Unit 2

Wireless
Communication
Indu Bhardwaj
Bharati Vidyapeeth College of Engineering.
New Delhi, India
indubhardwaj2011@gmail.com
9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 1
Unit 2
2G Networks: Second generation digital wireless
systems: GSM, IS_136 (D-AMPS), IS-95 CDMA.
Global system for Mobile Communication (GSM)
system overview: GSM Architecture, Mobility
Management, Network signaling, mobile
management, voice signal processing and coding.
Spread Spectrum Systems- Cellular code Division
Access Systems-Principle, Power Control, effects
of multipath propagation on code division
multiple access.
Suggested reading
Standard book
GSM
• Mobile Wireless Communications by Mischa Schwartz (unit 6
and 8)
• Mobile Communications by Jochen H. Schiller
CDMA
• wireless communications by Theodore S. Rappaport
Reference book
complete unit- Wireless communication by Rishab Anand
Second Generation (2G) Cellular
Networks
• 2G is short for second-generation wireless telephone technology
• The primary Characteristics of 2G networks over their predecessors
were that
1. Digital traffic channels – first-generation systems are almost purely
analog; second-generation systems are digital
2. Encryption – all second generation systems are digitally Encrypted ,
allowing for the transfer of data in such a way that only the intended
receiver can receive and read it
3. Error detection and correction – second-generation digital traffic
allows for detection and correction, giving clear voice reception
4. Channel access – second-generation systems allow channels to be
dynamically shared by a number of users
Second Generation (2G) Cellular
Networks
• These second-generation TDMA systems are implicitly circuit-
switched systems , as exemplified by the modern digitally
switched telephone system.
• Digital signals sent out on a given frequency channel or band
are transmitted in specified time slots (“circuits”) in a
repetitive frame structure operating at the carrier frequency
assigned to that channel.
• Each user is assigned one or more of these time slots per
frame, and keeps the time slot as long as needed, i.e., until a
“call” is completed. This is why the word circuit is used.
• The digital signals themselves are transmitted using one of the
modulation schemes (PSK or a version of QPSK)
Main 2G standards
• 2G technologies can be divided into time division multiple access
(TDMA)-based and code division multiple access (CDMA)-based
standards depending on the type of multiplexing used. The main 2G
standards are:
1. GSM (TDMA-based), originally from Europe but used in most of
the world outside North America.
2. IS-136 Digital AMPS or D-AMPS (TDMA-based, commonly
referred as simply 'TDMA' in the US), was once prevalent in the
Americas, but most have migrated to GSM.
3. CDMA IS-95 also known as cdmaOne (CDMA-based, commonly
referred as simply CDMA in the US), used in the Americas and
parts of Asia, accounted for about 17% of all subscribers globally.
4. PDC also known as JDC (Japanese Digital Cellular) (TDMA-based),
used exclusively in Japan
GSM Introduction
• GSM is a mobile communication modem; it is stands for
global system for mobile communication (GSM).
• The idea of GSM was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1970.
It is widely used mobile communication system in the world.
• GSM is an open and digital cellular technology used for
transmitting mobile voice and data services
operates at the
850MHz, 900MHz, 1800MHz and 1900MHz frequency bands.
• Uses TDMA multiple Access
GSM specification
• Vital characteristics of the GSM specification are listed below:
• Modulation
Modulation is the process of transforming the input data into a suitable
format for the transmission medium. The transmitted data is demodulated
back to its original form at the receiving end. The GSM uses Gaussian
Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) modulation method.
• Access Methods
Radio spectrum being a limited resource that is consumed and divided
among all the users, GSM devised a combination of TDMA/FDMA as the
method to divide the bandwidth among the users. In this process, the
FDMA part divides the frequency of the total 25 MHz bandwidth into 124
carrier frequencies of 200 kHz bandwidth(25MHZ/124 = 200KHZ approx.).
Each BS is assigned with one or multiple frequencies, and each of this
frequency is divided into eight timeslots using a TDMA scheme . Each of
these slots are used for both transmission as well as reception of data.
These slots are separated by time so that a mobile unit doesn’t transmit
and receive data at the same time.
GSM specification
• Transmission Rate
The total symbol rate for GSM at 1 bit per symbol in GMSK
produces 270.833 K symbols/second. The gross transmission rate of
a timeslot is 22.8 Kbps.
GSM is a digital system with an over-the-air bit rate of 270 kbps.
• Frequency Band
The uplink frequency range specified for GSM is 933 - 960 MHz
(basic 900 MHz band only).
The downlink frequency band 890 - 915 MHz (basic 900 MHz band
only).
• Channel Spacing
Channel spacing indicates the spacing between adjacent carrier
frequencies. For GSM, it is 200 kHz.
GSM specification
• Speech Coding
For speech coding or processing, GSM uses Linear Predictive Coding (LPC).
This tool compresses the bit rate and gives an estimate of the speech
parameters. When the audio signal passes through a filter, it mimics the
vocal tract. Here, the speech is encoded at 13 kbps.
• Duplex Distance
Duplex distance is the space between the uplink and downlink frequencies.
The duplex distance for GSM is 80 MHz , where each channel has two
frequencies that are 80 MHz apart.
• Misc
• Frame duration : 4.615 mS
• Duplex Technique : Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) access mode
previously known as WCDMA.
• Speech channels per RF channel : 8.
• 0676
IS – 136 D-AMPS
• Interim Standard 136 is often referred to as DAMPS

