Research  It is ethical (principled)

 Is thus a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and  It is relevant (applicable), and

interpreting information (data) in order to increase our  A good research must be verifiable
understanding of a phenomenon about which we are interested or
concerned. Implementation of a business strategy involves four inter-related
What is Business Research? stages:
 It is the application of the scientific method in searching for the 1. Identifying problems or opportunities
truth about business phenomena. 2. Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities
 It refers to systematic collection and analysis of data with the 3. Selecting and implementing a course of action
purpose of finding answers to problems facing management. 4. Evaluating the course of action
 It helps decision makers shift from intuitive information Variables
gathering to systematic and objective investigation  refer to a characteristics or attributes of an individual or an
 It involves establishing objectives and gathering relevant organization that can be measured and that varies among the
information to obtain the answer to a business issue and it can be people or organization being studied.
conducted to answer a business- related question  often measured in studies include gender, age; socioeconomic
Purposes and Objectives of Research status and attitudes or behaviors
Independent variables
 It provides basis for government policies  are those that (probably) cause, influence, or affect outcomes.
 Helps in solving various operational and planning problems of They are also called treatment, manipulated, antecedent, or
business and industry predictor variables.
 To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been Dependent variables
discovered so far.  Other names for dependent variables are criterion, outcome,
 The ultimate goal of research is to supply accurate information effect, and response variables.
that reduces the uncertainty in managerial decision making.  are those that depend on the independent variables; they are
 It decreases the risk of making wrong decisions in each area of the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent
business. variables.
 It is an aid to managerial decision making, never a substitute for  They are the characteristics that appear, disappear, or change
it. as the experiment introduces, removes, or changes
Types of research independent variables.
 Basic and applied research  Example organization performance, profitability, market
 Qualitative and quantitative research share, efficiency, etc
 Exploratory, descriptive, and casual Intervening or mediating variables
 Experimental, quasi – experimental ,  Stand between the independent and dependent variables, and
 non –experimental research they mediate the effects of the independent variable on the
Limitations of Research dependent variable.
 Conclusions in research are based upon data collected. Therefore,  Independent variables that affect the direction and the
when the data collected are not valid or adequate, the conclusion strength of the r/s between independent and dependent
will not be conclusive or appropriate. variables.
 Research results are theories Two other types of variables are
 Many people in society depend on customs, traditions, routines and 1. control variables and
practices for taking decision instead of going for research. 2. Confounding variables.
 Research is usually based on sample studies. But in many cases A. Control variables play an active role in quantitative studies.
samples are not true representatives. These are a special type of independent variable that
researchers measure because they potentially influence the
The Research Proposal may contain the following dependent variable.
 The purpose of the research  They may be demographic or personal variables so that the
 The research design true influence of the independent variable on the dependent
 Sample design can be determined.
 Data gathering methods/ tools B. A confounding (or spurious) variable is not actually
 data processing and analysis methods measured or observed in a study. It exists, but its influence
 Budget and time schedule. cannot be directly detected.
 Concepts are related to some abstract ideas or theory. It is
What are the distinct Features of Formal Research? generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
 It originates with a question or problem. concepts or to interpret existing ones.
 It requires a specific plan for proceeding  A preposition is a statement about observable phenomena
 It usually divides the principal problem into more manageable (concepts) that may be judged as true or false.
sub-problems.  Variables are factors used to describe cause and effect of the
 It is guided by the specific research problem, question, or research or dependant factors in the research.
hypothesis.  Hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the nature of the
 It is feasible relationship between two or more variables and it
is formal statement of unproven proposition explaining
Feasibility of research outcome that is empirically testable
 is determined by its scope, costs in terms of time and money,
 the amount of subjects and samples that can be handled within
the time frame and financial resources,
 It is novel (original, different, new)

