Addis Ababa University Institute of Technology Civil engineering Department

Table of Contents

1 DAM IN GENERAL ................................................................................................... 1

1.1 General ............................................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Definition ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1.2 History of dams ............................................................................................... 2
1.2 Selection and classification of dams ....................................................... 2
1.2.1 Classification of dams ..................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Factors governing the selection of particular type of dam .............................. 4
1.3 Selection of dam site .................................................................................... 5
2 GRAVITY DAMS ....................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Definition .......................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Typical Classification/Type of Concrete Gravity Dams ...................... 7
2.2.1 Conventional Concrete Gravity Dams ............................................................ 7
2.2.2 Roller-Compacted Concrete (RCC) gravity Dams ......................................... 8
2.3 Force acting on Gravity Dam .................................................................... 8
2.3.1 Primary loads ................................................................................................ 10
2.3.2 Secondary loads ............................................................................................ 13
2.3.3 Exceptional loads ................................................................................ 15
2.3.4 Basic loading conditions ............................................................................... 17
2.4 Modes of failure and criteria for structural stability of gravity dams
18
2.4.1 Failure by overturning................................................................................... 18
2.4.2 Failure by Crushing....................................................................................... 18
2.4.3 Failure by development of tension ................................................................ 18
2.4.4 Failure by Sliding/Shear ............................................................................... 19
2.4.5 Failure by Crushing....................................................................................... 22
2.4.6 Failure by development of tension ................................................................ 22
2.4.7 Stress analysis ............................................................................................... 23
2.5 Stability Analysis ............................................................................................ 29
2.5.1 Graphical method .......................................................................................... 29
2.5.2 Analytical method ......................................................................................... 30
2.6 Design consideration and fixing the section of a dam .................... 31
2.7 Design example of gravity dam .............................................................. 34
3 ARCH AND BUTTRESS DAMS ............................................................................... 37
3.1 Definition and type of arch dams........................................................... 37
3.1.1 Constant radius arch dam .............................................................................. 40
3.1.2 Constant angle arch dam ............................................................................... 41
3.1.3 Variable radius angle arch dam..................................................................... 41
3.2 Loads on arch dams ................................................................................... 42
3.3 Methods of design of massive arch dams ........................................... 42
3.3.1 Thin Cylinder theory ..................................................................................... 42
3.3.2 Thin Cylinder theory ......................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.3.3 Thick Cylinder (Ring) theory........................................................................ 43
3.3.4 Thick Cylinder (Ring) theory........................................................................ 44
Hydraulic Structures I Lecture Note i
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1 DAM IN GENERAL
1.1 General
1.1.1 Definition

Hydraulic structures are engineering structures constructed for the purposes of

controlling and using water resources (groundwater, river, lakes, sea, etc) or for
the prevention of the negative and destructive actions (floods, erosion, etc) of
water on the surrounding environment.

There are a large variety of hydraulic structures to serve the many purposes for
which water resources are put to use. The most important type of hydraulic
structures is given below.

Table 1.1
No. Type Purpose Structure
1 Storage structures To store water Dams, tanks
2 Flow control str. To regulate the quantity Spillway, outlet, gates,
and pass excess flow valves
3 Flow measurement To determine discharge Weirs, orifices, flumes
Str.
4 Diversion structures To divert the main course of Coffer dams, weirs, canals,
water
5 Conveyance to To guide flow from one Open channel, conduits,
guide location to another sewers
6 Collecting structures To collect water for disposal Drain inlets, infiltration
galleries
7 Energy dissipation To prevent erosion and str. Check dams, surge tanks
structures damage
8 Shore protection To protect banks Dikes, groins

Dam is defined as an obstruction or a barrier built across a stream or a river. At

the back of this barrier, water gets collected, forming a pool of water. The side
on which water gets collected is called the upstream side and the other side of
the barrier is called the downstream side.
Reservoir is the lake of water created upstream of the dam.
Spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of
a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have gates designed to control
the flow through the spillway.
Dike is a stone or earthen wall constructed as a defence or as a boundary. The
best known form of dike is a construction built along the edge of water body to
prevent flooding onto adjacent lowland.

