Kombolcha Institute of Technology (KIOT), 2020

1 Hydraulic Structure I – CENG 3161

Chapter 2.
Design Principle of Dams

Instructor: Yayneshet W.
yaniw2721@gmail.com
 2.2 Embankment Dam
2

 Embankment dams are built of soil or rock fill or both.

 Are classified as non-rigid type of dam.
 An embankment dam is a dam which resists all the
external forces by meanly shear strength of material.
 Strength and stability of embankment dam comes from
it’s shear strength of material.
 Cont.…
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Elements of Embankment Dam

• embankment dam consists of three basic components
– Foundation,
– Core, and
– Shell.
 Cont.…
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• And other appurtenances such as;

– Transition filter,
– Toe drain,
– u/s slope protection (Riprap) and d/s slope protection,
– Internal drain,
– cutoff
 Cont.…
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• Foundation
– Provide support to horizontal and vertical load
– Resist seepage underneath embankment
• Core
– Control seepage water through embankment
– prevents piping through cracks which may
develop in the core
– Extended in to impervious stratum
 Cont.…
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• Shell
– Provides structural support and protects the core and
distribute the load to foundation.
The upstream shell provides stability and free drainage
against rapid drawdowns.
The downstream shell acts as a drain to control and
lower the phreatic surface.
• Transition filter
– Provided b/n core and shell to control migration (washing
out) of the core material to the pores of shell.
– Provided if the size of material and permeability's in body
of the dam (shell, core and foundation) vary.
 2.2.1 Classification of Embankment Dams
8
 Cont.…
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• Based on material of construction

1. Earth fill embankment dam
If compacted soils, i.e. clays/silts & sands, account
for over 50% of the placed volume of material.
2. Rock fill embankment dam
 If compacted rock particles, i.e. coarse grained
frictional material, accounts for over 50% of the
placed volume of materials.
3. Composite dam
– Dams constructed from both earth and rock fill.
 Cont.…
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 Earth dams may be classified on the basis of methods of

construction.
a) Rolled-fill earth dam
b) Hydraulic-fill earth dam
c) Semi-hydraulic fill earth dams
Rolled fill Dam
 In rolled-fill earth dams the embankment is constructed in
successive mechanically compacted layers.
 The material (sand, clay, gravel etc.) is transported from the
borrow pits to the dam site by truckers or scrapers.
 the soil materials are placed in layers of 15 to 45 cm and then
compacted by heavy roller at optimum moisture content
(OMC).
 Cont.…
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Hydraulic fill dam

 the materials are transported from borrow pits to dam
site placed through the agency of water.
 In this case, the materials are mixed with water at
borrow site to form slush and transported to dam site
through flumes or pipes and deposited near the faces
of the dam.
 Cont.…
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Semi-hydraulic dam
 the coarse material is dumped from trucks as in case
of rolled fill dam to dam site without use of water.
 jet of water are directed on dumped fill, causing finer
material to move towards the center thus forming an
impervious central core while the coarser material
stays near the face of dam.
 Out of these three types, the rolled-fill earth dams are
the most common.
 Cont.…
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Rolled Fill dams are of three types

Homogenous type
Zoned type
Diaphragm type
A. Homogeneous Earth Dams:-
 are constructed entirely of single/one type of earth
material except the slope protection.
 It is used when only a single type of material is
economically and locally available and applicable
for low and moderate dam.
 Cont.…
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 Regardless of d/s slope (flatness) and permeability,

seeping water will come out in d/s face unless
drainage filters are provided in the d/s.
 Cont.…
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• The pure homogenous section has been replaced by a

modified homogeneous section in which small
amounts of carefully placed pervious materials
control the action of seepage so as to permit much
steeper slopes.
• The modified homogeneous section is the one
provided with internal drainage filter system in the
form of horizontal drainage blanket or rock toe or
both.
 Cont.…
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Modified homogeneous dam Section

 Cont.…
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B. Zoned earth dam

 Is constructed from two or more types of soil.
 They are provided with a central impervious core,
covered by a relatively pervious transition filter
which is finally surrounded by a more pervious outer
zones or shells.
 Most common for high dams.
• The pervious shells are constructed from course
sands and gravels.
• Core is a mixture of clay, silt and fine sand.
• Pure clay is not used as core b/c it swells and cracks.
 Cont.…
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C. Diaphragm Earth fill Dam