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Important of Literature review Quantitative
 The literature review is a critical discussion and summary of  The aim is to count things in an attempt to explain what is
literature that is of general‟ and „specialized‟ relevance to the observed.
particular area and topic of the research problem.  Generalize ability, prediction, causal
 You should spend a lot of time reading on your literature review Explanations
because if you do it well, you can use most of it in your  Researcher uses tools, such as surveys, to collect numerical
research. data.
Importance of Literature Review  Structured
 discover what statistical knowledge exists related to you research  Data is in the form of numbers and statistics.
topic  Usually a large number of cases
 increase your statistical knowledge in your research area  representing the population of interest. Randomly selected
 find gaps (and possibly errors) in published research respondents
 generate new original ideas  Objective – seeks precise measurement & analysis
 avoid duplicating results of other researchers/  Researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the
 It demonstrates your preparedness to complete the research subject matter
Four types Forms of Literature Review  Statistical
1. Integrate what others have done and said,
2. criticize previous scholarly works, Qualitative
3. build bridges between related topics, and  The aim is a complete, detailed description of what is observed
4. Identify the central issues in a field.  Contextualization, interpretation,
Sources Literature Review Understanding perspectives
1. Primary literature sources  Unstructured
These are the sources, which are the least accessible, often  Data is in the form of words, pictures
being company literature or unpublished research, private  Usually a small number of non representative cases. Respondents
correspondence and can include conference proceedings.  selected on their experience
2. Secondary literature sources  Subjective - individuals‟ interpretation of events is important
They include published books and articles in journals, news  Researcher tends to become subjectively immersed in the subject
media and published business, government and international matter
body publications.  Interpretive
3. Tertiary literature sources
Include encyclopedias, dictionaries, citation indexes, Descriptive Research and Analytical Research
catalogues and web-based portals, databases and journals‟  Descriptive research includes survey and fact finding enquiries
contents pages. of different kinds.
Applied and Basic Business Researches  It describes the state of affairs as it exists at present. The
 is conducted to address a specific business decisions for a researcher has no control over the variables.
specific firm or organization.  He can only report what has happened or what is happening.
 is concerned with the solution of particular problems.  In an Analytical research one has to use facts or information
 It is empirical and practical. already available and analyze these to make a critical evaluation
 It is concerned with applied aspects of life. of the material

Basic Business Research pure research) Conceptual Research and Empirical Research
 is conducted without a specific decision in mind, and it
usually does not address the needs of a specific organization. Conceptual research is that related to some abstract ideas or theory.
 It attempts to expand the limits of knowledge in general and  It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
is not aimed at solving a particular pragmatic problem. concepts or to interpret existing ones.
 It is a research concerning principles or laws or rules. It aims
at the achievement of knowledge and truth. Empirical research
Qualitative research  Relies on experience or observation alone. It is data based
 It involves the careful planning of a research design that research coming up with conclusions capable of being verified by
encompasses all aspects of the study, observation or experiment.
 It can be experiment research.
Types of Qualitative Researches  the researcher has to first set up a hypothesis as to the probable
1. Narrative research: results.
2. Phenomenological research
3. Case studies Descriptive Research and Analytical Research
Types of Qualitative Researches  Descriptive research includes survey and fact finding enquiries
1. Narrative research: is a design of inquiry from the of different kinds.
humanities in which the researcher studies the lives of  It describes the state of affairs as it exists at present.
individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide  He can only report what has happened or what is happening.
stories about their lives
2. Phenomenological research is a design of inquiry coming A research design is a “Blue Print” for collection, measurement and
from philosophy and psychology in which the researcher analysis of data.
 It outlines how the research will be carried out.
 It is like glue which sticks together the entire process of
3. Case studies are a design of inquiry found in many fields, research.
especially evaluation, business, law, education,  It provides answers to various questions

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Three traditional categories of research design: Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social
1. Exploratory unit including:
2. Descriptive  a person
3. Causal  a family
 an institution
Exploratory Research  an organization
 is most commonly unstructured, research that is undertaken to  even a community
gain background information
 Conducted when the researcher does not know much about Process of constructing case studies
the problem and needs additional Step 1. Collect/ assemble the raw case data
 helps diagnose the dimensions of the problem so that Step 2: Condensation of the raw case data
successive research Step 3: Writing a final case study narratives

Exploratory research is used in a number of situations: Sources of Case Study

o To gain background information
o To clarify problems 1) Personal / organizational / program documents
o To establish research priorities 2) Life history

