REMOTE SENSING & GIS

LECTURE NOTES ON
REMOTE SENSING & GIS
IV B. Tech II semester (JNTU (A)-R13)

C.THEJASWINI VEENA
Assistant Professor

G.PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

CIVIL ENGINEERING

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OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the Photogrammetric techniques, concepts, components of Photogrammetry
OUTCOMES:
On completion of the course the students will have knowledge on
 Principles of Photogrammetry
 Analysis of RS and GIS data and interpreting the data for modeling applications

UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAMMETRY:
Principles& types of aerial photograph, geometry of vertical aerial photograph, Scale & Height
measurement on single vertical aerial photograph, Height measurement based on relief
displacement, Fundamentals of stereoscopy, fiducially points, parallax measurement using
fiducially line.
TEXT BOOKS:
1 Remote Sensing and GIS by B.Bhatta, Oxford University Press,New Delhi.
2 Fundamentals of remote sensing by gorge Joseph , Universities press, Hyderabad

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UNIT-1
Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements from photographs, especially for
recovering the exact positions of surface points. Moreover, it may be used to recover the
motion pathways of designated reference points located on any moving object, on its
components and in the immediately adjacent environment. Photogrammetry may employ high-
speed imaging and remote sensing in order to detect, measure and record complex 2-D and 3-D
motion fields. Photogrammetry feeds the measurements from remote sensing and the results
of imagery analysis into computational models in an attempt to successively estimate, with
increasing accuracy, the actual, 3-D relative motions within the researched field.

Its applications include satellite tracking of the relative positioning alterations in all Earth
environments (e.g. tectonic motions etc.), the research on the swimming of fish, of bird or
insect flight, other relative motion processes. The quantitative results of photogrammetry are
then used to guide and match the results of computational models of the natural systems, thus
helping to invalidate or confirm new theories, to design novel vehicles or new methods for
predicting or/and controlling the consequences of earthquakes, tsunamis, any other weather
types, or used to understand the flow of fluids next to solid structures and many other
processes.
Photogrammetry is as old as modern photography, can be dated to the mid-nineteenth century,
and its detection component has been emerging from radiolocation, multilateration and
radiometry while its 3-D positioning estimative component (based on modeling) employs
methods related to triangulation, trilateration and multidimensional scaling.
In the simplest example, the distance between two points that lie on a plane parallel to the
photographic image plane can be determined by measuring their distance on the image, if the
scale (s) of the image is known. This is done by multiplying the measured distance by 1/s.

Algorithms for photogrammetry typically attempt to minimize the sum of the squares of errors
over the coordinates and relative displacements of the reference points. This minimization is
known as bundle adjustment and is often performed using the Levenberg–Marquardt
algorithm.

Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements from photographs, especially for

recovering the exact positions of surface points. Moreover, it may be used to recover the

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motion pathways of designated reference points located on any moving object, on its
components and in the immediately adjacent environment. Photogrammetry may employ high-
speed imaging and remote sensing in order to detect, measure and record complex 2-D and 3-D
motion fields .Photogrammetry feeds the measurements from remote sensing and the results
of imagery analysis into computational models in an attempt to successively estimate, with
increasing accuracy, the actual, 3-D relative motions within the researched field.
Its applications include satellite tracking of the relative positioning alterations in all Earth
environments (e.g. tectonic motions etc.), the research on the swimming of fish, of bird or
insect flight, other relative motion processes. The quantitative results of photogrammetry are
then used to guide and match the results of computational models of the natural systems, thus
helping to invalidate or confirm new theories, to design novel vehicles or new methods for
predicting or/and controlling the consequences of earthquakes, tsunamis, any other weather
types, or used to understand the flow of fluids next to solid structures and many other
processes
Photogrammetry is as old as modern photography, can be dated to the mid-nineteenth century,
and its detection component has been emerging from radiolocation, multilateration and
radiometry while its 3-D positioning estimative component (based on modeling) employs
methods related to triangulation, trilateration and multidimensional scaling.
In the simplest example, the distance between two points that lie on a plane parallel to the
photographic image plane can be determined by measuring their distance on the image, if the
scale (s) of the image is known. This is done by multiplying the measured distance by 1/s.
Algorithms for photogrammetry typically attempt to minimize the sum of the squares of errors
over the coordinates and relative displacements of the reference points. This minimization is
known as bundle adjustment and is often performed using the Levenberg–Marquardt
algorithm.
 The photogrammetry has been derived from three Greek words:
 Photos: means light
 Gramma: means something drawn or written
 Metron: means to measure
This definition, over the years, has been enhanced to include interpretation as well as
measurement with photographs.
Definition:The art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical
objects and the environment through process of recording, measuring, and interpreting
photographic images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and
phenomenon .Originally photogrammetry was considered as the science of analysing only
photographs.
 But now it also includes analysis of other records as well, such as radiated acoustical
energy patterns and magnetic phenomenon