• The bulk of embankment is constructed of pervious materials
(Sand, gravel, or rock) and a thin diaphragm of impermeable
material is provided to form the water barrier.
• The same as that of Zone dam but the main difference is it has
thins thickness of core.
 The dam is a diaphragm type if;
 The thickness of the impervious core is < 3m
 At any elevation the thickness is less than the height
above the elevation
 If the base width of the core is less than the height of
the embankment
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In a given dam site, if a variety of soil types are

available, zoned embankment is preferable as it will
tend to be economical.
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Foundation Requirements
 The essential requirements of a foundation for an earth dam
are:
i. Providing support for the embankment under all
conditions of saturation and loading
ii. providing sufficient resistance to seepage to prevent
excessive loss of water.
 Foundations are grouped in to three main classes according to
their predominant characteristics as;
 Cont.…
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1. Rock foundation
 Suitable for earth dams, no problems of bearing capacity
 If there is joints, fissures, seals; seepage is problem, so it needs
grouting.
2. Pervious foundation → foundation of coarse-grained material
 Medium bearing capacity,
 Serious percolation / seepage problem thus require special
precaution with cut offs
3. Impervious foundation → foundations of fine silt and clay
 Low bearing capacity, Low foundation shearing strength,
Excessive settlements and pore water pressure
 Cont.…
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Merits of Embankment Dams

 Suitability to different site conditions such as wide
valleys, steep sided gorges, week foundation etc.
 Adaptability to a broad range of foundation condition
such as rock and pervious soil formation.
 Flexibility to accommodate different fill materials,
 are usually cheaper than gravity dams if suitable
earth for construction is available near the site.
 Cont.…
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 Can be constructed in a relatively short period.

 Skilled labour is not required in construction of an
earth dam
 Are more earthquake-resistant than gravity dams.
 Cont.…
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Demerits of Embankment Dams

• Disposed to damage or destruction by overtopping
• Necessity of separate spillway structure,
• Vulnerability to concealed leakage and internal erosion
in dam or foundation.
• Cannot be constructed in regions with heavy rainfall,
as the slopes might be washed away
• Maintenance cost of an earth dam is quite high. It
requires constant supervision.
• Fails suddenly with out any sign of imminent failure.
• limited height
 2.2.2 Causes of failures of earth dams
27

 Earth dam failures are mainly caused by; improper

design, lack of comprehensive investigations, and
inadequate care in construction and poor
maintenance.
 The various causes of failures can be grouped into
three categories as,
• Hydraulic failures
• Seepage failures, and
• Structural failures
 Cont.…
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1. Hydraulic failure:
 is failure of the dam due to one or more of the
following causes:
overtopping,
erosion of upstream face,
erosion of downstream face and
erosion of toe of the dam
 Cont.…
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Overtopping of the Dam

 Overtopping is defined as uncontrolled flow of water over
the crest of the dam or embankment. Since the non-
overflow (other than spillway) portions of a dam are not
usually designed for erosional effect of flowing water,
overtopping may lead to failure of the dam due to excessive
erosion or saturation of the downstream slope.
 Main causes of overtopping
 Underestimation of the design flood and inadequate
spillway capacity
 large and rapid landslides in the reservoir
 Insufficient free board
 Malfunction of spillway gates
 Cont.…
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 Measures
Appropriate design flood and adequate spillway
capacity
Provide adequate freeboard
 Cont.…
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B. Erosion of upstream face by wave action

 Cause
 When waves due to wind blowing over the impounded
water crash on the upstream face of the dam, the wave
dislodges the embankment soils from the face.
 Measure
 Protect the u/s face by rock riprap
 Cont.…
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C. Erosion of Downstream face by gully formation

 Causes
 Heavy rains falling directly over the d/s face may lead to
the formation of a moving water that may erode the d/s
face leading to the formation of gullies
 Measures
 Proper maintenance
 Filling the gullies periodically
 Grassing the slopes
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D. Erosion of the Downstream Toe

 Two reasons for erosion of the d/s toe
 Due to the tail water
 Cross currents from spillway buckets
 Cont.…
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2. Seepage Failure
 Embankment body and foundation are pervious. They act as
pathways for water seepage. If such seepage is uncontrolled
in terms of volume and velocity, it may lead to
 Piping (internal erosion) through the dam and foundation
 Uplift
 Sloughing and subsequent failure of the dam
 Conduit leakage
 Piping is the progressive erosion and subsequent removal
of the soil grains from with in the body of the dam or the
foundation of the dam.
 Cont.…
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 Sloughing is the progressive removal of soil from the wet

downstream face below phreatic line.
• Cause of piping : -
- Faulty construction - cracks in embankment due to settlement
- Insufficient compaction - burrowing animals
 Cont.…
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3. Structural failure
• In earth dams are generally shear failures leading to
sliding of the embankments or the foundations.
• Structural failures in earth dams are of the following
types:
(a) Slides in embankments
(b) Foundation slides
(c) Liquefaction slides
(d) Failures due to earthquakes
(e) Failure due to holes caused by burrowing animals
(f) Failure due to holes caused by leaching of water-
soluble salts.
 Cont.…
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A. Embankment Slope Failures

