Construction Materials

and Engineering
Module - IV

Shamjith Km
shamjithkeyem@gmail.com
Department of Civil Engineering
Government Polytechnic College Manjeri
 Basic building components
Sub structure Super structure
Portion of building located Portion of building located
below ground level above ground level
1.Foundation 1. Plinth 10. Staircase
2. Beams 11. Chajjas
3. Columns 12. Lift/ramp
4. Walls 13. Doors
5. Arches 14. Windows
6. Roofs 15. Sunshade
7. Slab 16. Ventilator
8. Lintel 17. Plinth beam
9. Parapet 18. Chimney
1 Foundation

Most important part of a building

Transmit load from superstructure to subsoil
For uniform distribution of load
To provide level surface for construction of superstructure
To reduce load intensity
To assure settlements are within permissible limits
To assure soil does not fail in shear
To prevent side wise movements
2 Plinth

Structure between ground and floor

Transmit load of super structure to foundation
Prevents entry of rain water in to the building
Prevents entry of animals and insects
Generally, Plinth height = 45, 60, 90, 120 cm
Plinth should not be less than 45 cm
Plinth provide a level surface
Plinth supports walls
3 Beams

Horizontal structural element

Slabs are provided above beams
Beams are supported on either walls or columns
Takes vertical loads, shear forces and bending moments
Takes loads from slabs and transfer to column beneath
Usually beams are made of RCC and steel
4 Column

Vertical structural element

Takes compressive loads
Takes loads from beams and transfer to foundation
Usually columns are made of RCC and steel
Long columns fails by buckling
Short columns fails by crushing
5 Arches

Normally a curved member with wedge shaped blocks

Usually made of concrete, bricks, or stones
Carry weight of structure above the openings
Used in buildings, bridges, etc
6 Walls

Building blocks of bricks or stones

Gives a structural looking for building
Provides shelter
Divides the building space to useful rooms
Load bearing walls supports slab weight
In framed buildings, acts as partition walls
Provides privacy and protection from heat, cold, dust, noise
Walls support roof
7 Roof

Uppermost (slab) portion of a building

Protects the building from direct rain and heat
Provides privacy and protection
Provides aesthetics to the building
Usually made of RCC, wood, tiles, steel, asbestos, etc
May be flat, arch, curved or slopped in shape
8 Floor

To provide level walking surface

To provide useful area for working/placing equipments
Provides neatness to building
Flooring is done above plinth level/slabs
Provides privacy and protection from heat, cold, dust, noise
9 Doors

To provide access to various areas in a building

Provides privacy and shelter
Provides entry and exit system to rooms
Protection from theft and robbery
Usually made of wood, steel, fabrication works, etc
Can be made in different shapes and sizes - aesthetics
10 Windows

To get proper ventialation

Provides privacy and shelter
Provides fresh air and light inside the room
Protection from theft and robbery
Usually made of wood, steel, fabrication works, etc
Can be made in different shapes and sizes - aesthetics
11 Sunshade

It is a type of cantilever slab

It is constructed above lintel
It extends from walls
It protects from rain water
It controls amount of direct sunlight through windows
12 Openings

Provides entry and exit without doors

Ventilation and light

13 Plinth beam

Beam or belt covering provided above plinth level

To prevent entry of water (dampness)
To provide additional support for load transferring & walls
14 Lintel

Horizontal structural member

Provided above doors and windows
Transfers load above doors & windows to beneath
Usually made of RCC or steel
Width of lintel = width of wall
15 Staircase/lift/ramp

Safe access from one floor to another

Suitable provision to escape in case of fire
Support for movement between floors
Usually made of RCC or steel
For vertical transportation
16 Chejjas (Eaves)

Overhanging cover for windows and doors

Protects from external sunlight
Protects from rain water
Provide aesthetics to building
17 Parapet

Low protective wall along the edge of a roof,

bridge, or balcony.
Made above flat roofs Parapet

It act as a protective edge from falling

 Foundations
Transmit load from superstructure to subsoil
For uniform distribution of load
To provide level surface for construction of superstructure
To reduce load intensity
 Foundations