Definition of photogrammetry includes two areas:

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(1) Metric: It involves making precise measurements from photos and other information
source to determine, in general, relative location of points.
Most common application: preparation of plannimetric and topographic maps.
(2) Interpretative: It involves recognition of objects and judging their significance through
careful and systematic analysis. It includes photographic interpretation which is the study of
photographic images. It also includes interpretation of images acquired in Remote sensing
using photographic images, MSS, Infrared, TIR, SLAR etc.
Aerial photography: It is the taking of photographs of the ground from an elevated/direct-
down position. Usually the camera is not supported by a ground-based structure.
Terrestrial photogrammetric: In this kind of photogrammetry, a camera is used in a
stationary position. The camera is positioned on an elevated level. The tilt and other
specifications of the camera are all controlled.
Photographic interpretation: It is “the act of examining photographic images for the purpose of
identifying objects and judging their significance” (Colwell, 1997). This mainly refers to its usage
in military aerial reconnaissance using photographs taken from reconnaissance aircraft.
Applications of photogrammetry: Photogrammetry has been used in several areas. The
following description gives an overview of various applications areas of photogrammetry
1)Geology: Structural geology, investigation of water resources, analysis of thermal patterns on
earth's surface, geomorphological studies including investigations of shore features.
2) Forestry: Timber inventories, cover maps, acreage studies
(3) Agriculture: Soil type, soil conservation, crop planting, crop disease, crop-acreage
(4) Design and construction: Data needed for site and route studies specifically for alternate
schemes for photogrammetry. Used in design and construction of dams, bridges, transmission
lines.
(5) Planning of cities and highways: New highway locations, detailed design of construction
contracts, planning of civic improvements.
(6) Cadastre: Cadastral problems such as determination of land lines for assessment of taxes.
Large scale cadastral maps are prepared for reapportionment of land.
(7) Environmental Studies: Land-use studies.
(8) Exploration: To identify and zero down to areas for various exploratory jobs such as oil or
mineral exploration.
(9) Military intelligence: Reconnaissance for deployment of forces, planning man oeuvres,
assessing effects of operation, initiating problems related to topography, terrain conditions or
works.
(10) Medicine and surgery: Stereoscopic measurements on human body, X-ray
photogrammetry in location of foreign material in body and location and examinations of
fractures and grooves, biostereometrics.
(11) Miscellaneous: Crime detection, traffic studies, oceanography, meteorological observation,
Architectural and archaeological surveys, contouring beef cattle for animal husbandry etc.

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Types of photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is divided into different categories according to the types of photographs or
sensing system used or the manner of their use as given below:
On the basis of orientation of camera axis:
i)Terrestrial or ground photogrammetry: When the photographs are obtained from the ground
station with camera axis horizontal or nearly horizontal
ii) Aerial photogrammetry: If the photographs are obtained from an airborne vehicle. The
photographs are called vertical if the camera axis is truly vertical or if the tilt of the camera axis
is less than 3o. If tilt is more than, the photographs are called oblique photographs.
On the basis of sensor system used: Following names are popularly used to indicate type of
sensor system used in recording imagery.
 Radargrammetry: Radar sensor
 X-ray photogrammetry: X-ray sensor
 Hologrammetry: Holographs
 Cine photogrammetry: motion pictures
 Infrared or colour photogrammetry: infrared or colour photographs
On the basis of principle of recreating geometry
When single photographs are used with the stereoscopic effect, if any, it is
called monoscopic photogrammetry. If two overlapping photographs are used to generate three
dimensional views to create relief model, it is called stereophotogrammetry. It is the most
popular and widely used form of photogrammetry.
On the basis of procedure involved for reducing the data from photographs
Three types of photogrammetry are possible under this classification:
(a)Instrumental or analogue photogrammetry: It involves photogrammetric instruments to
carry out tasks.
(b) Semi-analytical or analytical: Analytical photogrammetry solves problems by establishing
mathematical relationship between coordinates on photographic image and real world objects.
Semi-analytical approach is hybrid approach using instrumental as well analytical principles.
(c) Digital Photogrammetry or softcopy photogrammetry: It uses digital image processing
principle and analytical photogrammetry tools to carry out photogrammetric operation on
digital imagery.
On the basis of platforms on which the sensor is mounted:
If the sensing system is spaceborne, it is called space photogrammetry, satellite
photogrammetry or extra-terrestrial photogrammetry. Out of various types of the
photogrammetry, the most commonly used forms are stereophotogrammetry utilizing a pair of
vertical aerial photographs (stereopair) or terrestrial photogrammetry using a terrestrial
stereopair.