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Levee is a natural or artificial structure, usually earthen, which parallels the course
of a river. It functions to prevent flooding of the adjoining countryside. However it
also confines the flow of the river resulting in higher and faster water flow.
Weir is a small overflow type (designed to be overtopped) dam commonly used
to raise the level of a small river or stream. Water flows over the top of a weir,
although some weirs have sluice gates which release water at a level below the
top of the weir.
Detention structure is a structure used to detain flood temporarily and reduce
flow velocity and control soil erosion.
Diversion structure is a type of structure that diverts all or a portion of the flow of
a river from its natural course

1.1.2 History of dams

The history of dam building dates back to antiquity, and is bound up with the
earlier civilization of the middle and the Far East. Archaeological evidence helps
in estimating that the very first man made dam is at least 3000 – 5000 years old.
Whenever it was built, that first dam was almost certainly an irrigation dam.

The first modern dam of the world was perhaps constructed on the Nile River, in
Egypt at Aswan. It was completed in 1902 and was a major engineering project.
The Aswan dam was primarily designed to control the flooding of the Nile River to
promote irrigation in the Nile Valley, and to further navigation along the river. The
site was chosen because the river at Aswan is shallow and has a granite bed on
which a firm foundation could be erected.

The next famous dam of the world is completed in 1911 on the Salt River of
Arizona (U.S.A) and was called Roosevelt dam.

Aswan dam was constructed with stone, while the Roosevelt dam was
constructed with solid blocks of concrete which is known as „Solid Masonry
Gravity Dam‟ which simply means that it was built with solid blocks of concrete,
which hold back the water by sheer weight. This dam was built with out
benefiting from 19th century engineering advances in design and stress control
which makes it very expensive.

This dam was fascinating advancement but was soon overshadowed by other
vastly greater dams, such as Hoover dam and Bhakra dam which are solid
concrete gravity dams.

1.2 Selection and classification of dams

1.2.1 Classification of dams
There are three common classifications for dams according to,
- Its purpose
- Hydraulic design consideration

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- Material of construction
1. Classification based on purpose

According to the function performed dams are classified into:

1. Storage dams for impounding water for developmental use during
surplus water supply to be used later during dry period. They may be
further classified depending upon the specific use of the stored water,
such as navigation, recreation, water supply, fish, electricity, etc.
2. Diversion dams for diverting stream flow into canals or other
conveyance systems it is usually called a weir or a barrage.
3. Detention dams to hold the water temporary to retard flood flows and
thus minimize bad effects of sudden flood

2. Classification based on hydraulic design

From hydraulic design considerations, dams are classified as:

1. Overflow dams (designed to carry discharge over their crests). They
are often called Spillways. They should be made of materials which will
not be eroded by such discharges.
2. Non- overflow dams; they are not designed to be overtopped. This
type of design gives us wider choice of materials including earth fill
and rock fill dams.

3. Classification according to material of construction

Dams are of numerous types, and type classification is sometimes less clearly
defined. On the bases of construction material of which dams are made an
initial broad classification into two generic groups can be made.
1. Concrete dams are constructed of mass concrete. Face slopes are
dissimilar, generally steep downstream and near vertical upstream, and
dams have relatively slender profiles dependent upon the type.
2. Embankment dams are constructed of earth fill and/or rock fill. Upstream
and downstream face slopes are similar and of moderate angle giving a
wide section and a high construction volume relative to height

The principal types of dams within the two generic groups are identified in table
1.2.
Table 1.2
Group Type
Embankment dams Earth fill
Rock fill
Concrete dams(including masonry dams) Gravity
Arch
Buttress
Multiple arch

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1.2.2 Factors governing the selection of particular type of dam

Whenever we decide to construct a dam at a particular place, the first problem
which faces us, is to choose the kind of the dam. Which type will be the most
suitable and economical? Two, three kinds of dams may be technically feasible
but only one of them will be the most economical. The various factors which
have to be thoroughly considered before selecting one particular type are
described below.

1. Topography

Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam. For example:

i. A narrow U-shaped valley will suggest a concrete overflow dam

ii. A low, rolling plain will suggest an earth fill or rock fill dam with a
separate spillway
iii. Availability of spillway site is very important
iv. A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice of an arch dam. It is
preferable to have the top width of the valley less than one-fourth of
its height. But a separate site for spillway must also be available.