Shallow Deep
Shallow depth Depth is high
Depth ≤ Width Depth > Width
Weak soils
1. Isolated spread footing
2. Wall/Strip footing 1. Pile foundation
3. Combined footing 2. Well/Caisson foundation
4. Cantilever/Strap footing 3. Pier foundation
5. Mat/raft footing
1. Isolated spread footing
Most common and economical type
Generally used for ordinary buildings
Have independent footings
Each column has its own footings
Footing may be rectangular,
square or circular in shape
Isolated footings may be of three types:
2. Wall/Strip footing
Each strip contains number of footings
Helps to distribute loads from columns to ground
Strip will be along direction of wall
A group of columns share single lengthier footing
3. Combined footing
Footings made common to more than one column
Uniform distribution of loads
Opted when columns are closely spaced
Opted when dimensions of one side is restricted
4. Cantilever/Strap footing
Nearby footings connected using a strap/beam
When edge of footing cannot extend beyond property line
5. Mat/raft footing
Used when bearing capacity of soil is poor
Load from number of columns is distributed by
a single large footing called mat.
Raft behave as a single unit
Used for heavy construction
works in low load bearing soil
1. Pile foundation
Used when bearing capacity of soil is poor
Pile is a slender (long) member with a small CSA
Used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper rock strata
Pile transmits load either by skin friction or bearing
Used to resist uplift and provide stability against lateral
and overturning forces.
2. Well/Caisson foundation
Provided below water level for bridges
Caisson means ‘box’
Construction of structures in water
Dams, bridges, etc
3. Pier foundation
Used when heavy load is transferred to the ground
 Flooring
Permanent covering given to a floor
Provides walking surface
Materials: Wood, stone, ceramic, terrazzo, etc
 Requirements of a good floor
1. Good appearance
2. Can be easily and effectively cleaned
3. Should provide comfort on using – less noise
4. Cost should be reasonable
5. Should have sufficient damp resistance
6. Should be strong and durable
7. Should be fire resistant
8. Should have sufficient hardness
9. Should have minimum maintenance
10.Should be smooth, but don't slipper.
 Materials used for flooring
Cement or lime concrete Wood
Bricks/tiles Cork
Marble Linoleum
Glass Flagstones
Ceramic Asphalt
Plastic Rubber
Mud and murram
 Doors and windows
Primarily for air circulation, privacy and light
Made of wood, concrete, steel, aluminum, etc
Door is a movable barrier secured in a wall opening
Designation of doors and windows

10 DS 20
Note:
1 module = 100 mm

Module width Single Shutter Module height

door
Location of door in a building
Preferably at corners of a room (20 cm from corner)
If two doors in a room, face them each other
Number of doors should be kept as minimum
Place such that we get maximum ventilation and wind
Depends on size of room, climatic conditions, utility
and architectural point of view.
Place such that we get
maximum light
Thumb rules for height and width
(Residential buildings)

Height of door = Width + (1 m to 1.2 m)

Eg:- H = 1 m + 1.0 = 2.0 m
H = 1 m + 1.2 = 2.2 m

Width of door = (0.4 to 0.6) x height

Eg:- W = 0.4 x 2.0 = 0.80 m
W = 0.6 x 2.0 = 1.20 m
Location of window in a building
Place such that we get maximum ventilation and wind
Depends on size of room, climatic conditions, utility
and architectural point of view.

For 30 m3 inside volume  Provide 1 m2 window area

1
Breadth of window = x [width of room + height of room]
8

15 % of floor area = area of window opening

10 % of floor area = Glass panel area
 Technical terms
1. Head – top most horizontal part
2. Sill – lower most horizontal part
3. Post
4. Mullion – vertical sub divide
5. Transom – horizontal sub divide
6. Horn – horizontal projections of frame
7. Holdfast
8. Style – vertical outside member of shutter
9. Jamb – vertical surface of an opening
10. Reveal – exposed vertical surface of an opening
11. Rebate – rectangular recess around frame to receive door
12. Stop – block of wood fixed on backside of a door
13. Architrave – mouldings around door or window frame
14. Ground – additional wooden supports to architrave
Jamp – Vertical surface of door opening
Reveal – exposed vertical surface of an opening
Shutter
 Types of doors
1. Battened and ledged doors
2. Battened, ledged and braced doors
3. Battened, ledged and framed doors
4. Battened, ledged, braced and framed doors
5. Framed and paneled doors
6. Glazed doors
7. Flush doors
8. Louvered doors
9. Revolving doors
10.Sliding doors
11.Swing doors
12.Collapsible doors
13.Rolling shutter doors
14.Wicket gate
1. Battened and ledged doors
Ledge