Categories of Exploratory Research Phases of Case Study

1. Experience Surveys: - Issues and ideas may be discussed with 1. The researcher has to select the problem to be studied
persons who have had personal experience in the field. 2. The researcher has to describe the course of events,
2. Secondary data analysis:- source of background information is situations.
existing literature containing data that has been compiled for some 3. Materials about each of the units or aspects are collected
purpose other than the purpose. (collecting materials/data).
3. Case Study method: -obtains information from one or a few 4. Studying the materials critically
situations that are similar to the problem situation. 5. Analyzing and drawing conclusions about the case
4. Pilot Studies: are used in different types of designs. Typology of Mixed Research
1. Partially mixed concurrent equal status design
Historical Research / Predictive Research 2. Partially mixed concurrent dominant status design
 History, the meaningful record of human achievement, helps 3. Partially mixed sequential equal status
us to understand the present and to some extent, to predict the 4. Partially mixed sequential dominant status design
future. 5. Fully mixed concurrent equal status design
 Used to “prevent reinventing the wheel” every few years. 6. Fully mixed concurrent dominant status design
7. Fully mixed sequential equal status design
Descriptive Research 8. Fully mixed sequential dominant status design
 Descriptive research is undertaken to provide answers to Relate the following mixed research type with the aforementioned
questions of who, what, where, when, and how – but not why. types:
1. Convergent parallel mixed methods
Two basic classifications of Descriptive Research 2. Explanatory sequential mixed methods
• Cross-sectional studies 3. Exploratory sequential mixed methods
• Longitudinal studies 4. Transformative mixed methods
An embedded mixed methods design involves as well either the
Survey convergent or sequential use of data, but the core idea is that either
 Surveys are a popular method of collecting primary data. quantitative or qualitative data is embedded within a larger design.
 The broad area of survey research encompasses any A multiphase mixed methods design is common in the fields of
measurement evaluation and program interventions.

Sampling frame Two f Quantitative Research Criteria

 A sampling frame is a list of members of a population from 1. Validity and 2. Reliability
which members of a sample are then selected. Validity
 A sampling frame needs to be accurate, complete, up-to-date  is the ability of an instrument or test to measure what was intended
and relevant to the purposes of the survey for which it is to be to be measured.
used.  Project and instruments measure what is intended to measure.
Reliability
There are three basic types of experimental research designs.
 is the degree to which measures yield consistent and stable results.
1. experimental designs,
2. true experimental designs, and  is a necessary but not sufficient condition for validity
3. quasi-experimental designs  Findings are replicable or repeatable.

Causal Research The Validity of an instrument or a Study

o Causality may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in 1. Internal Validity
terms of conditional statements of the form “If x, then y.”  The degree to which changes in the dependent variable are
o Causal relationships are typically determined by the use of affected by the manipulated independent variable.
experiments, but other methods are also used.  Maintaining high internal validity means controlling for all
other independent variables other than the one(s) being studied.
2. External Validity

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  The degree to which the results of a study can be generalized
to the “real world”. Qualitative Research Criteria
 Factors that negatively affect external validity also negatively 1. Dependability
affect the generalize ability of the results. 2. Reflexivity
Instrument Validity Dependability: Researchers account for the ever-changing context
 Does an instrument measure what it is supposed to measure? within which the research occurs.
Answer to this question explain to validityFour types of
instrument validity: Reflexivity: Researcher examine their own biases and make them
1) Construct validity known (trustworthiness).
2) Criterion related validity
3) Content validity Probability Sampling methods including
4) Inter-rater / Intra-rater validit  Simple random sampling .
Construct validity  Systematic sampling
 (do items measure hypothetical constructs or concepts?) (also  Stratified, cluster, sampling . and
see the previous slides)
 Multistage sampling .
Content validity
 It is the most important type of validity. Construct validity is Simple Random Sampling
the degree to which the instrument actually measures whether  Each element in the population has an equal chance of being
or not an underlying construct/concept is being measured selected.
 For large population sample selection is based on tables of random
Criterion Related Validity: numbers or computer-generated random numbers.
It is of two types:-
1. Concurrent validity – Degree to which scores on one test are Systematic Sampling
correlated with scores on another test administered at the same
 A starting point is selected by a random process; and then every
2. Predictive validity – Degree to which scores on one test
nth number on the list is selected
predicts scores on a test administered in the future. Only one
group is used
Stratified sampling:
Reliability of the instrument of data refers to the consistency with
 Subdividing a population into groups which are internally
which an instrument measures the construct or content area it is
intended to measure homogeneous but have comparative differences between groups.
 A subsample is drawn using simple random,sampling within each
Measures of Reliability stratum
1. Stability (test / re-test)
2. Equivalence (alternate forms) Three –Dimensional Typology of Mixed Methods Designs.
3. Equivalence and Stability Combined 1) Level of mixing (azpartially mixed vs fully mixed)
4. Internal consistency 2) Time orientation (concurrent/the same point in time vs
5. Scorer / Rater sequential/one after the other), and
3) Emphasis of approaches (equal status vs dominant
Internal Consistency: refers to questions on tests should be equally status/approach) with respect to addressing the research
difficult throughout entire instrument question/s (priority).

