Light Charged Particles

Chapter 4: Interaction of Radiation with Matter
Chapter 4: Interaction of Radiation with

Matter
NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

4.1 Interaction of Beta Particles

Chapter 4: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Beta Particles
Key Aspects of Beta Interactions

• Collisional interactions of beta particles with matter.
• Specific energy loss of beta particles.
• Dependence of the specific energy loss on the effective Z of absorbing material
and the energy of the beta particles.
• Mass stopping, what and why?
• Radiative energy loss of beta particles.
• Relative importance of collisional and radiative energy loss.
• Fraction of energy loss due to Bremsstrahlung process and its implementation to
shielding design for beta particles.
• Range of beta particles.
• Backscattering of beta particles.

Chapter 3: Radioactivity
Sources of Beta Particles

• Beta particle is an ordinary electron. Many atomic and nuclear processes result in
the emission of beta particles.
• One of the most common source of beta particles is the beta decay of nuclides, in
which
Beta decay
A
Z X → Z+1AY + −10 β + υ
Beta-plus decay
A
Z X → Z−1AY + 10 β + υ
Electron capture
A
Z X + e− → Z−1AY + υ
•NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection
Chapter 8: Chemical and Biological Effects of Radiation
Time Frame of Radiation Effect
Most of the radiation effects

are initiated by the interactions
of electrons and especially LOW
energy electrons with water
molecules

Interactions of Beta Particles
Monte Carlo Simulation of Electron Paths. This simulation is of 15 KeV electrons in fayalite (Fe2SiO4). Distances are given in nanometers
(1000 nm = 1 µm). Paths of backscattered electrons are in red; those of absorbed electrons in blue. One should remember that this slice
through a three-dimensional volume. This model was run using the Casino software described at
http://www.gel.usherbrooke.ca/casino/What.html.
http://www4.nau.edu/microanalysis/Microprobe-SEM/Signals.html
Beta radiation detected in an

isopropanol cloud chamber (after
insertion of an artificial source
strontium-90)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_particle

Mechanisms of Energy Loss by Electrons

Ionization and excitation:
Beta particles may interact with orbital electrons through the electric fields
surrounding these charged particles, which leads to excitation and ionization.
Ionization process can be modeled as a inelastic collision, the energy loss by the
electron and the kinetic energy carried by the ejected electron is related by
Ek = Eloss - f
where f is the ionization potential of the absorbing medium.
Specific Energy Loss of Beta Particles

Specific energy loss: the linear rate of energy loss by an electron through excitation
and ionization, which is given by

Mechanisms of Energy Loss

Energy expenditure for creating ion pairs in media:
The average energy needed for creating an ion pair is normally 2 to 3 times greater that
the corresponding electron binding energy in the absorbing medium.
The deviation between the ionization

energy and the average energy required
to create an ion pair is due to the
excitation of the atoms, which does not
lead to ionization.
Cember, Introduction to Health Physics, Fourth Edition

Specific Ionization
In the context of radiation protection and health physics, it is normally important to
specify the effect of the energy deposition by a bate particle in terms of the number
of ion pairs created by the particle after traveling through a unit path length – the
specific ionization.
where w is the average energy expenditure

required to create a ion pair.
Cember, Introduction to Health Physics, Fourth Edition


Radiation Effect
Most of the radiation effects

are initiated by the interactions
of electrons and especially LOW
energy electrons with water
molecules


An example:
Solution:
The specific energy loss is given by
To use the equation, one needs to find b as the following
so


An example (continued)
The specific energy loss is then
Therefore, the specific ionization is



Mass Stopping Power

It is also common to specify the energy loss of beta particles in a medium in terms
of mass stopping power, which given by
specific energy loss ( MeV cm ) dE dx

S= = ( MeV × cm 2
g)
density(g cm ) 3
r
where r is the density of the absorbing medium.
In health physics, it is sometimes important to show the mass stopping power of

different absorbers relative to that of air – the relative mass stopping power
æ MeV ö
S medium çç 2 ÷
÷
S medium è g cm ø
rm = »
S air æ MeV ö
3.67çç ÷
2 ÷
è g cm ø
Why mass stopping power?

Remarks on the Mass Stopping Power
• Mass stopping power does not differ greatly for materials with similar atomic
compositions.
• Mass stopping power for water can be scaled by density and used for tissue,
plastics, hydrocarbons, and other materials that consist primarily of light
elements.