Hinge

Batten
2. Battened, ledged and braced doors

Ledge

Batten
Hinge
3. Battened, ledged and framed doors

Ledge

Hinge

Batten
4. Battened, ledged, braced and framed doors

Ledge

Hinge

Batten
5. Framed and paneled doors

Top rail

Panel

Mid rail

Style

Bottom rail
6. Glazed doors

Top rail

Glazed Panel

Mid rail

Style

Bottom rail
7. Flush doors Sheets are placed at back and front
8. Louvered (Venition) doors
9. Revolving doors

Used for Queue controlling

Entrance and exit at same time
Suitable for buildings where there is heavy rush of foot traffic
10. Sliding doors
11. Swing doors
12. Collapsible doors

Visibility to both sides is obtained

Ventilation is also obtained
13. Rolling shutter doors
Saves space

Drum

Rolling shutter

Handle Lock
14. Wicket gate
Eg: Jail doors

Wicket door
 Types of windows
1. Fixed windows
2. Sliding windows
3. Pivoted windows
4. Double hung windows
5. Louvered windows
6. Casement windows
7. Metal windows
8. Sash windows
9. Corner windows
10. Bay windows
11. Dormer windows
12. Clerestory windows
13. Lantern windows
14. Gable windows
15. Ventilators
16. Skylights
1. Fixed Windows
fixed to the wall without any closing or opening operation
2. Sliding Windows
window shutters are movable in the frame
Eg: Buses, bank counters, etc
3. Pivoted Windows
Pivots are provided to window frames
Pivot is a shaft which helps to oscillate the shutter

Types

1. Horizontal
2. Vertical
4. Double Hung Windows
Consist of pair of shutters attached to one frame
Shutters are arranged one above the other
5. Louvered Windows
Provided for the ventilation without any outside vision
Eg: bathrooms, toilets and privacy places etc
6. Casement Windows
Widely used and common – Ordinary window
shutters attached to frame and can be opened and
closed like door shutters
7. Metal Windows
Generally mild steel is used
Very cheap and have more strength
Eg: Public buildings
8. Sash Windows
Type of casement window with panels fully glazed
Space between rails is divided into small panels by mean
of small timber members called sash bars or glazing bars
9. Corner Windows
Provided at the corners of room
Light / air can enter room in two different directions
10. Bay Windows
Projected from wall to increase the area of opening
Enables more ventilation and light form outside
11. Dormer windows
Provided for sloped roofs
Enables more ventilation and light
Enhance aesthetic sense of room
12. Clerestory Windows
Provided near roof heights
Provided for room which has greater ceiling height than
the other rooms
13. Lantern Windows
Provided for over the flat roofs
Provided more light & air circulation to the interior rooms
14. Gable Windows
Provided for sloped roof buildings
Provided at the gable end of sloped roof
15. Ventilators
Provided for purpose of ventilation in the room
Provided at greater height than windows nearer
to roof level
16. Skylights
Provided on the top of sloped roofs
To admit more light into the rooms
Provided parallel to the sloping surface
Can be opened when we required
 Lintel
Beam provided over an opening for door, window,
cupboard etc., in a wall
Horizontal flexural member which bridges gap of the
opening and which permits construction of walls above it.
Width of lintels is usually same as that of wall
1. Wood Lintel
Single/more pieces of wood used
Sometimes strengthened by steel plates at top and
bottom (Flitched beams)
2. Stone lintels
Stones are cut to required width of the wall
Depth of stone piece = 0.1 x Span
Used only for small spans (stone is weak in tension)
3. Brick lintel
For small span openings
Well burnt, good quality bricks used
Curing time: 7-14 days
Needs temporary form work at
time of construction
4. R.C.C. Lintel
For larger spans - form work needed
Provided with suitable reinforcement
Commonly used in building now days
5. RSJ Lintels (Rolled steel joists)
Provided at large openings when loads are heavy
Jointing is done with bolts
 Sunshade
Cantilever structure constructed to protect building
from direct sunlight and splashing of rain water.

Usually of width 600 mm and 100 mm thickness.