 Occurs when the shear force causing sliding on any
potential sliding surface exceed the resisting forces.
(when embankment slope are too steep)
 The most critical condition of slide
 for the d/s slope, it is when the reservoir is full.
 for the u/s slope, sudden drawdown of the
reservoir.
Which is Pore water pressure decreases shear
strength of soil.
 Cont.…
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B. Foundation Slide
 When the foundation materials are made of silt, soft clay
etc. The entire dam may slide over the foundation.
Fissured rocks, shales etc may exist under the dam and
this may cause the dam to slide.
 2.2.3 Design Principle
40

Design Criteria for earth dams

1. No overtopping: the water must not be allowed to overtop;
thus:
 Design flood should not be under estimated
 Adequate free board should be given
 Suitable allowance should be provided on height of dam
for settlement.
2. No seepage failure:
 The phreatic surface should be within the body of the dam
 Seepage should be controlled
 The dam and foundation should be safe against piping
failure
 Cont.…
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3. Proper slope protection: Stone pitching for u/s slope

and berm for d/s slope
U/s slope should be protected against erosion by
waves,
D/s slope and the crest should be protected against
erosion due to rain and wind
4. No structural failure
 U/s slope should be stable during sudden drawdown
 D/s slope should be safe and stable during steady
seepage (placing a layer of rock, cobbles, or sod
(grass) - to collect and dispose the rain runoff ).
 Cont.…
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 Stresses at the foundation must be within the

permissible limit
 Safe during earth quake
5. Proper drainage:
 To take care of the seepage through the dam and
foundation
6. Economic section
 As far as possible, the materials available near
the dam site should be used to reduce the cost.
 Cont.…
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Embankment Design
There are two aspects of the design of an earth
dam
 To determine the X-section of the dam and
 To analyses the stability of the proposed x-
section which will fulfill its required
function with adequate safety.
 Cont.…
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H
 Cont.…
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preliminary section of an Earth Dams

 The preliminary design of an embankment dam is done on the
basis of past experiences and on the basis of the dams built so
far.
 We shall discuss here the preliminary selection of the
following terms:
1. Crest of dam/Top width
 It depends on
 Width of the highway on top of the dam
 Practicability of construction
 Height of the structure
 Wide enough to keep the seepage line well with in the
dam when the reservoir is full.
 Cont.…
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2. Free Board
• It is the vertical distance between the crest of the dam
and the reservoir level.
• Provided on the basis of overtopping.
• Freeboard = 1.5 hw + additional safety provision
• It is composed of allowances for waves and settlement
of the dam.
 Cont.…
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Allowance for Wave

 Various empirical formulae depending on wind
velocity and reservoir fetch have been suggested for
computing wave heights. The Molitor Stevenson
formulas are normally used which;
 Cont.…
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3. Upstream and downstream slopes

 The upstream and downstream slopes depends on
 Height of dam
 Type of embankment material for construction
 Type of Foundation material
 Terzaghiz side slopes for earth dams
 Cont.…
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4. Slope protection:
 For upstream slope- riprap and concrete pavement is
provided
 For downstream slope- planting grass and berm
 Cont.…
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Checking the stability of an earth dam

 To analysis the stability the following check are

usually carried out

1.The flow net is drawn to determine the seepage
discharge and the pore water pressure.
2. The D/S slope is checked for the stability during
steady seepage condition.
3. The U/S slope is checked for the stability during
sudden drawdown conditions.
 Cont.…
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4 both the u/s and d/s slopes are checked for the
stability during construction period.
5. If the foundation consists of weak soil, such as
plastic clay, it is checked against foundation shear.
 Cont.…
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Seepage analysis
 The main purposes of seepage analysis are
a. To determine the quantity of water that pass
through the dam body and foundation (Q);
b. To determine the distribution of pore water
pressure for stability analysis
c. To determine the exit hydraulic gradients and
uplift pressures to assess the safety of the dam
and foundation
d. For construction of flow nets as it represents one
flow boundary.
 Cont.…
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 The following assumptions are usually made in the

seepage analysis.
1.The soil in the embankment and foundation is
incompressible and isotropic.
2. Water is incompressible.
3. Darcy’s law is valid.
4. The flow is steady.
5.The soil is fully saturated.
6. The hydraulic boundary conditions at the entry and at
the exit of the seepage flow are known.
 Cont.…
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Line of seepage or phreatic line in earth dams