( Digital Advanced
Mobile Phone Service)
• D-AMPS or Digital AMPS is a wireless standard for mobile telephony that

evolved from the analogue AMPS standard . D-AMPS is digital version of
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service), the original analog standard
for cellular telephone phone service in the United States. Both D-AMPS and
AMPS are now used in many countries.
• D-AMPS adds time division multiple access (TDMA) to AMPS to get three

channels for each AMPS channel, tripling the number of calls that can be
handled on a channel. It makes use of TDMA to split a analogue 30 kHz AMPS
radio channel in three digital channels. This made a gradual introduction of
digital mobile telephony possible.
IS – 136 D-AMPS
• The original D-AMPS standard was specified in IS-54. IS-54
was later incorporated in the IS-136 (ANSI-136) standard.
Because D-AMPS uses TDMA, it is sometimes simply refered
to as TDMA.
• Operates on the 800 and 1900 MHz band -ANSI-136 / IS-136

makes use of the old analogue 850 MHz band as well as the
1900 MHz band.
• IS-136 provides voice and data services with a maximum bit

rate of 8 kbit/s and a short messaging service.
IS – 136 D-AMPS
• Like AMPS, D-AMPS uses frequency ranges within the 800 and 900
Megahertz (MHz) electromagnetic radiation spectrum. Each service
provider can use half of the 824-849 MHz range for receiving signals from
cellular phones and half the 869-894 MHz range for transmitting to
cellular phones.
• The bands are divided into 30 kHz sub-bands, called channels . The

receiving channels are called reverse channels and the sending channels
are called forward channels.
• The division of the spectrum into sub-band channels is achieved by using
frequency division multiple access (FDMA). The time division multiple
access processing (TDMA) is added to each sub-band channel created with
FDMA to triple the number of channels available.
•
IS – 136 D-AMPS
• Although AMPS and D-AMPS originated for the North American
cellular telephone market, they are now used worldwide with over
74 million subscribers, according to Ericsson, one of the major
cellular phone manufacturers.
• D-AMPS is one of three digital wireless technologies that use
TDMA. The other two are GSM and PDC . Each of these
technologies interprets TDMA differently so they are not compatible.
• An advantage of D-AMPS is that it is easier to upgrade to from an