Provides comfort to users
If RCC, monolithic casting with lintel is done
May be constructed with lintel or independently
Designed slope should be provided for easy draingae
 Sunshade

Monolithic casting Independent casting

Canopy and Sun breakers
Structures constructed to control amount of direct
sunlight through building windows.

Heat insulation, shading and protection from raining.

Aesthetic appearance
 Arches
Structure constructed to
span across an opening

Supports loads acting above

the openings

Small wedge-shaped units

joined with mortar 1.
2.
Keystone
Voussoir
3. Extrados
4. Impost
5. Intrados
6. Rise
7. Clear span
8. Abutment
 Arches
Arches transfer loads as inclined loads whereas
lintels transfer loads as vertical loads.

The structure constructed of stones or bricks,

jointed together with mortar.

Used mainly for beautification purposes

 Technical terms
1 Keystone
Wedge shaped unit at the crown of an arch

2 Voussoir
Wedge shaped units of an arch

3 Extrados (or back)

External curve of an arch
4 Impost
Projection of a pier/abutment
 Technical terms
5 Intrados
Inner curve of the arch
6 Rise
Vertical distance b/w highest point on intrados &
springing line

7 Clear span
Clear horizontal distance b/w the suports
8 Abutment
End support of an arch
 Technical terms
9 Piers
Intermediate supports of an arcade

10 Arcade
Arcade means a series of arch

11 Soffit
Inner surface of the arch (same as intrados)
12 Crown
Top point of an arch
 Technical terms
13 Skewback
Inclined surface of a pier perpendicular to load direction

14 Springing lines
Imaginary lines connecting springing points

15 Springer
First voussoir at springing level on either side of an arch.
It is immediately adjacent to the skewback
 Technical terms
16 Haunch
Lower half portion of arch b/w crown and skewback

17 Height of arch
Perpendicular distance b/w intrados and extrados
18 Ring
Circular course forming an arch
19 Spandril
Irregular triangular space formed b/w extrados and
horizontal line drawn to the tangent.
 Types of Arches
Shape No.of centers Workmanship Material

1.Flat arch 1.One centered 1.Rough arch 1.Stone arches

2.Segmental 2.Two centered 2.Axed/rough cut 2.Brick arches
3.Semi-circular 3.Three centered 3.Gauged 3.Concrete arches
4.Semi-elliptical 4.Four centered
5.Inverted 5.Five centered
6.Pointed
7.Relieving
8.Horse-shoe
9.Stilted
10.Venetian
11.Florentine
1 Flat arch
Apparent shape is flat
Skewback forms an angle of 60o with horizontal
2 Segmental arch
Common type used in buildings
One centre – below springing line
Skewback – inclined (perpendicular to load)
3 Semi-circular
Line of action of load - vertical
Skewback - horizontal
Centre of arch = midpoint of springing line
4 Semi-elliptical
Arch has more than one center (3 or 5)
Shape of semi ellipse
Centre of arch = midpoint of springing line
5 Inverted arch
To increase bearing power of soil
Placed below foundation
Eg: british bridges
6 Pointed or gothic arch
Consist of two curves meeting at apex of triangle
Triangle – equilateral or isosceles triangle
Isosceles – Lancet arch
7 Relieving arch
Constructed over a wooden joist or flat arch
8 Horse-shoe arch
For architectural considerations
More than a semi-circle
Center above springing line
9 Stilted arch
Semi-circular shape attached to tops
Springing line passes through tops of
vertical portions.
10 Venetian arch (Tuder arch)
Depth at crown > depth at springing line
Four centers on springing line
11 Florentine arch
Florentine arch with semi-circular intrados
 Vertical Transportation
Four major modes of vertical transportation are:
1.Stairs
2.Escalators
3.Lifts (Elevators)
4.Ramps
 Staircase and its location
Should provide easy access to all in the building
Check for good lighting and ventilation
Should have convenient approaches and spaces
Stairs should be located near main entrance in
case of a public building.
In residential buildings stair should be placed
centrally.
 Types of staircase
Straight Turning Geometrical Circular
stairs Stairs stairs stairs
1.Quarter turn
2.Half turn
3.Three quarter turn
1 Straight stairs
All steps leads in one direction only
May consist of one or more flights
Used when space available
is long, but narrow
2.a Turning stairs: Quarter turn stair
Have a turning of one right angle – 90o