2. Geology and foundation conditions

The foundation has to carry weight of the dam. The dam site must thoroughly
surveyed by geologists, so as to detect the thickness of the foundation strata,
presence of faults, fissured materials and their permeability, and slope, etc. The
various kinds of foundation generally encountered are discussed below:

i. Solid Rock Foundations such as granite, geneiss, etc. have a strong

bearing power. They offer high resistance to erosion and percolation.
Almost every kind of dam can be built on such a foundation.
ii. Gravel Foundation. Coarse sands and gravels are unable to bear the
weight of high concrete dams and are suitable for earthen and rock fill
dams. Low concrete dams up to height of 15m may also be suggested
on such foundation.
These foundations have high permeability and, therefore, subjected to
water percolation at high rates. Suitable cut-offs must be provided to
avoid danger of undermining.
iii. Silt and Fine Sand Foundation. They suggest the adoption of earth
dams or very low gravity dams. A rock fill dam on such foundation is
not suitable. Seepage through such a foundation may be excessive.
Settlement may also be a problem. Care should be taken for proper
design to avoid such dangers. The protection of foundations at the
downstream toe from erosion must also be ensured.
iv. Clay Foundation. Unconsolidated and high moisture clays are likely to
cause enormous settlement of the dam. They are not fit to concrete
gravity dams or for rock-fill dams. After a special treatment they may
be accepted for earth fill dams.
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v. Non-uniform Foundation in such a case a non-uniform foundation of

rock and soft material may have to be used by special design.

3. Availability of Materials

Availability of certain materials close to the site will affect considerable reduction
in cost if the type of dam selected utilizes these materials in sufficient quantity.
Sometimes, good soil is easily available, which naturally calls for an earthen dam.
If sand, cement and stone are easily available, one should think of a concrete
gravity dam. If the material has to be transported from far off distance then a
hollow concrete dam (buttress) is a better choice.

4. Spillway Size and Location

The capacity of the spillway needed depend on the magnitudes of the floods to
be by-passed. The spillway will, therefore, becomes much more important on
streams with large flood potential. On such rivers, the spillway may become
dominant structure, and the type of dam may become the secondary
consideration.
Size, type and natural restrictions in location of a spillway influence the choice of
dam. A large spillway requirement indicates the adoption of a concrete gravity
dam. A small spillway requirement favors the selection of earth fill or rock fill dam
even in narrow dam sites. When the excavated material from a site channel
spillway can be used in a dam embankment, an earth fill dam is advantageous.
The practice of building a concrete spillway on earth and rock embankments is
being discouraged these days, because of their conservative design
assumptions and the vigil and watch that has to be kept during their operations.

5. Earthquake Zone

If the dam is to be situated in an earthquake zone, its design must include the
earthquake forces. Its safety should be ensured against the increased stress
induced by an earthquake of worst intensity. The type of structure best suited to
resist earthquake shocks without danger are earthen dams and concrete gravity
dams.

1.3 Selection of dam site

The selection of site for dam is governed by the following factors:
1. Suitable foundations
2. Economy, the length of the dam should be as small as possible, and for a
given eight, it should store the maximum volume of water. It, therefore,
follows, that the river valley at the dam site should be narrow but should
open out upstream to provide a large basin for a reservoir
3. Bed level at a dam site should preferably be higher than that of the river
basin. This will reduce the height of the dam and facilitate drainage
problem.

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4. A suitable site for spillway should be available in the near vicinity. If the
spillway is to be combined with the dam the width of the gorge should be
such as to accommodate both.
5. Material required for the construction should be easily available, either
locally or in the near vicinity, so that the cost of transporting them is as low
as possible.
6. The reservoir basin should be water-tight. The stored water should not
escape out through its side walls and bed.
7. The value of land and property submerged by the proposed dam should
be as low as possible. The environmental impact of the construction of the
dam on the nature of the river and the vicinity must be as low as possible.
8. The dam site should be easily accessible, so that it can be economically
connected to important towns and cities by road
9. Site for establishing labor and a healthy environment should be available
in the near vicinity.

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2 GRAVITY DAMS
2.1 Definition
Basically, Gravity dams are solid concrete structures that maintain their stability
against design loads from the geometric shape and the weight and strength of
the structure. Generally, they are constructed on a straight axis, but may be
slightly curved or angled to accommodate the specific site conditions. Gravity
dams typically consist of a non-overflow section and an overflow section or
spillway. They are constructed with masonry or concrete but of late conventional
concrete or roller- compacted concrete are popular.

2.2 Typical Classification/Type of Concrete Gravity Dams

According to construction method concrete gravity dams are classified in to two
as conventional concrete dam and roller-compacted concrete gravity dams.