existing analog AMPS network . An alternative to D-AMPS and
the other two TDMA technologies is direct sequence code division
multiple access (CDMA).
IS-95 CDMA
• The proprietary name for IS-95 is cdmaOne . It is a 2G mobile
telecommunications standard that uses CDMA , a multiple access scheme
for digital radio, to send voice, data and signaling data (such as a dialed
telephone number) between mobile telephones and cell sites.
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) – one main standard uses this.
– Instead of using a different time slot or frequency to differentiate users,
CDMA uses a different code.
– These codes are used for Spread Spectrum Modulation.
– The Tx multiplies the signal with a special code and then the signal is
transmitted. This expands (spreads) signal BW many times. Then the
signal is multiplied at the Rx with the same code.
– This then collapses (despreads) the signal back to its original signal BW.
• Other signals created with other codes just appear at the Rx as
random noise.
IS-95 CDMA - Principle
• Signal spreading done by using a pseudo-noise
(PN) code or sequence
– Pseudo-noise means it looks like noise to all
except those who know how to recreate the
sequence.
– Others cannot decode the signal
– They cannot even recognize the signal because it
just looks like noise
Two types of SSM
1) Direct Sequence (DS)
n Multiply baseband data by a high rate signal created with the
PN code.
n New signal has much higher rate.
n This spreads the baseband spectrum over a wide range of
frequencies.
2) Frequency Hopping (FH)
n Randomly change channel frequency with time, following the
PN code.
n Spread the frequency values that are used over a wide range.
n In effect, this signal stays narrowband but moves around a lot
to use a wide band of frequencies over time.
IS-95 CDMA
• Advantages
– Resistant to narrowband interference - can only reasonably try to
affect part of the signal.
– Allows multiple users with different codes to share same range of
frequencies.
– The system can operate effectively at lower Signal-to-Noise ratios, so
more users can be supported than for a non-CDMA system.
– Privacy – privacy is inherent since spread spectrum is obtained by use of
noise-like signals
Drawbacks of CDMA Cellular
• Self-jamming – arriving transmissions from
multiple users not aligned on chip boundaries
unless users are perfectly synchronized
• Near-far problem – signals closer to the receiver
are received with less attenuation than signals
farther away
• Soft handoff – requires that the mobile acquires
the new cell before it relinquishes the old; this is
more complex than hard handoff used in FDMA
and TDMA schemes
GSM Network Architecture
Architecture of the GSM system
• Several providers setup mobile networks following the GSM
standard within each country
• Components
– MS (mobile station)
– BS (base station)
– MSC (mobile switching center)
– LR (location register)
• Subsystems
– RSS (radio subsystem): covers all radio aspects
• Base station subsystem
– NSS (network and switching subsystem): call forwarding, handover,
switching
– OSS (operation subsystem): management of the network
GSM: elements and interfaces
radio cell
BSS
MS MS
Um radio cell
RSS BTS MS
BTS
Abis
BSC BSC
A
MSC MSC
NSS signaling
VLR VLR
ISDN, PSTN
HLR GMSC
PDN
IWF
O
OSS
EIR AUC OMC
GSM: system architecture
radio network and Fixed partner networks
subsystem switching subsystem
MS MS
ISDN
PSTN
Um MSC
BTS Abis
BSC EIR
BTS
SS7
HLR
BTS VLR
BSC ISDN
BTS MSC
A PSTN
BSS IWF
PDN
Radio subsystem
• Components
radio network and switching – MS (Mobile Station)
subsystem subsystem – BSS (Base Station Subsystem):
MS MS consisting of
• BTS (Base Transceiver Station):
sender and receiver
Um • BSC (Base Station Controller):
Abis controlling several transceivers
BTS
BSC MSC
BTS • Interfaces
– Um : radio interface
– Abis : standardized, open interface with
16 kbit/s user channels
– A: standardized, open interface with
BTS A 64 kbit/s user channels
BSC MSC
BTS
BSS
Radio subsystem
• The Radio Subsystem (RSS) comprises the cellular mobile network
up to the switching centers
• Components
– Base Station Subsystem (BSS) : BSS consists of base station controller
and one or more base transceiver stations (BTS)
– BSS = BSC + sum(BTS) + interconnection
– Each BTS defines a single cell. It includes radio antenna, radio
transceiver and a link to a base station controller (BSC)
– BSC reserves radio frequencies, manages handoff of mobile unit from
one cell to another within BSS, and controls paging
– Mobile Stations (MS)
9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.25

Mobile Station
• Mobile stations are the mobile equipment (ME) – physical
terminal, such as a telephone or PDA
– ME includes radio transceiver, digital signal processors and
subscriber identity module (SIM)
• Mobile station communicates across Um interface ( air

interface) with base station transceiver in same cell as mobile
unit
• GSM subscriber units are generic until SIM is inserted
– SIMs roam, not necessarily the subscriber devices
Network and switching subsystem
network fixed partner
subsystem networks Components
o MSC (Mobile Services Switching Center):
ISDN o IWF (Interworking Functions)
PSTN
MSC
o ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
o PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)
EIR
o PSPDN (Packet Switched Public Data Net.)
o CSPDN (Circuit Switched Public Data Net.)
SS7
HLR
Databases
VLR
o HLR (Home Location Register)
MSC ISDN o VLR (Visitor Location Register)
IWF PSTN
o EIR (Equipment Identity Register)
PSPDN
CSPDN
Network Subsystem (NS)
• Central element of NS is the mobile switching
center (MSC)
FUNCTIONS Of NSS
• Provides link between cellular network and PSTNs
• Controls handoffs between cells in different BSSs
• Authenticates users and validates accounts
• Enables worldwide roaming of mobile users
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) Databases
• Home location register (HLR) database – stores information about
each subscriber that belongs to it
• Visitor location register (VLR) database – maintains information
about subscribers currently physically in the region
• Authentication center database (AuC) – used for authentication
activities, holds encryption keys
• Equipment identity register database (EIR) – keeps track of the
type of equipment that exists at the mobile station
Network and switching subsystem
• NSS is the main component of the public mobile network GSM
– switching, mobility management, interconnection to other networks,
system control
• Components
1. Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC): controls all connections
via a separated network to/from a mobile terminal within the domain
of the MSC - several BSC can belong to a MSC
2. Databases (important: scalability, high capacity, low delay)
• Home Location Register (HLR)
The HLR is the most important database in a GSM system as it
stores all user-relevant information.
• Visitor Location Register (VLR)
local database for a subset of user data - data about all users currently
visiting in the domain of the VLR

