed in all possible paths
through the core, so called different modes.Each mode will be different wavelength and has
different velocity as shown in the figure. Hence, they reach the end of the fiber at different
time. This results in the elongation or stretching of data in the pulse. Thus causes the
distorted pulse. This is called intermodal dispersion.
Material dispersion:
In material dispersion, the dispersion occurs due to different wavelength travelling at
different speed inside the fibers shown in the figure.

Remedy:
The material dispersion can be minimized at certain wavelengths say 870nm, 1300 nm and
1550 nm; these wavelengths are termed Zero Dispersion wavelengths(ZDW).
Wave guide dispersion:
The wave guide dispersion arises due to the guiding property of the fiber and due to their
different angles at which they incident at the core-cladding interface of the fiber.
In general, Inter-modal dispersion > Material Dispersion> Waveguide dispersion

Result
Optical Fiber losses were studied.

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 Experiment No-7

Aim: To study V-I and P-I characteristics of an LD as an optical source

Theory :
A Laser Diode is a semiconductor device similar to a light-emitting diode (LED). It uses p-n junction
to emit coherent light in which all the waves are at the same frequency and phase. This coherent light
is produced by the laser diode using a process termed as “Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation”, which is abbreviated as LASER. And since a p-n junction is used to produce
laser light, this device is named as a laser diode.
Before we learn more about the working process of a laser diode, let’s look at how laser light
is different from other types of light, and its advantages.
The light from sunlight or from most of the artificial light sources contains waves of multiple
wavelengths and they are out of phase with each other. The light waves from monochromatic light
sources like incandescent bulb also are not in phase with each other. In contrast to the previous light
sources, laser diodes produce a narrow beam of laser light in which all the light waves have similar
wavelengths and they travel together with their peaks lined up. This is why laser beams are very
bright, and can be focused over a very tiny spot.
Of all the devices that produce laser light, laser diodes or semiconductor lasers are the most efficient and
they come in smaller packages. So they are widely used in various devices like laser printers, barcode
readers, security systems, Autonomous vehicles (LIDAR), Fiber optic communications etc.
➢ V-I Characteristics and P-I Characteristics

The operating characteristics of semiconductor lasers are well described by a set of rate equations that
govern the interaction of photons and electrons inside the active region. The P–I curve characterizes
the emission properties of a semiconductor laser, as it indicates not only the threshold level but also
the current that needs to be applied to obtain a certain amount of power. A typical current Vs optical
output power is shown in Fig.
For currents underneath the laser threshold, the spontaneous emission is dominant. Stimulated
emission is responsible for the strong increase above the laser threshold. The threshold current can be
determined by the point of intersection of the extrapolated characteristic lines of the initial and of the
lasing working mode. The rounding of the characteristic line is the result of spontaneous emission. It
also is the cause for the oscillation of several modes next to the threshold. At higher currents, the
mode spectrum becomes more and more clean.
In other words, below the threshold current the optical output power of the laser is essentially zero,
any photon emissions are due to spontaneous transitions in the laser’s semi-conducing material. Once
the applied current crosses the threshold, value the output power rises considerably. The slope of the
current Vs power curve above the threshold is a measure of how good the laser is at converting
electrical power to optical power otherwise known as the external quantum efficiency.

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The laser performance degrades at high temperatures. The threshold current is found to
increase exponentially with temperature, i.e.,

The strong dependence of the current and the output power on the temperature are typical for a
semiconductor shown in figure below.

The wavelength increases with increasing temperature. The reason for this is that the refractive index
and the length of the active zone, respectively the resonator, increase with increasing temperature.
Beyond a certain temperature, the mode does not fit anymore into the resonator and another mode,
which faces conditions that are more favourable, will start to oscillate. A similar behaviour is
observed for the variation of the injection current and in consequence for the laser output power. Here
the change in wavelength is mainly the result of an increase in the refractive index, which again is
influenced by the higher charge density in the active zone. A higher output power provokes also a
higher loss of heat and an increase in temperature of the active zone.
Result:
V-I and P-I characteristics of an LD as an optical source was studied.

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 Experiment No-8

Aim: To study V-I and P-I characteristics of a photodiode

Theory :
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current. The
current is generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode. Photodiodes may contain
optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface areas. Photodiodes usually
have a slower response time as their surface area increases. The common, traditional solar
cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either
exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for
use specially as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p–n junction, to increase the
speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.
A photodiode is a PIN structure or p–n junction. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the
diode, it creates an electron–hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric
effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away
from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in electric field of the depletion
region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent
is produced. The total current through the photodiode is the sum of the dark current (current that
is generated in the absence of light) and the photocurrent, so the dark current must be minimized
to maximize the sensitivity of the device.
V-I and P- I Characteristics of Photodiode

Photodiode operates in reverse bias condition. Reverse voltages are plotted along X axis in
volts and reverse current are plotted along Y-axis in microampere. Reverse current does not
depend on reverse voltage. When there is no light illumination, reverse current will be almost
zero. The minimum amount of current present is called as Dark Current. Once when the light
illumination increases, reverse current also increases linearly.

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 Power(uW)
Result
V-I and P-I characteristics of a photodiode was studied.

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 Experiment No-9

Aim: To study V-I and P-I characteristics of an APD

Theory :
An avalanche photodiode (APD) is a highly sensitive semiconductor photodiode that exploits
the photoelectric effect to convert light into electricity. From a functional standpoint, they can
be regarded as the semiconductor analog of photomultipliers. The avalanche photodiode
[1]
(APD) was invented by Japanese engineer Jun-ichi Nishizawa in 1952. However, study of
avalanche breakdown, microplasma defects in Silicon and Germanium and the investigation
of optical detection using p-n junctions predate this patent. Typical applications for APDs are
laser rangefinders, long-range fiber-optic telecommunication, and quantum sensing for
control algorithms. New applications include positron emission tomography and particle
physics. APD arrays are becoming commercially available, also lightning detection and
optical SETI may be future applications.
By applying a high reverse bias voltage (typically 100–200 V in silicon), APDs show an
internal current gain effect (around 100) due to impact ionization (avalanche effect).
However, some silicon APDs employ alternative doping and beveling techniques compared
to traditional APDs that allow greater voltage to be applied (> 1500 V) before breakdown is
reached and hence a greater operating gain (> 1000). In general, the higher the reverse
voltage, the higher the gain. Among the various expressions for the APD multiplication factor
(M), an instructive expression is given by the formula

where L is the space-charge boundary for electrons, and is the multiplication coefficient for
electrons (and holes). This coefficient has a strong dependence on the applied electric field
strength, temperature, and doping profile. Since APD gain varies strongly with the applied
reverse bias and temperature, it is necessary to control the reverse voltage to keep a stable
gain. Avalanche photodiodes therefore are more sensitive compared to other semiconductor
photodiodes.
V-I and P- I Characteristics of Avalanche Photodiode (APD)

The I-V characteristics are the variation of current for the applied voltage. The figure above
shows the combine characteristics of Zener breakdown (Zener diode) and Avalanche
breakdown.

It is noted that both breakdowns occur when a diode is in reverse bias condition.

Zener breakdown occurs at a breakdown voltage of less than 4 V which is denoted as a Vz

and avalanche breakdown occurs at a breakdown voltage of more than 6 V which denoted as
a VBR.

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Result
V-I and P-I characteristics of a APD was studied.

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