2.2.1 Conventional Concrete Gravity Dams

1. Conventionally placed mass concrete dams are characterized by

construction using materials and techniques employed in the
proportioning, mixing, placing, curing, and temperature control of mass
concrete. Construction incorporates methods that have been developed
and perfected over many years of designing and building mass concrete
dams. The cement hydration process of conventional concrete limits the
size and rate of concrete placement and necessitates building in
monoliths to meet crack control requirements. Generally using large-size
coarse aggregates, mix proportions are selected to produce a low-slump
concrete that gives economy, maintains good workability during
placement, develops minimum temperature rise during hydration, and
produces important properties such as strength, impermeability, and
durability. Dam construction with conventional concrete readily facilitates
installation of conduits, penstocks, galleries, etc., within the structure.

2. Construction procedures include batching and mixing, and

transportation, placement, vibration, cooling, curing, and preparation of
horizontal construction joints between lifts. The large volume of concrete
in a gravity dam normally justifies an onsite batch plant, and requires an
aggregate source of adequate quality and quantity, located at or within
an economical distance of the project.

3. The heat generated as cement hydrates requires careful temperature

control during placement of mass concrete and for several days after
placement. Uncontrolled heat generation could result in excessive tensile
stresses due to extreme gradients within the mass concrete or due to
temperature reductions as the concrete approaches its annual
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temperature cycle. Control measures involve pre-cooling and post-

cooling techniques to limit the peak temperatures and control the
temperature drop. Reductions in the cement content and cement
replacement with pozzolans have reduced the temperature-rise potential.
Crack control is achieved by constructing the conventional concrete
gravity dam in a series of individually stable monoliths separated by
transverse contraction joints.

2.2.2 Roller-Compacted Concrete (RCC) gravity Dams

The design of RCC gravity dams is similar to conventional concrete structures.

The differences lie in the construction methods, concrete mix design, and details
of the appurtenant structures. Construction of an RCC dam is a relatively new
and economical concept. Economic advantages are achieved with rapid
placement using construction techniques that are similar to those employed for
embankment dams. RCC is a relatively dry, lean, zero slump concrete material
containing coarse and fine aggregate that is consolidated by external vibration
using vibratory rollers, dozer, and other heavy equipment. In the hardened
condition, RCC has similar properties to conventional concrete. For effective
consolidation, RCC must be dry enough to support the weight of the
construction equipment, but have a consistency wet enough to permit
adequate distribution of the past binder throughout the mass during the mixing
and vibration process and, thus, achieve the necessary compaction of the RCC
and prevention of undesirable segregation and voids.

2.3 Force acting on Gravity Dam

The structural integrity of a dam must be maintained across the range of

circumstances or events likely to arise in service. The design is therefore
determined through consideration of the corresponding spectrum of loading
conditions. In all foreseeable circumstances the stability of the dam and
foundation must be ensured, with stresses contained at acceptable levels and
watertight integrity essentially unimpaired.

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FWA
A1
FV

FW

W
FH
FV'
A2

Fs FH'
Heel FOD Toe

FU

Figure 2-1 Representation of typical loads acting on Gravity dam

Where:
H = Head water depth
H’ = Tail Water depth
FWA = Wave pressure force
FH = Horizontal hydrostatic force
FS = Silt/sediment pressure force
FEQ = Earthquake/Seismic force
FW = Wind pressure force
FH’ = Tail water hydrostatic force
W = Weight of dam
FOD = Internal pore water pressure
FU = Uplift pressure force [base of dam]
FV = Weight of water above dam [u/s]
FV’ = Weight of water above dam [d/s]

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2.3.1 Primary loads

1. Water Pressure
Water pressure is the force exerted by the water stored in the reservoir on the
upstream and the water depth at the tail of the dam.
External water pressure can be calculated by the law of hydrostatics according
to which in a static mass of liquid the pressure intensity varies linearly with the
depth of liquid and it acts normal to the surface in contact with the liquid. For
the non-overflow section of the dam water pressure may be calculated as
follows and for the overflow portion the loading will be discussed in section six of
the course.
FH = horizontal component of hydrostatic force, acting along a line 1/3 H above
the base

FH = ½ wH2 (kN/m)

w = Unit weight of water (=10 kN/m3)

Fv = Vertical component of hydrostatic pressure, Weight of fluid mass vertically

above the upstream face acting through the center of gravity of the mass.