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Classification of Photographs
The following paragraphs give details of classification of photographs used in different
applications
(1)On the basis of the alignment of optical axis
(a) Vertical : If optical axis of the camera is held in a vertical or nearly vertical position.
(b) Tilted : An unintentional and unavoidable inclination of the optical axis from vertical
produces a tilted photograph.
(c) Oblique : Photograph taken with the optical axis intentionally inclined to the vertical.
Following are different types of oblique photographs:
(i)High oblique: Oblique this contains the apparent horizon of the earth.
(ii)Low oblique: Apparent horizon does not appear.
(iii) Trimetrogon: Combination of a vertical and two oblique photographs in which the(central
photo is vertical and side ones are oblique. Mainly used for reconnaissance.
(iv) Convergent: A pair of low obliques taken in sequence along a flight line in such a manner
that both the photographs cover essentially the same area with their axes tilted at a fixed
inclination from the vertical in opposite directions in the direction of flight line so that the
forward exposure of the first station forms a stereo-pair with the backward exposure of the next
station.
Comparison of photographs:

Type of photo Vertical Low oblique High oblique

Coverage Least Less Greatest
Area Rectangular Trapezoidal Trapezoidal
Scale Uniform if flat Decreases from Decreases from
foreground to foreground to
background background
Difference Least Less Greatest
with map
Advantage Easiest to map - Economical and
illustrative
Characteristics Tilt < 3o Horizon does not Horizon appears
appear
(2). On the basis of the scale
(a) Small scale - 1 : 30000 to 1 : 250000, used for rigorous mapping of undeveloped terrain and
reconnaissance of vast areas.
(b) Medium scale - 1 : 5000 to 1 : 30000, used for reconnaissance, preliminary survey and
intelligent purpose.
(c) Large scale - 1 : 1000 to 1 : 5000, used for engineering survey, exploring mines.

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(3). On the basis of angle of coverage

The angle of coverage is defined as the angle, the diagonal of the negative format subtendsat
the real node of the lens of the apex angle of the cone of rays passing through the front nodal
point of the lens.

Name Coverage Format size (cm) Focal length

angle (cm)
Standard or 60o (i) 18 (i) 21
normal angle (ii) 23 (ii) 30
Wide angle 90o (i) 18 (i) 11.5
(ii) 23 (ii) 15
Super wide or 120o (i) 18 (i) 7
ultra wide angle (ii) 23 (ii) 8.8
Narrow angle < 60o - -

Aerial photographs showing various elements as defined

(a) Elements of vertical photograph (b) Section of imaging geometry showing various
elements
X-axis of photo: Line on photo between opposite collimation marks, which most nearly parallels
the flight direction.
Y-axis: Line normal to x-axis and join opposite collimation marks

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Principalpoint(o) The point where the perpendicular dropped from the front nodal point strikes
the photograph or the point in which camera axis pierces the image plane.
Camera axis It is a ray of light incident at front nodal point in the object space and at right
angles to the image plane.
Fiducial marks or collimation marks
Index marks usually four in number, rigidly connected with the camera lens through the camera
body and forming images on the photographs to which the position on the photograph can be
referred.
Photographs center The geometrical center of the photograph as defined by the intersection of
the lines joining the fiducial marks.
Format: It is the planar dimension of photograph (9" x 9", 7" x 7", 23 cm x 23 cm, 18 cm x 18
cm, 15 cm x 15 cm).
Photogram Photograph taken with a photogrammetric camera having fixed distance between
negative plane and lens and equipped with fiducial or collimating marks. For photograms the
bundle of rays on the object side at the moment of exposure can be reproduced. To achieve this
the following data known as the elements of interior orientation must be known:
 Calibrated focal length
 Lens distortion data
 Location of the principal point with reference to the photograph center (normally these
two coincide)
Hence, a photogram is a photograph with known interior orientation
Difference between near vertical photographs and map
Production: Quickest possible and most economical method of obtaining information about
areas of interest. Boon for difficult areas. Enlarging and reducing easier in case of photographs
than maps.
Content: Map gives an abstract representation of surface with a selection from nearly infinite
number of features on ground. Photograph shows images of surface itself. Maps often represent
non-visible phenomenon this may make interpretation difficult for photograph. Special films like
color and infrared films can bring about special features of terrain.
Metric accuracy: Map is geometrically correct representation, photos are generally not. Maps
are orthogonal projections, photo is central projection. Map has same scale throughout photo
has variable scale. Bearing on photographs may not be true.
Training requirement: A little training and familiarity with the particular legend used in the map
enables proper use of map. Photo-interpretation requires special training although initially it
may appear quite simple as it gives a faithful representation of ground.
Definition of Stereoscopy