Mobile Services Switching Center
• The MSC (mobile switching center) plays a central role in GSM
– switching functions
– additional functions for mobility support
– management of network resources
– interworking functions via Gateway MSC (GMSC)
– integration of several databases
• Functions of a MSC
– specific functions for paging and call forwarding
– termination of SS7 (signaling system no. 7)
– mobility specific signaling
– location registration and forwarding of location information
– provision of new services (fax, data calls)
– support of short message service (SMS)
– generation and forwarding of accounting and billing information
Operation subsystem
• The OSS (Operation Subsystem) enables centralized operation,
management, and maintenance of all GSM subsystems
• Components
– Authentication Center (AUC)
• generates user specific authentication parameters on request of a
VLR
• authentication parameters are used for authentication of mobile
terminals and encryption of user data on the air interface within the
GSM system
– Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
• registers GSM mobile stations and user rights
• stolen or malfunctioning mobile stations can be locked and
sometimes even localized
– Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
• different control capabilities for the radio subsystem and the
network subsystem
GSM Radio Interface - TDMA/FDMA
• Media access combines TDMA and FDMA
• GSM-900 uses 890 - 915 MHz to send information from the
Mobile Station to the Base Transceiver Station ( uplink ) and
935 - 960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing
124 RF channels (channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200
kHz. FDD is used to separate downlink and uplink.
• Each of the 248 channels is additionally separated in time via
a GSM TDMA frame, i.e., each 200 kHz carrier is
subdivided into frames that are repeated continuously. The
duration of a frame is 4.615 ms.
• A frame is again subdivided into 8 GSM time slots, where
each slot represents a physical TDM channel and lasts for
577μs. Each TDM channel occupies the 200 kHz carrier for
577 μs every 4.615 ms.
• Data is transmitted in small portions, called bursts. Figure

shows a so called normal burst as used for data transmission
inside a time slot (user and signaling data). The burst is only
546.5 μs long and contains 148 bits. The remaining 30.5 μs
are used as guard space to avoid overlapping with other
bursts due to different path delays and to give the transmitter
time to turn on and off.
GSM TDMA Format – Time Slot Fields
• Guard bits – used to avoid overlapping with other bursts
• Tail bits - The first and last three bits of a normal burst (tail) are all set

to 0 and can be used to enhance the receiver performance . Trail bits –
allow synchronization of transmissions from mobile units located at
different distances
• The training sequence in the middle of a slot is used to adapt the
parameters of the receiver to the current path propagation characteristics
and to select the strongest signal in case of multi-path propagation.
• A flag S indicates whether the data field contains user or network control
data.
GSM Signaling Protocol
• Layer 1, the physical layer, handles all radio-specific functions. The
physical layer at Um uses GMSK for digital modulation and
performs encryption/decryption of data, i.e., encryption is not
performed end-to-end, but only between MS and BSS over the air
interface
• Other functions of this layer includes
o the creation of bursts according to the five different formats
o multiplexing of bursts into a TDMA frame
o synchronization with the BTS
o detection of idle channels, and
o measurement of the channel quality on the downlink.
• Signaling between entities in a GSM network requires higher layers
(see Figure 10.17). For this purpose, the LAPDm protocol has been
defined at the Um interface for layer two.
• LAPDm, as the name already implies, has been derived from link
access procedure for the D-channel (LAPD) in ISDN systems, which
is a version of HDLC (High-level Data Link Control). LAPDm is a
lightweight LAPD because it does not need synchronization flags or
check summing for error detection. (The GSM physical layer already
performs these tasks.)
• LAPDm offers reliable data transfer over connections, re-

sequencing of data frames, flow control ,segmentation and
reassembly of data and acknowledged/unacknowledged data
transfer.
The network layer in GSM comprises several sublayers RR, MM, CM
1. Radio resource management (RR)- Only a part of this layer, RR’,

is implemented in the BTS, the remainder is situated in the BSC.
The functions of RR’ are supported by the BSC via the BTS
management (BTSM). The main tasks of RR are setup,
maintenance, and release of radio channels . RR also directly
accesses the physical layer for radio information and offers a
reliable connection to the next higher layer.
2. Mobility management (MM) contains functions for

registration, authentication, identification, location updating, and
the provision of a temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI)
that replaces the international mobile subscriber identity
(IMSI) and which hides the real identity of an MS user over the
air interface. While the IMSI identifies a user, the TMSI is valid
only in the current location area of a VLR. MM offers a reliable
connection to the next higher layer.
3. Call management (CM) layer contains three entities: call control (CC),
short message service (SMS), and supplementary service (SS).
SMS allows for message transfer using the control chann
SACCH (if no signaling data is sent)
SS offers the other services
CC provides a point-to-point connection between two terminals and is used
by higher layers for call establishment, call clearing and change of call
parameters. This layer also provides functions to send in-band tones, called
dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF), over the GSM network.