Bifurcated stair
If a quarter turn stair is branched
into two flights at a landing
2.b Turning stairs: Half turn stair
Have a turning of two right angles – 180o
May be dog legged or open well (newel) type

dog legged stair Open well stair

2.c Turning stairs: Three quarter turn
Have a turning of three right angles – 270o
May be dog legged or open well (newel) type
3 Circular / helical / spiral stairs
Steps radiates from the centre
No intermediate newel posts or any landings
Flight consists of winders only
4 Geometrical stairs
Of any geometrical shape
5 Cantilever/Jackknife stair
(KPBR, page 54)
Standards for stair case as per KBR
(One for fire escape)
If no.of floors > 4 : provide two staircases
Minimum width = 1.2 m
Minimum width of thread = 30 cm
Maximum height of riser = 15 cm
Minimum height of handrail = 90 cm
Minimum = 3 steps, maximum = 12 – in a flight
Reduce use of spiral staircase
No.of risers = Total height of floor/height of riser
No.of treads = no.of risers - 1
 Technical terms
1 Baluster
Vertical member fixed b/w string and handrail for safety
2 Balustrade (Barrister)
Combined framework of handrail and balusters
3 Flight
Unbroken series of steps b/w landings
4 Going
Horizontal distance b/w faces of two consecutive risers
 Technical terms
5 Handrail (Guard rail)
Inclined rail over the string for safety.
6 Headroom
Vertical distance b/w tread and overhead obstruction.
Should be > 2 m
If less than 2 m, heads of people hits the obstruction

7 Landing
Horizontal platform b/w two flights which facilitates
change in direction and provide opportunity to take rest.
 Technical terms
8 Newel post
Vertical member provided at beginning & end of a flight
9 Nosing
Projecting part of tread beyond the face of riser.
10 Pitch
Angle of inclination of stair with floor. Should be <38o
11 Rise
Vertical distance b/w two successive treads
 Technical terms
12 Riser
Vertical portion of a step that supports the thread.
13 Run
Total length of stair in a horizontal plane (includes landing)
14 Scotia
Additional finish/moulding provided at bottom of nosing
 Technical terms
15 Soffit
Under surface of a stair
16 Step
A combination of tread and riser
17 String
Inclined member of a stair which supports ends of steps
18 Tread
Horizontal upper portion of a step
 Technical terms
19 Waist
Thickness of structural slab in case of RCC stair
20 Walking line
Approx. line of movement of people on a stair during
ascent/descent. It is 450 mm from the hand rail from
centre of handrail.
 Lift
A vertical transportation system
Moves people and goods b/w floors
Electrically operated equipment
If building height exceeds 10 m
or > 3 storeys, provide lift
 Lift - location
Lift can be provided inside or outside the building
Inside  near staircase or independent to staircase

Outside  with access to the building landing

Need to provide easy access for all building users

Not preferred at corners
Should give provision for future expansions, if any
Provides much comfort to the users
 Lift shaft
Machine room

Trailing cable
Landing door
Counter weight
Landing level
Cab/Car

Lift pit/well
Buffer
 Lift – Technical terms
1. Lift car/cab
Vertically moving cabin in which passengers and
goods are transported.
2. Lift shaft/hoist
space in which the lift cabin moves.

3. Machine room
Room from which the lift functions are loaded and
controlled
 Lift – Technical terms
4. Lift pit or Lift well
Specially dug hole into which the lift is "housed"
5. Buffer
Provided in lift pit for safe landing of cab at bottom
6. Counter weight or balance weight
a separately guided mass that partly
counterbalances the cabin and secures ropes
pressure to a driving pulley.
 Lift – Technical terms
7. Trailing/suspension cable
Cable which holds car and counter-weight
8. Governor
Controls speed of the lift

9. Passngers
Passenger capacity assumed as 68 kg/person
 Ramps
When large number of persons/vehicles have to
be moved from floor to floor.
Is a uniformly sloping surface or inclined plane.
Occupy larger space than stairs and lifts
Easy for sick people
to climb on ramps
 Ramps

Maximum gradient = 1 in 10
Minimum width = 1.2 m
Minimum height of handrail = 80 cm
 Escalators
Power driven, inclined, continuous stairways used
for transporting passengers in airports, malls, etc
Operate automatically without operators
Provided with moving handrails.
 Ceiling
Overhead interior surface that covers the upper
limits of a room – provided below roof/slab
Not considered as a structural element
 Functions of ceiling
To reduce the heat transfer from the roof
To improve appearance