Mass Stopping Power

An example:
The mass stopping power is given by

S= = ( MeV × cm 2 g)
density(g cm ) 3
r
where
The electron density NZ is given by

Mass Stopping Power

An example (continued):
and
Therefore
The mass stopping power is given as
and therefore

Remarks on the Mass Stopping Power
• In a gas, -dE/dx depends on pressure, but –dE/(ρdx) does not, because dividing
by the density exactly compensates for the pressure.
• Generally, heavy atoms are less efficient in terms of mass stopping power for
slowing down charged particles, because many of their electrons are too tightly
bound in the inner shells to participate effectively in the absorption of beta
energy. For example, for Pb (Z=82) -dE/ρdx = 17.5 MeV cm2g-1 for 10-MeV
protons. (~ 47 MeV cm2 g-1 for water for 10 MeV protons).

Interactions of Charged Particles

S= = ( MeV × cm 2
g)
density(g cm ) 3
r
æ MeV ö
S medium çç 2 ÷
÷
S medium è g cm ø
rm = »
S air æ MeV ö
3.67çç ÷
2 ÷
è g cm ø

Mass Stopping Power for Compounds
From Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry, by Frank Attix.

Restricted Mass Stopping Power
From Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry, by Frank Attix.

Mass Stopping Power
Mass stopping power of low energy electrons in water

Remarks on Mass Stopping Power
• It takes ~22 eV to produce an e-i pair in water. At low energy, the specific energy
loss of electron is increasing with energy. This does NOT agree with Beth’s
formula,
• An 10 keV electron produces ~450 secondary electrons through cascade of

ionization events.
• In water, most of ionization events are induced by electrons with E<100 eV.



Radiative Energy Loss of Beta Particles – Bremsstrahlung

• Bremsstrahlung occurs when a beta particle is deflected or accelerated in the
forced field of nucleus.

Part of the energy possessed by the beta particle is emitted in the form of photons.
The rate of energy loss is proportional to the square of the instantaneous
acceleration experienced by the beta particle.




Characteristics of Bremsstrahlung Process

• Bremsstrahlung process becomes increasingly important at higher energy, say in
the MeV range.
• The efficiency of bremsstrahlung in elements varies nearly as Z2 (In comparison,
the energy loss due to ionization and excitation is proportional to Z).
• In MeV energy range, the rate of energy loss through bremsstrahlung increases
nearly linearly with beta energy, whereas (-dE/dx) by ionization and excitation
increases only with the logarithm of beta energy.
• The ratio between the energy loss due to ionization-excitation and

bremsstrahlung is approximately given by
(- dE dx )bremsstrahlung ZE b (MeV )
»
(- dE dx )ionization -excitation 800

From Atoms, Radiation, and

Radiation Protection, James
E Turner, p140

Characteristics of Bremsstrahlung
The total linear energy loss of beta particles is given by
(- dE dx )total = (- dE dx )bremsstrahlung + (- dE dx )ionization -excitation
EC is called the
critical energy
E E
Energy Loss by Bremsstrahlung

• For beta particles to stop completely , the fraction of energy loss by
Bremsstrahlung process is approximately given by


An example
Solution:
The fraction of energy emitted in the form of bremsstrahlung is
The total amount of kinetic energy carried by the electrons emitted by the source
is


An example (continued)

Energy Loss by Bremsstrahlung – X-ray Production

The fraction of energy emitted in the form of bremsstrahlung is

In


Typical energy spectrum for photons generated with an X-ray tube.
Cember, Introduction to Health Physics,

Fourth Edition

Cember, Introduction to Health Physics,

Fourth Edition

Backscattering
Knoll, Radiation Detection and measurements, p47.

Monte Carlo Simulation of Electron Paths. This simulation is of 15 KeV electrons in fayalite (Fe2SiO4). Distances are given in nanometers
(1000 nm = 1 µm). Paths of backscattered electrons are in red; those of absorbed electrons in blue. One should remember that this slice
through a three-dimensional volume. This model was run using the Casino software described at
http://www.gel.usherbrooke.ca/casino/What.html.
http://www4.nau.edu/microanalysis/Microprobe-SEM/Signals.html
Backscattering
Knoll, Radiation Detection and measurements, p49.

Positron Interactions
Page 47, Radiation Detection and Measurements, Third Edition, G. F. Knoll, John Wiley & Sons, 1999.



Tracks of Beta Particles in Absorbing Medium

• Since beta particles have the same mass as the orbital electrons, they are easily
scattered during collision and therefore follow tortuous paths in absorbing
medium.
• The electrons are “wondering” more significantly near the end of their tracks.
• Energy-loss interactions are more sparsely distributed at the beginning of the
track.
Figure from Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation Protection, James E Turner, p150
Range of Beta Particles

The range of beta particles is defined as the absorber thickness required to ensure
that almost no beta particle can penetrate the entire thickness.

Range of Beta Particles
• The absorber half-thickness is ~ 1/8 the

range of the beta rays.
• The range-energy relationship is typically

determined experimentally by using
different beta sources.
For beta particles having a fixed

maximum energy, what does the
stopping power of an absorber depend
on?