Signaling system No. 7 (SS7) is used for signaling between an MSC and a
BSC. This protocol also transfers all management information between
MSCs, HLR, VLRs, AuC, EIR, and OMC. An MSC can also control a BSS via a
BSS application part (BSSAP).
Mobile Terminated Call
•When a station calls a mobile station, we
can term it as a Mobile Terminated 4
Call (MTC). For e.g. when a call is made • HLR VLR
from a MTNL landline to an 5
Airtel mobile phone we call it as an MTC. ... 8 9
3 6 14 15
If so then an MSRN ( Mobile Subscriber
Roaming Number) is requested from the
calling 7
subscriber's current VLR. PSTN GMSC MSC
station 1 2
•1: calling a GSM subscriber
•2: forwarding call to GMSC 10 10 13 10
16
•3: signal call setup to HLR
BSS BSS BSS
•4, 5: request MSRN from VLR
•6: forward responsible 11 11 11
MSC to GMSC
•7: forward call to current MSC 11 12
•8, 9: get current status of MS 17
•10, 11: paging of MS MS
•12, 13: MS answers
•14, 15: security checks
•16, 17: set up connection

Mobile Originated Call
• The MS transmits a request for a new
connection (1),
VLR
• the BSS forwards this request to the
MSC (2). 3 4
• The MSC then checks if this user is 6 5
allowed to set up a call with the PSTN GMSC MSC
requested service (3 and 4) 7 8
2 9
• MSC checks the availability of
resources through the GSM network MS
1 BSS
and into the PSTN (5,6,7 8). 10
• If all resources are available, the MSC
sets up a connection between the MS
and the fixed network. (9 and 10)

Handoffs
• GSM uses mobile assisted hand-off (MAHO).
Signal strength measurements are sent to the BS
from the mobile.
• The MSC decides when to do a handoff and it
informs the new BS and the mobile.
• When a mobile switches to a new BS it sends a
series of shortened bursts to adjust its timing
(giving the bS time to calculate it and send it) and
allow the new BS to synchronize its receiver to
the arrival time of the messages
Handover types in GSM
Figure 4,10 shows four possible handover scenarios in GSM:
• Intra-cell handover: Within a cell, narrow-band interference could make
transmission at a certain frequency impossible. The BSC could then decide
to change the carrier frequency (scenario 1).
• Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover: This is a typical handover scenario. The
mobile station moves from one cell to another, but stays within the
control of the same BSC. The BSC then performs a handover, assigns a new
radio channel in the new cell and releases the old one (scenario 2).
• Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover: As a BSC only controls a limited number of
cells; GSM also has to perform handovers between cells controlled by
different BSCs. This handover then has to be controlled by the MSC
(scenario 3). This situation is also shown in Figure 4.13.
• Inter MSC handover: A handover could be required between two cells
belonging to different MSCs. Now both MSCs perform the handover
together (scenario 4).
Handover procedure
MS BTSold BSCold MSC BSCnew BTSnew
measurement measurement
report result
HO decision
HO required HO request
resource allocation
ch. activation
HO request ack ch. activation ack
HO command HO command
HO command
HO access
Link establishment
HO complete HO complete
clear command clear command
clear complete clear complete
Fig : 4.13

Voice signal processing and coding
What is the need of Voice signal processing and coding?
• Voice signals are transmitted at considerably reduced rates compared with
the rates used in wired digital telephone systems. This is necessary
because of the relatively low bandwidths available in wireless cellular
systems. The harsh transmission environment involving fading and
interference from mobile terminals requires strong error protection
through coding as well.
• Two steps are therefore necessary in transmitting voice messages over the
wireless air interface i.e
1. compression ( to reduce bit Rate) and
2. Coding ( for error protection)
• The voice signals must first be compressed using linear predictive filters
significantly to reduce the bit rate required for transmission. Coding
techniques must then be used to provide the error protection needed.
Both steps must clearly result in voice signals that are acceptable to a
receiving user.
IS 95
• The existing 12.5 MHz cellular bands are used to derive 10 different CDMA bands
(1.25MHz per band).
• The frequency reuse factor in CDMA is 1. The channel rate is 1.2288Mbps (actually
chips not bits!).
• Multipath fading is exploited in CDMA. It provides for space (path) diversity, RAKE
receivers are used to combine the output of several received signals. Ofcourse
fading does still occur on the individual signals but each signal is affected
differently and so using several of them to make a decision improves the
probability of obtaining a correct decision. This is referred to as multipath diversity
combining.
– The rake receiver at the mobile uses three correlators to receive three different signals
that are spaced more than (>) .8micro secs (1 chip width) away. Signals spaced less than
(<) .8microsecs cause interference and signals spaced exactly .8microsecs away will
cause a maximum fade. A fourth receiver is used as a roving finger, it is used to detect
new strong incoming signals. This process ensures that the RAKE receiver always uses
the 3 strongest signals. At the BS all four correlators are used to receive signals (note BS
use antenna diversity).