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Stereoscopy, sometimes called stereoscopic imaging, is a technique used to enable a three

dimensional effect, adding an illusion of depth to a flat image. In aerial photography, when two
photographs overlap or the same ground area is photographed from two separate position
forms a stereo-pair, used for three dimension viewing. Thus obtained a pair of stereoscopic
photographs or images can be viewed stereoscopically. A stereoscope facilitates the
stereoviewing process by looking at the left image with the left eye and the right image with the
right eye. It is based on Porro-Koppe’s Principle that the same light path can be generated in an
optical system if a light source is projected onto the image taken by an optical system.
Stereoscopic vision is constructed with a stereopair images using the relative orientation or tilt
at the time of photography. Stereo viewing allows the human brain to judge and perceive in
depth and volume. 3D representation of the earth’s surface resulting in the collection of the
geographic information with a greater accuracy compared to the monoscopic techniques.

Stereoscopic Vision

On our daily life we unconsciously perceive and measure depth using our eyes. This stereo
effect is possible because we have two eyes or binocular vision. The perception of depth
through binocular vision is referred to as stereoscopic viewing, which means viewing an object
from two different locations. Monoscopic or monocular vision refers to viewing surrounding
objects with only one eye. Depth is perceived primarily based on the relative sizes of objects,
shadow; distant objects appear smaller and behind closer objects. In stereoscopic vision,
objects are viewed with both eyes a little distant from each other (approximately 65 mm) helps
in viewing objects from two different positions and angles, thus a stereoscopic vision is
obtained. The angle between the lines of sight of two eyes with each object known as
parallactic angle helps our brain in determining the relative distances between objects. Lesser
the parallactic angle higher the objects depth. shows the human stereoscopic vision, parallactic
angle Øa > Øb, helps the brain automatically to estimate the differences (D a - Db) in depths
between the objects A and B. This concept of distance estimation in stereoscopic vision is
applied to view a pair of overlapping aerial photograph.

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As an example, in two photographs overlap the same region, in which objects A, B and C are
situated at the same altitude and object Data different altitude, the four objects will be
observed in a different sequence in the two photographs a, b, d, c in the left photograph and a,
d, b, c in the right . In the same photograph, segments ab and bc are equal since they are at the
same altitude, but segments ad and dc are not

Perception of relief from two aerial photographs.

Stereoscopes
A stereoscope is used in conjunction with two aerial photographs taken from two different
positions of the same area, (known as a stereo-pair) to produce a 3-D image. There are two
types of stereoscopes: lens (or pocket) stereoscope and mirror stereoscope. Lens (or pocket)
stereoscope has a limited view and therefore restricts the area that can be inspected where as
in mirror stereoscope has wide view and enables a much larger area to be viewed on the stereo-
pair. The most obvious feature when using a stereoscope is the enhanced vertical relief. This
occurs because our eyes are only 65mm apart, but the air photos may be taken at 100s of
meters apart, hence the difference in exposures is far greater than the difference between our
eyes. Such an exaggeration also enables small features to become quite apparent and easily
viewed.

A stereoscopeconsists of a double optical system (lenses, mirrors, prisms, etc.) mounted on a

rigid frame supported on legs. In this way distance d is fixed and kept the focal distance. Thus
the optical system creates a virtual image at infinity and consequently stereoscopic vision is
obtained without eyestrain.

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Lens and mirror stereoscopes

A simple lens stereoscope is made up of two achromatic convex lenses. The focal length is equal
to d corresponding to the height of the stereoscope above the plane on which the stereo pair is
placed. The lens spacing (y) can allowed varying within 45 to 75 mm to accommodate individual
eye spacing. The disadvantage of lens stereoscope is that the features just underneath the lens
only are viewable but it has some magnification power. A mirror stereoscope comprises two
metalized mirrors, two prisms, two lenses and two eyepieces having little or no magnification
power. It enables viewing the optical part fixed on an arm and the photographic pairs are
arranged on two different planes. They facilitate analyses of several stereo pairs consecutively
without changing the arrangement in the whole overlap region compared to the lens
stereoscope.
Fiducial marks - Index marks, usually 4, at the center point of each side of an air negative or
photo. These are rigidly connected with the camera lens through the camera body—which
forms images on the negative. Usually are a hairline, across, or a half-arrowhead.
Principal Point - optical or geometric center of the photograph - the intersection between the
projection of the optical axis (i.e., the perpendicular to the center of the lens) and the ground.
Can be located by the intersection of lines between opposite side/corner fiducial marks.
Nadir - The nadir, also called vertical point or plumb point, is the image of the intersection
between the plumb line directly beneath the camera center at the time of exposure and the
ground. The nadir is important because relief displacement is radial from this point and is a
function of the distance of the displaced image from it. Unlike the principal point, there are no
marks on the photograph that permit to locate the nadir.
Isocenter - The point on the photo that falls on a line halfway between the principal point and
the Nadir point.

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