 Seepage is considered to be all movement of water from
the reservoir through the embankment, abutments, and
foundation
 Phreatic line /seepage line/ Saturation line is the line at
the upper surface of the seepage flow at which the
pressure is atmospheric.
 Cont.…
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 It is absolutely essential to determine the position of

the phreatic line, as its position will enable to
determine the following:
i. The divide line between the dry (or moist) and
submerged soil.
ii. The top stream line and hence, helps us in drawing
the flow net.
iii. To ensure that the phreatic line doesn’t cut the
downstream face of the dam, which is extremely
necessary for preventing softening of the dam.
 Cont.…
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phreatic line for a homogenous earth dam with a

horizontal drainage blanket
 It has been found that the seepage line is pushed down
by the filter and it is very nearly parabolic except near
its junction with u/s face.
 Cont.…
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 The basic property of parabola which is utilized to

draw the base parabola is that the distance of any
point P from the focus is equal to the distance of the
same point from the directory.
 Cont.…
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1. The base parabola has its focus at the inside edge of the
drainage filter at F.
2. The base parabola intersects the u/s water at A, & AB = 0.3L:
3. EG is the directrix of the parabola, the vertex (C) is found at
𝑦𝑜 /2 from F.
 Cont.…
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4. From the property of a parabola, for any point P(x,y)

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑜
𝑦𝑜 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥
• The equation for the parabola is; 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑜 + 𝑦𝑜 2
• At point A; x = b & y = h, 𝑦𝑜 = 𝑏 2 + ℎ2 − 𝑏
• Plot the parabola for different x
• As actual phreatic line starts from point B make
corrections at entrance.
 Cont.…
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 Discharge through the body of the dam

 Consider any section through the dam body
 The cross-sectional area is given by
 A = y * 1, A is area of flow per unit length
 Let the hydraulic gradient to be approximated by the slope of
the parabola
𝑑𝑦
𝑖 = 𝑑𝑥

 From the Darcy’s Equation, v = ki k = Coefficient of

permeability
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 i = the hydraulic gradient
𝑑𝑦
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 𝑘 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
 Cont.…
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 From the equation of a parabola, 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑜 + 𝑦𝑜 2

𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑜
= 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑜 +2𝑥𝑦𝑜

𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑜
𝑄=𝑘 𝑦=𝑘∗ ∗ 2𝑥𝑦𝑜 + 𝑦𝑜 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑜 2 +2𝑥𝑦𝑜

𝑄 = 𝑘𝑦𝑜
𝑦𝑜 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥
 Cont.…
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Phreatic line for a dam with no filter

 In this case the phreatic line cuts the d/s faces at point
J above the toe.
 In this case both Entry and exit correction is required.
 The focus (F) of the base parabola is located at the
d/s toe of the dam & its starting point A is located at a
distance of 0.3L from B.
 The base parabola cut the d/s face at pt. K above the
toe and extends beyond the limit of the dam, as show
by the dotted line.
 The portion JF is called discharge face and always
remains saturated.
 Cont.…
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 The correction JK (∆a) by which the parabola is to be

shifted downward can be determined as follows.
 Cont.…
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Graphical general solution

 Casagrande has shown that the exit correction ∆a depends up
on the slope angle  of the discharge face and he has given
the values ∆a a + ∆a for different values of angle  as
follows.
→ a and ∆a can be related as
 Cont.…
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 The value of a + ∆a can be determined from polar

𝑦𝑜
equation of parabola as follows; a + ∆a = or
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
by measuring 𝐹𝐾
Discharge through the earth dam
Schaffernak and Iterson's Solution for α< 30°
 Cont.…
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2
Equating 1 & 2
Integrating

At J
At pt A
Solving for a

1
Once a is known from 3, discharge per unit length
At pt J at JJ’ is found by 2, 𝑸 = 𝒌 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶 ∗ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶.
 Cont.…
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Phreatic line for homogeneous earth dam with rock

toe
• The u/s face of the rock toe is usually inclined (α>
900 ) or vertical (α = 900 ) sometimes, also it acts as a
discharge face.
• The focus F of the base parabola lies at u/s end of
rock toe.
• The base parabola cuts the discharge face at point K
and the value of a + ∆a may be obtained by
measuring the distance FK or from equation a + ∆a
yo
= .
1+cosα
 Cont.…
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 Entry and exit correction is required.

Rock Toe
 Cont.…
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• For known value of α, the value of (∆a a + ∆a) is

obtained from table below and exit correction is
done.
 Cont.…
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• The point J is then marked on the u/s face of the rock

toe at a distance of ∆a from K.
• The phreatic line is drawn by making a transition
curve by eye judgment from the point J to the point
M on the base parabola.
 Cont.…
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Flow net
 Once the phreatic line in an earth dam has been

drawn, the flow net can be obtained.