Fv = w A1 (kN/m)

A1 = Area u/s (m2)

In the presence of any tail water above the plane considered will similary give
rise to the corresponding resultant forces FH‟ and Fv‟

FH‟ = ½ wH‟2 (kN/m)

Fv‟ = w A2 (kN/m)

2. Dead Weight
For a gravity dam the weight of the structure is the main stabilizing force, and
hence the construction material should be as heavy as possible.
Structure self weight is accounted for in terms of the resultant, W, which acts
through the centroid (center of gravity) of the cress-sectional area. The weight of
the structure per unit length is
W = c * A (KN/m)
Where: c is the unit weight of concrete
A is the cross-sectional area of the structure
The unit weight of concrete may be assumed to be 24 kN/m3 in the absence
specific data from laboratory test trials. For final designs the specific weights shall
be based on actual test data. Where crest gates and other ancillary structures or

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equipments of significant weigh are present they must also be accounted for in
determining the weight of the structure.
It is essential to make sure that the actual specific weight obtained for the
construction material is more than or at least equal to that assumed in the
design.

3. Uplift Pressure
Internal water pressure is the force exerted by water penetrating through the
pores, cracks and seams with in the body of the dam, at contact surface
between the dam and its foundation, and with in the foundation. It acts
vertically upward at any horizontal section of the dam as well as its foundation
and hence it causes a reduction in the effective weight of the portion of the
structure lying above this section. Such an uplift force virtually reduces the
downward weight of the body of the dam and hence, acts against the dam
stability.

The computation of internal pressure involves the consideration of two

constituent elements, i.e,
The percentage C, area factor, of the area on which the

hydrostatic pressure acts
 Hydrostatic pressure of water at a point
Both these elements are discussed below.
a. Area factor
The uplift pressure generally does not occur on the entire horizontal area,
because in some portions, there are no pores in which water can enter. The area
factor can be determined experimentally. The modern practice is to take the
area factor as unity, i.e. it is assumed that the uplift pressure acts on 100% of the
horizontal area within the body of the dam, at the interface, and within the
foundations.
b. Intensity of Uplift pressure
The uplift pressure at any point depends upon the depth of the water at that
point. The pressure variation along the base is assumed to be linear between the
u/s and d/s faces.

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H'
H Fu1

Fu2

Total uplift force on the base of the dam

U = area reduction factor *average pressure intensity * area
 w (H  H' )
= * * Ah
2
5H  2 H '
Acts at distance Z = from the toe of the dam
3( H  H ' )
Where η area reduction factor (η=1)
Ah nominal plane area at a section considered(B*1)

c. Effect of drains on uplift pressure

To reduce the uplift pressure, drains are formed through the body of the dam
and also drainage holes are drilled in the foundation rock. These drains and
drainages holes are usually provided near the u/s face. Mean effective head at
the line of drains can be expressed as

 w .H ' K d  w .H   w. H '
Where Kd is function of drain geometry (i.e. diameter, spacing & location
relative to the u/s face).
K = 0.33 (USBR)
d
Kd = 0.25 Tennessee valley Authority
Kd= 0.25-0.5 appropriate to the site by the U.S crops of Eng‟s

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Given an efficient drainage system analysis is commonly based on assuming that

Kd= 0.33 (Moffat, 1976, USBR, 1976). Therefore the mean effective head at the line
of drains can be expressed as,

 w .H '
1
 w.H   w.H '
3

drainage gallery

H'
H

H' +1/3(H-H')

2.3.2 Secondary loads

1. Sediment load
The gradual accumulation of significant deposits of fine sediment, notably silt,
against the face of the dam generates a resultant horizontal force, Fs. The
magnitude of this force in additional to water load, FH, is a function of the
sediment depth, hs, the submerged unit weight, ss, and the active pressure
coefficient, Ka, and is determined according to Rankine‟s formula.
Fs = ½ Kass hs2
Where Ka = (1-sin) / (1+sin)
 = angle of internal friction of material.
2. Wave Pressure
Wave exerts pressure on the upstream face. This pressure force, F wv depends on
fetch (extent of the water surface on which the water blows) and wind velocity.
It is of relatively small magnitude and, by its nature, random and local in its
influence. An empirical allowance for wave load may be made by adjusting the

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static reservoir level used in determining FWV. According to Molitor the following
formula could be used to determine the rise in water level, hw
hw  0.763  0.032 vf  0.271 f 1 / 4 for f  32km
hw  0.032 vf for f  32km
Fwz  2.0 w hw2

where: hw in meters
v wind velocity in km/hr and
f fetch in km

Figure 2-2 Wave configuration and wave pressure on a gravity dam

3. Thermal
Cooling of large pours of mass concrete following the exothermic
hydration of cement and the subsequent variation in ambient and water
temperatures combine to produce complex and time dependent
temperature gradients within a dam.