IS 95: Coding and Modulation
• 64 bit Walsh codes (proving 64 bit orthogonal codes) are used to provide 64
channels within each frequency band. They are used for spreading in the
downlink. In the uplink it is used to provide orthogonal modulation but not
spreading to the full 1.2288 rate.
• Besides the Walsh codes, 2 other codes are used in IS-95:
– Long PN code : generated from a 42 bit shift register having 2 42 -1=4.398 x 10 12
different codes. A mask is used to overlay the codes, the mask differs from channel
to channel.The chip rate is 1.2288Mcps. These codes are used for:
• Data scrambling/encryption in the downlink
• Data spreading and encryption in the up link
– Short PN code: generated from a pair of 15 bit shift registers having 215 - 1 = 32,767
codes. These codes are used for synchronization in the down and up links and cell
identification in the down link (each cell uses one of 512 possible offsets, adjacent
cells must use different offsets). The chip rate is 1.2288Mcps (i.e., not used for
spreading!)

IS 95: The Channels
• The forward and reverse links are separated by 45MHz.
• The downlink comprises the following logical channels:
– Pilot channel (always uses Walsh code W0)
– Paging channel(s) (use Walsh codes W1 - W7)
– Sync channel (always uses Walsh code W32)
– Traffic channels ( use Walsh codes W8 - W31 and W33 -
W63)
• The uplink comprises the following logical channels:
– Access channel
– Traffic channel

Forward Channel
The Forward channel is the direction of the communication or mobile-to-
cell downlink path. It includes the following channels
• Pilot Channel − Pilot channel is a reference channel. It uses the mobile
station to acquire the time and as a phase reference for coherent
demodulation. It is continuously transmitted by each base station on each
active CDMA frequency. And, each mobile station tracks this signal
continuously.
• Sync Channel − Synchronization channel carries a single, repeating
message, which gives the information about the time and system
configuration to the mobile station. Likewise, the mobile station can have
the exact system time by the means of synchronizing to the short code.
• Paging Channel − Paging Channel’s main objective is to send out pages,
that is, notifications of incoming calls, to the mobile stations. The base
station uses these pages to transmit system overhead information and
mobile station specific messages.
• Forward Traffic Channel − Forward Traffic Channels are code channels. It
is used to assign calls, usually voice and signaling traffic to the individual
users.
Reverse Channel
• The Reverse channel is the mobile-to-cell direction of
communication or the uplink path. It consists of the
following channels
• Access Channel − Access channel is used by mobile stations
to establish a communication with the base station or to
answer Paging Channel messages. The access channel is
used for short signaling message exchanges such as call-
ups, responses to pages and registrations.
• Reverse Traffic Channel − Reverse traffic channel is used by
the individual users in their actual calls to transmit traffic
from a single mobile station to one or more base stations.
IS 95: Link Protocols
• The link protocol can be summarized as follows:
– Mobile acquires phase, timing, and signal strength via
the pilot channel.
– Mobile synchronizes via the sync channel.
– Mobile gets system parameters via the paging channel.
– Mobile and BS communicate over the traffic channels
during a connection.
– Mobile and BS communicate over the access and
paging channels during system acquisition and paging.

IS 95: The different codes and their use
• The forward (downlink) channels and reverse (uplink) channels use
different spreading and scrambling processes.
• The forward channels are spread using one of 64 orthogonal Walsh
functions. This provides perfect separation between the channels (in the
absence of multpath!). Then, to reduce interference between mobiles
that use the same Walsh function in neighboring cells, all signals in a
particular cell are scrambled using the short PN sequence (cell
identification) in the radio modulator. For the paging and the traffic
channels, the long PN sequence is used to scramble
the signal before
spreading. It can also be used for encryption on the traffic channel if the
mask instead of being the ESN of the mobile is a private long code
exchanged during the authentication procedure.
• The reverse channels are spread

using the long PN sequence . All 64
orthogonal Walsh functions are used to provide orthogonal modulation.
The stream is then scrambled
using the short PN sequence for cell
identification purposes.