To conceal all ducts, pipes, wiring and light fittings

To reduce volume of the room

Improve its air conditioning
Improve acoustical quality – sound proof
Materials used for ceiling
 Wood
 Gypsum board
 Plaster of paris
 Thermocol
 Extruded Aluminium
 Acoustical boards
 Glass mirrors
 Metal Sheets
 Types of ceilings
Suspended False Ordinary
ceiling ceiling ceiling
• Also called as drop ceiling

• Consists of panels that

hang a few inches below
the main structural ceiling

• Area above dropped

ceiling is called plenum
space
 False ceiling
A dropped ceiling or secondary ceiling hung below
the main (structural) ceiling
To conceal all ducts, pipes, wiring and light fittings
Acoustic balance and control in a room
Aesthetic improvement
Requirements of good ceiling
Should be durable and portable
Material used should be light in weight - drop

Should be water/sound/fire proof

Should have aesthetic looking after installation

Should possible to install easily
Should have enough strength and integrity
Possible to cast in any shape – flexible in nature
 Roof
Uppermost part of building which protects building
from snow, rain, sun, etc
Structural elements may be trusses, portals, slabs,
domes, etc
Roof
 Important technical terms
1 Barge board
Wooden boards fixed on gable end of a roof
2 Battens
Thin wooden strips fixed on rafters to support roof ceiling
3 Cleat
Small wooden blocks to prevent sliding of purlins
4 Eaves
Lower edge of slopping surface of a roof
 Important technical terms
5 Purlin
Wooden pieces placed horizontally on principal rafters
6 Common rafter
Intermediate rafters supporting roof covering
7 Ridge piece
Wooden piece provided at the ridge line of a slopping roof
8 Wall plates
Long wooden members embedded on top of walls to
receive the common rafter.
Requirements of a good roof
Should be durable – against rain, wind, snow, and sun
Should provide desirable insulation from heat and sound

Should be structurally stable and sound – take loads

Should be well drained – slope/drainage facilities

Efficient water proofing
Fire resistant
Good appearence
 Classification of roofs
Pitched Flat (terraced)
(slopping) roof roofs
Curved roofs

1. Single roof
2. Double or purlin roof
3. Trussed roofs
1 Pitched (Slopped) Roofs
Used in places where rainfall and snow fall is high
Slope > 10o (may be 45o -60o )
Preferred for large span structures like workshops,
ware houses, factories, etc
 Types of pitched roof

Single roofs Double or Trussed roofs

Purlin roofs For higher spans
Span < 5 m
Span > 2.4 m

1. Lean to roofs
2. Couple roofs
3. Couple-close roof
4. Collar beam roof
5. Collar and scissor roof
A Single roofs
Span < 5m
Commo rafters are provided to each slope without any
intermediate support.
Commo rafters have single span
No purlins
1 Lean to roof (Pent/Aisle roof)
Maximum span = 2.40 m
Generally used for sheds, verendas, etc
2 Couple roof
Maximum span = 3.60 m
3 Couple-close roof
Legs of common rafters connected by a tie beam
Maximum span = 4.20 m
4 Collar beam roof
Tie beam raised and placed at a higher level
Maximum span = 4.80 m
5 Collar and scissor roof
Two collar beams
B Double or Purlin roofs
Span > 2.4 m
Intermediate supports are introduced (Purlins)
Also called as ‘Rafter and Purlin roof’
C Trussed roofs
If span is more, a frame work of slender members are used
to support sloping roofs - trusses
A number of trusses may be placed lengthwise to get wall
free longer halls.
For spans up to 9 m wooden trusses may be used but for
larger spans steel trusses are a must.
Carpentry joints, Bolts and straps, rivets or welding are
made to connect various members at a joint
End of trusses are supported on walls or on column
 Types of trussed roofs
1 King post truss : 5 to 8 m
2 Queen post truss : 8 to 12 m
3 Mansard truss
4 Truncated truss
5 Bel-fast (bow string/latticed) truss : 30 m
6 Steel truss
7 Composite truss
1 King post truss 2 Queen post truss

3 Mansard truss 4 Truncated truss

2 Flat (terraced) Roofs
Used in plain areas where rainfall is less and
climate is moderate
Nearly flat (Slope < 10o)
Treated with water proofing chemicals
Types
1. Madras terrace roof
2. Bengal terrace roof
3. RCC roof
3 Curved roofs
Thin curved surfaces which transfer load by
membrane compression
Caves are having natural shell roofs
To cover large column free areas required for
auditoriums, factories, etc.