4. Wind
When the dam is full, wind acts only on the d/s side thus contribute to
stability. When empty the wind can act on the u/s face but insignificant
compared to hydrostatic load. For buttress dams load on the exposed
surface has to be considered.

5. Ice load

Not a problem in Ethiopia. It can be significant where ice sheets form to

appreciable thickness & persist for lengthy periods.

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Pice =145 KN/m2 for ice > 0.6m thick, other wise neglected

2.3.3 Exceptional loads

1. Earthquake forces
Dynamic loads generated by seismic disturbances must be considered in the
design of all major dams situated in recognized seismic “high risk” regions. The
possibility of seismic activity should also be considered for dams located outside
those regions, particularly where sites in close proximity to potentially active
geological fault complexes.
Seismic activity is associated with complex oscillating patterns of accelerations
and ground motions, which generated transient dynamic loads due to the
inertia of the dam and the retained body of water. The dam has to resist the
inertia forces caused by the sudden movement of earth‟s crust. If the ground
under a dam moves, the dam must also move with it to avoid rupture. Inertia
forces must be considered in the design of dam to avoid failure due to
earthquake. Inertia force always acts opposite to the direction of earthquake
acceleration.
The magnitude of the earthquake force depends upon a number of factors,
such as the severity of earthquake, the mass of the dam and the elasticity of the
material of the dam. The earthquake acceleration usually expressed as a
fraction of the acceleration due to gravity (g) is equal to g where  is the
seismic coefficient. For design purposes the earthquake acceleration is resolved
into horizontal and vertical components h and v.

Earthquake force on the body of the dam

1. Effect of horizontal acceleration: the horizontal acceleration can occur

in either u/s or d/s directions. Because the dam is designed for worst
case, the horizontal acceleration is assumed to occur in the direction
which would produce the worst combination of the forces.

i. Reservoir full condition: the worst case occurs when the

earthquake acceleration moves towards the u/s direction and
the corresponding inertia force acts in the d/s direction.

ii. Reservoir empty condition: the worst case occurs when the
earthquake acceleration moves towards the d/s direction and
the corresponding inertia force acts in the u/s direction.

The horizontal force due to the earthquake is equal to the product of mass M of
the dam and horizontal acceleration

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both should be considered operative in the sense least favorable to stability of

the dam.

W 
Fh    *  h * g , The force is assumed to act at the center of gravity of mass
g

2. Effect of horizontal acceleration:-due to vertical acceleration, the inertia

forces act on the dam and on the water. The magnitude is

W 
Fv    *  v * g  W *  v
g
If the vertical acceleration acts downwards, the inertia force acts upwards, and
the effective weight of the dam and water decreases; hence the stability
reduce, because in a gravity dam the main stabilizing force is the weight of the
dam and vise versa.

Since the vertical acceleration does not alter the volume of the concrete in the
dam and the water in the reservoir, the modified weights of the dam and the
water may be used in the analysis.

W '  W (1   v )

Earthquake force on the body of the water

Effect of horizontal acceleration on water (Hydrodynamic pressure): the

horizontal acceleration acting u/s towards the reservoir causes a momentary
increase in the water pressure. The dam and its foundation accelerate towards
the reservoir and the water resists the movement owing to its inertia, and hence
the water pressure increased. The additional water pressure is known as the
hydrodynamic pressure. The following simplified methods are used to estimate
the hydrodynamic pressure variations.

a. Van Korman’s methods: suggested that the hydrodynamic pressure has

parabolic variation and the pressure force
4H
Fe  0.555 *  h *  w * H 2 , Acts at above the base
3

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b. Zanger’s methods: the intensity of the hydrodynamic pressure at a depth y

below the water surface in the reservoir with the total depth of water H is
given by

Pe  C *  h *  w * H , C is dimensionless coefficient and given by

Cm y  y y y    
C   2    ( (2  )  and C m  0.735 1  
2 H  H H H   90 

where Ф is angle in degree the upstream face of the dam makes with
the vertical

It was further stated, that if the upstream face is partly nclined which does
not extend to more than half the depth of the reservoir it can be taken as
vertical. If the slope extends more than half the depth, the overall slope
up to the whole height may be taken as the value Ф in equation above.