Spread spectrum
• There are two basic spread-spectrum techniques:
direct sequencing (DS), frequency hopping (FH), and
time hopping (TH). Also, a variety of hybrid techniques
use different combinations of these basic techniques.
• With direct-sequence spreading , the original signal is
multiplied by a known signal of much larger bandwidth.
• With frequency-hopped spreading , the center
frequency of the transmitted signal is varied in a
pseudorandom pattern.
• CDMA works on the principle of DS spread
spectrum
DIRECT-SEQUENCE CDMA
• As mentioned CDMA is a spread-spectrum
multiple access method. Spread-spectrum is a
transmission method in which the signal occupies
a bandwidth in excess of the minimum necessary
to send the information. The spreading of the
signal is accomplished by means of a
pseudorandom code that is independent of the
transmitted data signal. A synchronized reception
with the same pseudorandom code at the
receiver is used for de-spreading and subsequent
data recovery.
Principle of DS-CDMA
Principle of DS-CDMA
• Figure 2 shows the multiple access capability of a CDMA communication
system. Two users are sending simultaneously narrowband information
signals having the same bandwidth Bi. Both narrowband signals are spread
with a user specific and unique code having sufficiently low cross
correlation with the other user’s code. Code makes each user’s
communications approximately orthogonal to those of other users. After
spreading the two signals are transmitted into a radio channel having the
same bandwidth, Bt. In the radio channel the two signals are mixed and
exposed to impairments. Spreading the signal de-sensitizes the original
narrowband signal to some potential channel degradation and to
interference. The signals cannot be distinguished from each other and
from background noise due to their low powers achieved by the spreading.
The transmitted energy remains the same, but due to much larger
bandwidth, the signal spectrum is often below the noise floor of receivers.
At the receiver the desired narrow-band information signal can be
extracted or de-spread by a replica of the spreading code used in
transmitter for a particular user. Signals for other users are not de-spread;
they are spread more.
DS-CDMA Transmitter and Receiver
• The basic DS-CDMA transmission and reception is
illustrated in Figure 3. Signal transmission consists of the
following steps. A pseudo-random code is generated,
different for each channel and each successive connection.
The information data is spread by pseudorandom code. The
resulting signal modulates a carrier. The modulated carrier
is amplified and broadcast. Signal reception consists of the
following steps. The carrier is received and amplified. The
received signal is mixed with a local carrier to recover the
spread digital signal. A pseudorandom code is generated,
matching the anticipated signal. The receiver acquires the
received code and phase locks its own code to it. The
received signal is correlated with the generated code,
extracting the information data.
Spreading and De-spreading in DS- CDMA
• Spreading In the transmitter, the binary data is directly
multiplied (XOR-function) with the pseudo-noise
sequence, which is independent of the binary data, to
produce the transmitted baseband signal having much
wider bandwidth than the original signal. This is
presented in Figure 4.
• De-spreading In the receiver the baseband signal is
multiplied with the same pseudo-noise sequence. If
the pseudorandom code is not the same or it is not in
synchronization with the data there is no de-spreading.
IS 95: Power Control I
• It is of paramount importance for a CDMA system.
• In order to have max. efficiency, the power received at the BS
from all the mobiles must be nearly equal.
• If a terminal’s power is too low , then many bit errors will
occur.
• If a terminal’s power is too high , the level of interference will
go up.
• Closed loop power control at the terminals:
power control
information is sent to the terminal from the BS . Puncturing is
used, 2 data symbols are replaced by one power control
symbol (double the power). This bit either indicates a
transition up or a transition down in power in 1db increments.
The power bit is sent 16 times per 20ms frame (every
1.25ms)! (Pclosed)
IS 95: Power Control II
• Open loop power control at the terminals :. The mobile
senses the strength of the pilot signal and can adjust its
power based upon that. If signal is very strong, the
assumption can be made that the mobile is very close to BS
and the power should be dropped. The mobile uses P target
sent in the access param. msg.(Popen)
• The transmitted power at the terminal in units of dBm is:
Ptran=Popen+Pclosed
• Open loop power control at the BS : the BS decreases its
power level gradually and waits to hear from the mobile
what the frame error rate (FER) is (power measurement
report). If high then it increases its power level.

IS 95: Handoffs I
• CDMA supports two types of handoffs:
1. hard handoff
2. soft handoff
A hard handoff is a break before make scenario, where prob. of
dropping a call is higher. A soft handoff is a make before break
scenario.
• The mobile assists in the handoff process and therefore it is
referred to as Mobile Assisted Hand Off (MAHO). It reports signal
measurements to the BS. The roving finger (or searcher) of the
RAKE receiver is used to measure the pilot signals of neighboring
BSs (neighbor list messages sent to terminals periodically). During
call set-up a mobile is given a list of handoff thresholds and a list of
likely new cells . The mobile keeps track of those cells that fall
above the threshold and sends this information to the MSC.