 The phreatic line represents the top hydraulic
boundary of the seepage flow.
 Generally the graphical method of flow construction
is used. The electrical-analogy method is also
sometimes used.
 Cont.…
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Graphical method
 The graphical methods makes use of the properties of the
flow net. The flow net is drawn by trial and error.
 First a rough flow net is drawn and then it is modified
successively till a good flow net is obtained.
Properties of the flow net
1. The flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to
each other.
2. Because the phreatic line is also a flow line, the equipotential
lines intersect it at right angles.
3. Since the pressure at the phreatic line is zero, the successive
equipotential lines make equal vertical intercepts on the
phreatic line.
 Cont.…
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4.The flow fields obtained by the intersections of the

equipotential lines and the flow lines are approximately
squares in shape.
5.The discharge between any two adjacent flow lines is
constant.
6.The potential drop between any two adjacent
equipotential lines also constant.
7. The smaller the dimensions of the flow field, the grater is
the hydraulic gradient and the velocity of flow through it.
8. In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the flow lines
and equipotential lines is smooth and gradual.
 Cont.…
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Uses of flow nets

The flow nets can be used for the following purposes
1. Determination of discharge through the dam.
2. Determination of pore water pressure.
3. Determination of hydraulic gradient.
 Cont.…
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Estimating Seepage Quantity from Flow Net Flow lines

Let ∆𝑄
Nf – number of flow channels
Nd - number of equi-potential drops
Nf / Nd – shape factor
 Consider a flow element in a flow net Equi-potential
lines
 Let
b – width; l – length; note b=l
Δh - head drop between two equi-potential lines
h - total head drop
Δq – discharge passing through the flow element / channel
 Cont.…
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 From Darcy’s law

 Discharge through the element ( one flow channel)

 The total discharge through all flow channels

Q= ∆𝑄
 Cont.…
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Control of Seepage through earth dam and its

foundation
The effects of seepage are:
 Loss of water
 Piping failure
 Reduce slope stability and result in dam failure
 Causes local sloughing- if phreatic line cuts d/s face
 Pore water pressure- it developed below phreatic
line reducing shear strength as well as stability of
dam.
 Cont.…
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 Seepage control measures are divided in to two main

categories
Measures to reduce quantity of Seepage – lessen
loss of water
Measures for Safe drainage of seeping water – No
piping
 Cont.…
80

Measures to reduce quantity of Seepage

I. IN DAM:
 The only measure is provision of impervious core within the
body of the dam called embankment zonation.
 Embankment zonation : -for reducing seepage through the
body of the dam, a core of impervious material such as silt
clay or clayey silt is generally provided.
 Cont.…
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 Vertical core provides a high pressure at the contact plane

b/n core and foundation, hence it is effective in reducing
seepage.
 However, inclined core has advantage that d/s portion of
the dam can be constructed first and core can be placed
next.
II. IN FOUNDATION:
 If the foundation consists of alluvial deposits of pervious
sand and gravel with impervious stratum at a great depth
measures to be adopted are;
 cut-off,
 u/s impervious blanket
 Grouting
 Cont.…
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Cutoff trenches:
 Is made of concrete or sheet pile and provided in
foundation to reduce seepage.
 Divided in to; positive cutoff trench, partial cutoff trench.
Positive cutoff trenches
 Extends from bottom of dam to the impervious stratum.
Partial cutoff trenches
 Extend down into an intermediate stratum of lower
permeability.
Sheet pilling cut offs: -
 A steel sheet pile cut off consists of interconnected sheet
piles to form a continuous impervious barrier.
 Cont.…
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Grouting:-
• The stability and impermeability of pervious
overburden foundation can be improved by injection a
substance which will act as a binder & fill the voids.
 Cont.…
84

Upstream blankets: -
• Connected to the impervious zone of the dam and extends to
u/s.
• provided to increase the path of percolation.
• u/s blankets are used when cutoff to the bed rock not
practicable due to excessive depth.
• The length of the blanket will be governed by the desired
reduction in the amount of under seepage and its thickness
usually varies from 1.5 to 3.0 m.
• The length of the u/s blanket can be obtained from the
following formula.
𝑘ℎ𝑑−𝑝𝑞𝑏
𝑙= 𝑝𝑞
 Cont.…
85

Where;
k = mean horizontal permeability coefficient
h = the gross height
p = percentage (stated as decimal) of flow under dam w/o a blanket to
which level it is desired to reduce the seepage by means of a
blanket
b =length of impervious dam material
q = k(h/b)xdx1 seepage flow under the dam (approximate)
d = depth of pervious foundation
q’ = pq
Where q’ is the seepage quantity after provision of u/s blanket
 Cont.…
86
 Cont.…
87