Density Thickness and the Range of Beta Particles

• The stopping power of an absorber is proportional to the number of electrons in
the path of the beta particle – the areal density of electrons (the number of
electrons per cm2) in the absorber.
• The areal electron density is approximately proportional to the density ´ linear

thickness of the absorber.
stopping power µ areal density of electrons µ density ´ linear thi ckness
• Therefore, for assessing the attenuation of beta particles in absorbing media, we

can use the density thickness defined as
density thickness = density ´ linear thickness

or t d = r (g cm 3 ) ´ tl (cm)


The use of the density thickness allows one to specify the stopping power of an
absorber independently of its material, given that the materials of interest have
similar atomic compositions – absorbers with similar density thicknesses should
have similar stopping power for beta particles.

Density Thickness and Electron Range

The range of beta particles as a function of their maximum energy can be
approximately given by
The range-energy relationship is often used by health physicists as an aid in

identifying an unknown beta-emitting contaminant.

•Chapter 3: Radioactivity
Energy Release of Beta Decay

An example
The corresponding energy release is given by
Q = Mp – Md - Me =0.001837 AMU
or equivalently
Q = 1.71 MeV
Similar to the case of alpha decay, the energy shared by the recoil nucleus is
Me/(Mp+Me) ´ Q ?? … So the electron generated will be mono-energetic ??
NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection

Chapter 3: Radioactivity
Typical Energy Spectrum of Beta Particles
The energy release is shared by all three daughter products. Due to the relatively
large mass of the daughter nucleus, it attains only a small fraction of the energy.
Therefore, the kinetic energy of the beta particle is
Eb - » Q - En
NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection


The experimental setup for measuring the range of electrons from a unknown beta
source.

For example, if the range of the beta rays (the total density thickness of the
absorbing material required to fully stop the beta rays) is determined as
The maximum energy of the beta rays can be determined, by using the universal
range-energy curve, to be ~0.17MeV. Therefore, the beta emitter is likely to be 14C
that emits beta particles with a maximum energy of 0.155MeV.


The use of the density thickness allows one to specify the stopping power of an
absorber independently of its material, given that the materials of interest have
similar atomic compositions – absorbers with similar density thicknesses should have
similar stopping power for beta particles.

4.2 Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles

Chapter 4: Interaction of Radiation with Matter – Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles
Energy Loss Mechanisms

• Heavy charged particles loss energy primarily though the ionization and
excitation of atoms.
• Heavy charged particles can transfer only a small fraction of its energy in a
single collision. Its deflection in collision is almost negligible. Therefore
heavy charged particles travel in a almost straight paths in matter, losing
energy continuously through a large number of collisions with atomic
electrons.
• At low velocity, a heavy charged particle may losses a negligible amount of

energy in nuclear collisions. It may also pick up free electrons along its
path, which reduces it net charge.



For heavy charged particles, the maximum energy that can be transferred in a single
collision is given by the conservation of energy and momentum:
where M and m are the mass of the heavy charged particle and the electron. V is the
initial velocity of the charged particle. V1 and v1 are the velocities of both particles
after the collision.
The maximum energy transfer is therefore given by

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Chapter 4: Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Chapter 4: Interaction of Radiation with

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

4.1 Interaction of Beta Particles

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Key Aspects of Beta Interactions

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Sources of Beta Particles

Time Frame of Radiation Effect

Most of the radiation effects

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Interactions of Beta Particles

Interactions of Beta Particles

Beta radiation detected in an

Interactions of Beta Particles

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Mechanisms of Energy Loss by Electrons

Specific Energy Loss of Beta Particles

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Mechanisms of Energy Loss

The deviation between the ionization

Cember, Introduction to Health Physics, Fourth Edition

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

where w is the average energy expenditure

Cember, Introduction to Health Physics, Fourth Edition

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Specific Energy Loss of Beta Particles

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Most of the radiation effects

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Specific Energy Loss of Beta Particles

To use the equation, one needs to find b as the following

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Specific Energy Loss of Beta Particles

The specific energy loss is then

Therefore, the specific ionization is

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Key Aspects of Beta Interactions

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Mass Stopping Power

specific energy loss ( MeV cm ) dE dx

In health physics, it is sometimes important to show the mass stopping power of

Why mass stopping power?

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Remarks on the Mass Stopping Power

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Mass Stopping Power

The mass stopping power is given by

The electron density NZ is given by

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Mass Stopping Power

The mass stopping power is given as

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Remarks on the Mass Stopping Power

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Interactions of Charged Particles

specific energy loss ( MeV cm ) dE dx

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Mass Stopping Power for Compounds

From Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry, by Frank Attix.

NPRE 441, Principles of Radiation Protection, Spring 2020

Restricted Mass Stopping Power

From Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry, by Frank Attix.