Domes
Roof Coverings for Pitched Roofs
Selection depends upon:
1. Climatic conditions
2. Fabrication facility
3. Availability of materials
4. Affordability of the owner

Types

Thatch Shingle Tiles

Slates AC Sheets GI Sheets
Aluminum sheets PVC sheets
1 Thatch Covering
Thatch is a cheap roof covering of straw, reed, etc
Suitable for small spans residential buildings in villages
Tied with ropes or twines to the supporting structures.
Supporting structure consists of round bamboo rafters
2 Shingles
Are split or sawn thin pieces of wood
They are nailed to supporting structures
Commonly used in hilly areas for low cost housing
They have very poor fire and termite resistance
3 Tiles
Clay tiles are easily available at lower costs
Can be easily manufactured and placed in position
supported over battens which are in turn supported by
rafters or trusses
They give good interlocking and appearance
4 Slates
Grey sedimentary rock that can easily split into thin sheets
Used in areas where slate quarries are nearby
A good slate is hard, tough, durable and have rough texture
They do not absorb water
they give ringing bell like sound when struck
5 A.C. Sheets (Asbestos cement)
Consists of 15 per cent of asbestos fibres evenly distributed
and pressed with cement
Fixed to the steel purlins using J-bolts and washers
Commonly used as covering materials in ware houses,
godowns or for larger halls
6 G.I. Sheets (Galvanized Iron)
Corrugated sheets fixed to steel purlins using J-bolts
and washers
Galvanization of iron makes them rust proof
Durable, fire proof, light in weight and need no
maintenance
7 Aluminum sheets
Aluminum is lighter in weight
Good anti-rust effect
Resistant to rot and rust, and insects like termites.
Durable, fire proof, and need no maintenance
8 PVC sheets
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) sheets are flexible
Good damp proof
Not suitable for high temperature regions
Durable and need no maintenance
 Comparison of GI and AC Sheets
G.I Sheets A.C Sheets
Sheets are thin Not as thin as G.I sheets
Light in weight Slightly heavier
Do not break while handling Chances of breaking
Chances of corrosion No corrosion
More noisy if something falls Less noisy
Less fire resistant More fire resistant
Less resistance to acids More resistance to acids
Costly Less costly
 Method of arranging and fixing -
to the battens, rafters and purlins
Principal rafter is part of roof truss
Purlins are placed for required lengths at regular gaps
Common rafters are placed above these purlins
They are connected using suitable bolts/joints
Battens are fixed above these common rafters providing
suitable overlaps.
Sheets should be laid with smooth side upwards.
Hole for fixing should be drilled. Don’t punch/hammer
Sheets should be properly cut to avoid gaps/spaces
 R.C.C Roofs
Reinforced cement concrete roofs
Concrete takes compressive loads and steel takes tensile
loads coming above the roof.
Roofs are supported over beams/load bearing walls
Can be simply supported or cantilevered
Usually monolithically cast with beams
May be slopped or flat roof
 Flat slab construction
A flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported
directly by concrete columns without the use of beams
Types of Flat Slab Construction

1 Simple flat slab

2 Flat slab with drop panels
3 Flat slab with column capital
4 Flat slab with both drop panels
and column capital
Simple flat slab Simple flat slab Flat slab with Flat slab with column
column capital capital and drop panel
 Causes of dampness in roofs

1 Poor quality of construction material

2 Bad design
3 Fault in construction
4 Rain water falling on walls, parapets, etc
5 Inadequate roof slopes
6 Leakage in the building components
 Weather proof course to flat roof
By applying any of below techniques, roofs can make
weather/water proof

1 Injection Grouting For Cracks

2 Bitumen coating
3 Screed concreting
4 Epoxy Coal Tar
5 M-Seal
6 Silicon Sealant
- Concluding the Subject -

Module What we learned

1 Building materials
2 Ornamental materials for finishing
3 Construction technology
4 Building components
A good teacher is someone who can
learn from their students, who can
learn with them, and learns for them.

- Thank You -