2.3.4 Basic loading conditions

The design of a gravity dam is based on the most adverse combination of the
loads/forces acting on it, which includes only those loads having a reasonable
probability of simultaneous occurrence. The combination of transient loads such
as those due to maximum flood and earthquake are not considered because
the probability of occurrence of each of these phenomena is quite low and
hence the probability of their simultaneous occurrence is almost negligible.
The loads discussed in the preceding section have different but individually
distinctive operating envelopes in terms of probability of occurrence, intensity
and duration. Individual load maxima which can reasonably be anticipated to
act in concert under service condition can be grouped into a structured
sequence of defined load combination for design purposes. Thus for the design
of gravity dams the load combinations are specified below;
I. Load combination 1 (construction condition or empty dam condition): Dam
completed but no water in the reservoir and no tail water.
II. Load combination 2 (empty dam with horizontal earthquake condition): Dam
completed but no water in the reservoir and no tail water and horizontal earthquake
force acting.
III. Load combination 3 (Normal operating condition): Full reservoir elevation (or top
of gates at crest), normal dry weather tail water, normal uplift, ice and uplift (if
applicable)
IV. Load combination 4 (Normal operating with earthquake condition): Full reservoir
elevation (or top of gates at crest), normal dry weather tail water, normal uplift and
earthquake.

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V. Load combination 5 (Flood Discharge condition): Reservoir at standard flood level,

gates at appropriate flood control opening, tail water at flood elevation, normal uplift,
and silt (if applicable)
VI. Load combination 6 (Probable Maximum Flood condition): Reservoir at PMF, all
gates open, tail water at flood elevation, normal uplift, and silt (if applicable)

2.4 Modes of failure and criteria for structural stability of gravity

dams

2.4.1 Failure by overturning

It is the resultant of all forces acting on the dam at any of the sections, passes
outside the toe, the dam shall rotate and overturn about the toe. Practically,
such a condition shall not arise, as the dam will fail much earlier by compression.
The ratio of the righting moments about toe(anti clockwise ∑M+ve)to the
overturning moments about toe(clockwise ∑M-ve) is called the factor of safety
(Fo)against overturning.

Fo = ∑M+ve /∑M-ve

It may be noted that ∑M-ve is inclusive of the moment generated by uplift load.
Seismic loads are excluded from overturning calculations on account of their
transient and oscillatory nature. Values of Fo ≥ 1.5 is desirable.

2.4.2 Failure by Crushing

A dam may fail by the failure of its materials, i.e. the compressive stresses
produced may exceed the allowable stresses, and the dam material may get
crushed. Safety against crushing is ensured if the compressive stresses produced
are within the allowable stresses.
Maximum compressive stress = Direct stress + Bending stress


F 
6. Fv .e

F  6.e  
1  b  
v v

 
2
bx1 b b

Where, e= eccentricity and b = base width

2.4.3 Failure by development of tension

Gravity dams are usually designed in such a way that no tension is developed
anywhere, because these materials cannot withstand sustained tensile stresses. If
subjected to such stresses, these materials may finally crack. However, for
achieving economy in designs of very high gravity dams, certain amount of
tension may be permitted under severest loading condition. This may be
permitted because of the fact that such worst loading conditions shall occur
only momentarily for a little time and would neither last long nor occur
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frequently. A tensile crack by itself does not fail the structure, but it leads to the
failure of the structure by producing excessive compressive stresses.
In order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere, we must ensure that
Pmin is at the most equal to Zero.

Pmax 
F 
6. Fv .e

F  6.e 
1  b 
v v

 
2
min
bx1 b b

Pmin 
F  6.e 
1 
v

b  b 

Pmin  0 Or e = b/6

Hence, maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on either side of

the centre is equal to B/6; which leads to the famous statement: the resultant
must lie within the middle third.

2.4.4 Failure by Sliding/Shear

Sliding/ shear failure will occur when the net horizontal force above any plan in
the dam or at the base of the dam exceeds the frictional resistance developed
at that level. It s conventionally expressed in terms of a facto of safety or stability
factor against sliding, Fs, estimated using one or other of the three definitions:
- Sliding factor, Fss
- Shear friction factor
- Limit equilibrium factor
Irrespective of the definition employed, the resistance to sliding on any plane
within a dam will be a function of the shear resistance mobilized in the mass
concrete.

Sliding Factor, Fss

Fss 
H
V
If the plane is inclined at a small angle α, the expression is modified to
 H  tan 
Fss 
V
H 
1   tan 
 V 
 

For well-constructed mass concrete, Fss on a horizontal plane should be

permitted to exceed 0.75 for specified normal load combination. F ss may be

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permitted to rise to 0.9 under the extreme load combination and for the irregular
rock surface foundation. Planes of low shear resistance will require a significant
reduction in the permissible maxima limited to 0.5 or less on some limestone, and
similar low-strength foundations.