Types of Variables. Type of designs

1. Discrete Variable A. Triangulation Designs
2. Continuous Variable B. Embedded Design
C. Explanatory Designs
Types of data included continuous variable
a. Ordinal Data Importance of Literature Review
 Ordinal data consists of numbers which function as ranking.  discover what statistical knowledge exists related to you
b. Interval Data research topic
Interval data is types of data in form of numbers which has interval  increase your statistical knowledge in your research area
and already can be used in arithmetic operation.  find gaps in published research
c. Ratio Data  generate new original ideas
Ratio data is types of data which is very complex and definitely  avoid duplicating results of other researchers/
can be used in arithmetic operation.  justify the relevance of your proposed research

convenience Data sampling Collection Methods used Data gathering methods for the primary data:
1. Observation
1. Purposive (Judgment) sampling : selecting the sample based 2. Interview
on expert‟s judgment 3. Questionnaire/survey
4. Schedule
2. Quota sampling: sampling to ensure that the various subgroups 5. Experimentation
in a population are represented 6. Simulation
7. Use of telephone
3. Snowball sampling: selecting respondents based on 8. Panel method
9. Mail survey
information provided by the initial respondent

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 10. Projective technique Format for a Proposal
11. Sociometry Chapter I: Introduction
12. Focus group discussion  Background of the Study
13. Content analysis  Statement of the problem
Types of observation  Research questions or hypotheses
1. Complete observer  Objective /purpose of the study
2. Observer as participant  Significant of the Study
3. Participant as observer  Delimitation/Scope of the Study
4. Complete Participant  Operational Definition of Terms
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
 It deals with a significant topic and it should be clearly and Chapter II: Review of the related Literature
carefully stated on the questionnaire
 It is as short as possible and only long enough to get the Chapter III: Research Methods
essential data.
 It is attractive in appearance, neatly arranged, and clearly • Type of research design ( descriptive, experimental, survey)
duplicated or printed • Sources and Types of Data
 It is easy to tabulate and interpret • Population, sample, and sampling techniques
• Data collection instruments, variables, and materials
Collection of Secondary Data • Data analysis procedures
 Secondary data are those which have been collected by some • Validity and reliability of the instruments of data gathering or
other persons for his/her purpose and published. data to be collected
 They are usually in the shape of finished products. • Preliminary studies or pilot tests
Advantages of Secondary data • References
1. The information can be collected by incurring least cost. Appendixes: Instruments, timeline, and proposed budget
2. The time requires for obtaining the information is very less
(for the participants) .
3. Most of the secondary data are those published by big
institutions. So they contain large quantity of information and
reliable one. Difference between a probability sample and a non probability
Disadvantages of Secondary data sample
1. Since the secondary data is a result of some other person‟s
attempt, it might not be suitable for a researcher, who makes Probability Sampling
use of it.  Probability sampling is a sampling technique, in which the
2. It may be inaccurate and unreliable. subjects of the population get an equal opportunity to be selected
3. It may contain certain errors ( as a representative sample
 The sampling method in which all the members of the population
Sources of Secondary Data has a pre-specified and an equal chance to be a part of the sample.
1. Official report of the central, state and local government.  This technique is based on the randomization principle, wherein
2. Official publications of the foreign governments and the procedure is so designed, which guarantees that each and
international bodies every individual of the population has an equal selection
3. Reports and publications of Trade Associations, Banks, opportunity.
Cooperative Societies and Similar Semi Government and  This helps to reduce the possibility of bias.
Autonomous Organizations.
4. Technical journals, News papers, Books, Periodicals, etc The methods of probability sampling:
5. Publications of research Organizations, Centers, Institutes,  Simple Random Sampling
and reports submitted by Economists, Research scholars etc.  Stratified Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
Difference between Primary data and Secondary data  Systematic Sampling
a. Originality
b. Expense = Collection of data in the case of primary data Non-Probability Sampling
while in secondary data is less expensive.  Non probability sampling is a method of sampling wherein, it
c. Shape =the shape of raw materials vs shape of finished is not known that which individual from the population will
products. be selected as a sample.
d. Primary data is adequate and suitable. Secondary data need  When all the individuals of the population are not given an
not be ample and appropriate equal opportunity of becoming a part of the sample, the
The following factors are to be considered while choosing between method is said to be Non-probability sampling.
primary and secondary methods.  There is no probability attached to the unit of the population
a. Nature and scope of the enquiry and the selection relies on the subjective judgment of the
b. Availability of time and money researcher
c. Degree of accuracy desired. The methods of non-probability sampling:
d. Status of the investigator
Type of statistics • Convenience Sampling
1. descriptive statistics • Quota Sampling
2. inferential statistics • J judgment or Purposive Sampling
• Snowball Sampling

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