Measures for Safe drainage of seeping water – No

piping
 Some water always seeps through the dam and
foundation even after adopting several seepage
control.
IN DAM:
 Horizontal drainage blanket
 Rock toe
 Chimney drain
 Strip drain
 Cont.…
88

I. Horizontal drainage blanket

 The blanket extends from the d/s toe for a distance of about
three times the height of the dam but not longer than 2/3 of the
base width.
 In the case of zoned section it extends up to the core.
 Used for moderate height dams.
 Cont.…
89

2. Rock toe:
• The rock toe is provided at the d/s toe of the earth dam and it
forms part of the dam.
• It consists of stones of size varying from 15 to 20 cm.
• The u/s face of the rock toe may be vertical or inclined.
• The height of the rock toe is generally b/n H/3 to H/4, where
H is the height of the dam
 Cont.…
90

3. Chimney drain:
 A chimney drain is a vertical/nearly vertical drain
located inside the dam so that it intercepts all layers
of the dam in the seepage zone.
4. Strip drain:
 A strip drain is provided instead of a horizontal
drainage blanket if there is scarcity of pervious
materials in the area.
 Transverse drains are provided to carry water from
the strip drain to another parallel drain located at the
d/s toe of the dam
 Cont.…
91
 Cont.…
92

IN FOUNDATION
 In general, the drainage systems provided for the dam
can also serve for the purpose of drainage of
foundation.
 Toe drains
 Drainage trenches
 Relief Wells
 Vertical Sand Drains
 Cont.…
93

1. Toe drain and drainage blanket:

 The purpose of toe drains is to collect the seepage water from
the horizontal drainage blanket and foundation to carry it to an
outfall pipe which then discharges the water in to the river or
spillway stilling basin.
 Cont.…
94

2. Drainage trenches:
 Drainage trenches are used when a thin impervious top stratum
overlies a shallow pervious stratum of the foundation so that the
trench can be built to penetrate the pervious stratum
substantially.
3. Relief Wells:
 Are generally used for drainage of the foundation if it consists of
a deep pervious stratum which is stratified and whose
permeability increases with depth.
 It is provided to collect water seeping through foundation and to
reduce the pore pressure in the foundation.
 Relief well consists of an interior perforated pipe or a well
screen with a minimum diameter of 15 cm.
 Cont.…
95

Shallow pervious stratum

Drainage
Trench
 Cont.…
96

4. Vertical Sand drains:

 These drains consist of vertical holes drilled in the foundation
all along the base of the dam.
 These holes are filled with clean, course sand of high
permeability to form sand columns.
 Vertical sand drains are quite effective for the drainage of soft
clay foundation which can not be easily drained by other
methods.
 Vertical sand drains can also act as relief wells and thus help
in reducing the pore pressure and controlling under seepage.
 Cont.…
97

Soft clay
stratum
 Cont.…
98

Slope Stability Analysis

 Failure of an embankment dam can result from
instability of either the upstream or down stream
slopes.
 The soil mass in an earth dam because of its slope, is
subjected to actuating (or driving) forces which tend
to cause movement (or sliding) of the soil mass.
 This movement is resisted by the stabilizing (or
resisting) forces, which develop at the potential
sliding surface because of the shear strength of the
soil.
 Cont.…
99

 The side slopes of the earth dam will remain stable, if

the sum of the resisting forces on every possible
surface of failure is greater than the sum of the
actuating forces.
 Failure surface may lie within the embankment or
may pass through embankment and foundation of
soil.
 Cont.…
100

 Stability analyses are generally needed under the

following four critical conditions:
 Stability analysis of down stream slope during steady
seepage.
 Stability of up stream slope during sudden Draw
down.
 Stability of up stream & down stream slope during
and immediately after construction.
 Stability of foundation against shear.
 Cont.…
101

 There are various methods of slope stability analysis

among them Swedish slip -circle or slices method is
the most common.
Swedish slip –circle/ slice method/
 In this method the potential surface is assumed to be
cylindrical/ curved slip surface.
 For this failure surface actuating and resisting forces
are determined and FS is found.
 Cont.…
102

 The factor of safety is defined as the ratio of the

resisting moments to the actuating moments acting
on the assumed failure surface.
Resisting moment Resisting forces
FS = =
Actuating moment Actuating forces
 Cont.…
103
 Cont.…
104

• The figure shows a trial slip surface AB which is

circular; the radius of the circle, r and its center o.
• The number of slices is usually kept 5 to 15.
• The greater the number the more is accuracy.
• It is convenient to have all the slices of equal width
b, but not necessarily.
 Cont.…
105

• Slice method
 Cont.…
106

• Procedure for Analysis

 From the slices take slice 4 as example.
 Forces acting on this the slip are;
– Weight, W → acts through c.g.
– Tangential force, T
– Normal force, N
– Pore water pressure force, 𝑈𝐵 , 𝑈𝑅 , 𝑈𝐿 .
– Soil reaction force, 𝐸𝑅 , 𝐸𝐿 → rxn b/n adjacent slices
– Cohesion force, C=c∆𝐿 → acts along curved surface
– Reaction R at the base of slice
 Cont.…
107

• The force UB acts in the normal to arc surface.