IS 95: Handoffs II
• The mobile and the MSC classify the neighboring BSs to keep track
of the handoff process (based upon data received from the mobile,
the MSC constantly re-classifies BSs with regard to the mobile):
– active list: contains BSs currently used for communication (contains at
least one BS)
– candidate list: contains list of BSs that could be used for
communication based upon current signal strength measurements
– neighbor list : contains a list of BSs that could soon be promoted to
candidate list
– remaining list: all other BSs that do not qualify
• The MSC, when it moves a BS from the candidate list into the active
list, will direct that BS to serve the terminal. It informs both the new
BS and the mobile and assigns a forward channel number (Walsh
code) for communication (on condition there is one available!).

IS 95: Handoffs III
• Soft handoffs consist of the mobile being served by two BSs. That means that:
1. A mobile receives the signal from two BSs simultaneously. That is possible because
an MS always receives 4 signals (RAKE receiver - one correlator is used to receive the
signal from a different BS)
2. The signal from the mobile is received by two BSs. This is possible as a CDMA channel
simply consists of a transmission by the mobile using its ESN to identify itself on the
reverse channel and only requires a correlator at the BS to be used to receive the signal.
• Soft handoffs also eliminate the ping pong effect (i.e., when traveling along the
boundary of two cells and switching back and forth between two BSs). The mobile
is being served by two BSs and does not have to switch BSs until absolutely
necessary!
• The handoff process is also unique in that the mobile initiates the hand off. The MS
analyze the measurements and inform the MSC when a handoff might be
necessary. (If one BS’s signal strength becomes much higher than the other).

Effect of multipath propagation
• Radio propagation is characterized by multipath propagation which may
result into attenuation of signal energy.
• Effects of Multipath Propagation may be Constructive or Destructive
• Multipath components are delayed copies of the original transmitted wave
traveling through a different path, each with a different magnitude and time
-of-arrival at the receiver. Since each component contains the original
information, if the magnitude and time-of-arrival (phase) of each component
is computed at the receiver (through a process called channel estimation),
then all the components can be added coherently to improve the
information reliability The Multipath components can be combined
coherently to obtain multipath diversity by the WCDMA receiver if the time
difference of the multipath components is at least 0.26 microsec. At certain
time delay positions ,many paths nearly equal in length may arrive at
virtually the same instant at the receiver. This results in FAST FADING. Signal
can drop down by 20-30dB.
• Now lets see How to deal with this fast fading by using rake receiver in
nodeB.
Effect of multipath propagation
Rake Reception
• A rake receiver is a radio receiver designed to counter the effects of
multipath fading. It does this by using several "sub-receivers" called
fingers, each assigned to a different multipath component
• Multipath components are delayed copies of the original transmitted
wave traveling through a different path, each with a different magnitude
and time-of-arrival at the receiver
• Since each component contains the original information, if the magnitude
and time-of-arrival (phase) of each component is computed at the receiver
(through a process called channel estimation), then all the components
can be added coherently to improve the information reliability. This could
very well result in higher signal-to-noise ratio (or Eb/N0) in a multipath
environment
• Multipath signals reflected from obstacles and signals from different Node
B's can be combined using rake receiver.
• Rake receiver takes different factors (attenuation timing) into account and
receiver fingers combine multipath signals to one signals.

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Wireless

• Interim Standard 136 is often referred to as DAMPS

• D-AMPS or Digital AMPS is a wireless standard for mobile telephony that

• D-AMPS adds time division multiple access (TDMA) to AMPS to get three

• Operates on the 800 and 1900 MHz band -ANSI-136 / IS-136

• IS-136 provides voice and data services with a maximum bit

• The bands are divided into 30 kHz sub-bands, called channels . The

• An advantage of D-AMPS is that it is easier to upgrade to from an

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.25

• Mobile station communicates across Um interface ( air

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.30

• Data is transmitted in small portions, called bursts. Figure

• Tail bits - The first and last three bits of a normal burst (tail) are all set

• LAPDm offers reliable data transfer over connections, re-

1. Radio resource management (RR)- Only a part of this layer, RR’,

2. Mobility management (MM) contains functions for

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.42

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.43

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.47

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.49

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.50

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.51

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.55

• The reverse channels are spread

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.56

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.67

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.68

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.69

9/7/2017 Indu Bhardwaj wireless communication 4.70

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