• 𝑈𝑅 and 𝑈𝐿 , 𝐸𝑅 and 𝐸𝐿 are equal and opposite force so
they cancel each other.
• Actuating forces, → T and 𝑈𝐵
• Stabilizing forces, → C and N
• Resolving vector W into tangential and normal gives;
T = Wsin𝜃, N = Wcos𝜃
• θ is the angle which the normal makes with the
vertical/weight.
• c is unit cohesion and ∆L is the length of the base of the
strip.
 Cont.…
108
 Cont.…
109

• Thus resolving all the forces in the normal and tangential

direction;
• 𝑁 − 𝑈𝐵 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 → In normal (radial) direction
• 𝑇 − 𝐶 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 → In tangential direction
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
• 𝑇−𝐶 = 𝑁− 𝑈𝐵 = 𝑁 − 𝑈𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
• 𝑇 = 𝑁 − 𝑈𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 + 𝐶 = 𝑁 − 𝑈𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 + c∆𝐿
 Cont.…
110

• Resisting force = N − UB tanφ + c∆L

• Driving force = T
Resisting forces N−UB tanφ+c∆L
• FS = Actuating forces = T
• For total sliding force,
N−UB tanφ+c∆L
• FS = T
 Cont.…
111

• For a homogeneous section  is constant

tanφ N−UB + c∆L
• FS = , ∆L = bsecθ
T
tanφ Wcosθ −U∗∆L + c∆L
• FS = =
Wsinθ
tanφ Wcosθ −U∗bsecθ + c∗bsecθ
Wsinθ
 Cont.…
112

• If soil is dry, pore water pressure is zero.

tanφ Wcosθ + c∗bsecθ
• FS =
Wsinθ
2πrδ
• L = ∆L = , L is the length of the entire
3600
arc of the slip circle.
• δ = angle in degrees subtended by the slip
surface at the center.
 Cont.…
113

• Pore water pressure force (𝑈) = pore water

pressure (U) × ∆𝐿
• U is determined from flow net or other means.
• The slip surface which gives minimum factor
of safety is the critical.
• The minimum Fs should be greater than the
allowable one (1.5).
 Cont.…
114

Summary of procedure for earth dam stability

analysis
1. Take a trial slip surface and divide the wedge above
the slip surface into 5 to 15 vertical slices.
2. Determine the Weight W of each slice and its line of
action.
W = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑧 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 , 𝑧 = middle ordinate of the
slice, b = width of the slice
3. Measure the angle 𝜃 which the normal makes with
the vertical and compute N and T.
T = Wsin𝜃, N = Wcos𝜃
 Cont.…
115

4. Determine the pore water pressure, u, at the base of

the slice and UB .
UB = 𝑈 ∗ 𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
5. Determine the cohesive force, C=c∆𝐿
6. Determine the factor of safety for slip surface from
equations given above.
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 Wcos𝜃 − 𝑈 ∗ 𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 + c ∗ 𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
𝐹𝑆 =
Wsin𝜃
 Cont.…
116

7. Repeat the procedure for a number of other

trail surfaces.
The trail surface which gives the minimum
factor of safety is the most critical circle.
The minimum factors of safety should be
greater than the specified safe value.
 Cont.…
117

Location of the most CRITICAL circle

 To reduce number of trials, Fellenius suggested a line
called Fellenius line (line AB) for a homogeneous
slope (see fig below) on which the most critical circle
lies.
• Steps;
• Locate point B.
• Locate point A by drawing line PA and PQ from
slope and angle given on table below.
 Cont.…
118
 Cont.…
119

• The center O with minimum factor of safety is the

center of the most critical circle.
• For a purely cohesive soil, the point A itself
represents the center of the most critical circle.
 Cont.…
120

Loading cases
The following loading conditions are usually evaluated for
stability analysis of embankment dams: (1) steady-state
seepage, (2) sudden drawdown and (3) end of construction.

Case 1: Stability of Downstream Slope during Steady

State Seepage
 The most critical condition for the d/s slope is when the
reservoir is full & the steady state seepage is taking
place at full rate
 The soil mass below the phreatic line will be subjected
to pore water pressure. This will reduce the shear
strength development.
 Cont.…
121

hp

FS > 1.5
122
 Cont.…
123

Case 2. Stability of U/s Slope during Sudden Drawdown

 The critical condition for the u/s slope is when the reservoir
which is initially at full reservoir level is suddenly emptied.
 Generally, hypothetical instantaneous drawdown is
assumed. This means there is no time for drainage to occur
that relieve the pore water pressure developed in the soil
along the sliding surface. In such cases the water level will
remain as it is when the soil pore were full of water.

FS > 1.5
 Cont.…
124

Case 3. Stability of U/s & D/s Slopes at the End of Construction

 End-of-construction loading condition is usually analyzed for new
embankments that
 include fine-grained soils, and
 are constructed on fine-grained saturated foundations that may
develop excess pore pressures from the loading of the embankment.
 The embankment is constructed in layers with soils at or above their
optimum moisture content that undergo internal consolidation because of
the weight of the overlying layers. Embankment layers may become
saturated during construction as a result of consolidation of the layers or by
rainfall.
 Because of the low permeability of fine-grained soils and the relatively
short time for construction of the embankment, there is little drainage of
the water from the soil during construction: resulting in the development of
significant pore pressures.
 Cont.…
125

Sliding Block Method : Approximate Methods

Case 4: Stability of the u/s slope of the dam during sudden drawdown from the
consideration of horizontal shear developed at base under the u/s of the dam,

Upstream shoulder – MGN

h – dam height Pu - Horizontal Destabilizing Force
Bu – width Ru – Resisting shear strength
hw – u/s water depth
h1 – saturated height
BGNT – saturated soil
MBT – dry soil
 Cont.…
126
 Cont.…
127
 Cont.…
128
 Cont.…
129

Case 5: Stability of the d/s slope of the dam under steady seepage from the
consideration of horizontal shear developed at base under the d/s slope of the dam,
 Cont.…
130
 Cont.…
131
 Cont.…
132
 Cont.…
133

ROCKFILL DAMS
 this type of dam economical only in remote areas
where the cost of concrete would be high or in areas
where there is a scarcity of earth fill materials and
where the only material available for construction of
the structure consists of durable hard rock.
 Uses variable size of rock to provide stability and
impervious membrane to provide water tightness.
 Cont.…
134

 Rock fill dams can prove economical when any of

the following conditions exist.
Large quantities of rocks are available or will be
excavated in the area.
Earth fill materials are difficult to obtain or
require much processing to be used
Short construction season prevails
Excessively wet climatic condition limit the
placement of large quantities of earth fill
materials.
 Cont.…
135
 Cont.…
136

The major components of Rock fill dam may consist of:

 Rock rubble masonry
 Impermeable membrane
 Rock fill
 U/S cut-off
 2.3 River diversion during construction
137

River Diversion
River diversion is a technique of diverting river water
away from downstream part into the canal or tunnel or
to particular confined side.
River diversion takes place for two purposes:
 For construction purpose
 For water use purpose
 Cont.…
138

River Diversion for construction purpose

 During construction of gravity or embankment dam,
concreting of dam or placing of earthen material
cannot be done in water.
 Therefore, before starting construction of major dam,
the river water has to be diverted away from the dam
site so that the construction can be done in dry
condition.
 Cont.…
139

 Coffer Dam: usually earthen embankment (for

economic purpose) is constructed on the U/S and D/S
of the dam site to isolate the construction area which
is to be kept dry.
 The diversion tunnel or canal takes off U/S of the
coffer dam on the U/S and then joins on the D/S of
the coffer dam in the D/S side.
 Some water usually seeps into the construction area,
which has to be pumped out to keep the area dry.
 Cont.…
140

 The diversion of river water can be accomplished in

either of the following ways:
I. Provision of diversion tunnel or Channel
 Used during construction of both concrete &

embankment dams
Diversion tunnel or
diversion channel

U/S Costruction zone

D/S
U/S coffer dam

D/S coffer dam

 Cont.…
141

II. Two stage construction

 Instead of diverting the river into a tunnel or channel,
it is some times more economical to have two stage
construction of gravity dam.
 In such a case, the flow is, first of all, diverted and
confined to one side of the channel by constructing
semi circular coffer dam.
 Then construction progresses in free water zone. On
the next stage the diverted water is allowed to
overtop or to pass through outlet on the side of
already constructed portion of the dam.
 This method is suitable only during construction of
concrete dam.
 Cont.…
142
143

III. River diversion through the construction site

(through culverts in the body of the dam) Example:
Gilgel Gibe Hydroelectric project
144

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