Shear friction Factor, Fsf

Shear friction factor is defined as the ratio of the total resistance to shear and
sliding which can be mobilized on a plane to the total horizontal load.

S
Fsf 
H
Where, S is the maximum shear resistance which can be mobilized.

Where, Ah is the area of plane of contact or sliding (Hh is the thickness, T for a
two-dimension section)

In case of horizontal plane where α is zero the above equation simplifies to

Substituting in Fsf equation above the standard expression for shear friction
factor, i.e.

In presence of a horizon with low shear resistance, e.g. a thin clay horizon or clay
infill in a discontinuity it may be advisable to make the assumption that S=0.

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In some circumstances it may be appropriate to include d/s passive wedge

resistance, Pp, as a further component of the resistance to sliding which can be
mobilized.

This is affected by modifying the above equation, hence,

where

Where, Ww is the weight of the passive wedge.

In presence of a horizon with low shear resistance, e.g. a thin clay horizon or clay
infill in a discontinuity it may be advisable to make the assumption that S=0.

Table Recommended shear friction factor,Fsf(USBR,1987)

Limit equilibrium factor, Flf

The limit equilibrium approach to sliding stability follows conventional soil
mechanics logic in defining the limit equilibrium factor, FLE, as the ratio of shear
strength to mean applied shear stress across a plane:

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f
FLE 


Where τf is the shear strength available, and τ is the shear stress generated under
the applied loading.

τf is expressed by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and the above equation is

rewritten accordingly:

C   n tan 
FLE 

Recommended minima for limit equilibrium factors of safety against sliding are
and FLE=2.0 in normal operation, i.e. with static load maxima applied and FLE=1.3
under transient load conditions embracing seismic activity.

2.4.5 Failure by Crushing

A dam may fail by the failure of its materials, i.e. the compressive stresses
produced may exceed the allowable stresses, and the dam material may get
crushed. Safety against crushing is ensured if the compressive stresses produced
are within the allowable stresses.

Maximum compressive stress = Direct stress + Bending moment

Pmax 
F 
6. Fv *e

F  6.e  
1  B  
v v

min
B B B  

Where, W= weight of dam,

A = area of dam section,
e= eccentricity and
B = base width

2.4.6 Failure by development of tension

Gravity dams are usually designed in such a way that no tension is developed
anywhere, because these materials cannot withstand sustained tensile stresses. If
subjected to such stresses, these materials may finally crack. However, for
achieving economy in designs of very high gravity dams, certain amount of
tension may be permitted under severest loading condition. This may be
permitted because of the fact that such worst loading conditions shall occur
only momentarily for a little time and would neither last long nor occur
frequently.

In order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere, we must ensure that

Pmin is at the most equal to Zero.

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Pmax 
F 
6. Fv *e

F  6.e  
1  B  
v v

min
B B B  

Pmin 
F  6.e 
1  B 
v

B  

Pmin  0 Or e = B/6

Hence, maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on either side of

the centre is equal to B/6; which leads to the famous statement: the resultant
must lie within the middle third.

2.4.7 Stress analysis

Gravity method is useful to analyze stress in straight gravity dams which are
not geometrically complex. It is founded on 2-D elastic dam on uniformly rigid
foundation & linear variation of stress from u/s to d/s.
The stresses evaluated in a comprehensive analysis are:

1) Vertical normal stress, σ , on horizontal planes

z

2) Horizontal & vertical shear stresses,

3) Horizontal normal stress, σ ,on vertical planes; and

y

4) Principal stresses, σ σ (direction & magnitude).

1& 3

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1. Vertical normal stress σ :

z
Analysis is based on modified beam theory which is by combining axial &
bending load with suitable modifications.

z   V  M *. y '

Ah I

Where: Σv- resultant vertical load above the plane considered,

excluding uplift;
*
ΣM - summation of moments expressed w.r.t. the centroid of
the plane;
‟
Y‟ - distance from the centroid to point of consideration
I - second moment of area of the plane w.r.t centroid

For rectangular 2-D plane section of unit width Parallel to the dam axis & with
thickness T normal to the axis:

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z  V  12 V .e. y'
B B3

And at y’=B/2 ,  z 
V 1  6.e 
B  B

For reservoir full condition

at the u/s face  zu   1   and
V 6.e
B  B 

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at d/s face  zd  V 1  6.e 

B  B 

Where e is the eccentricity of the resultant load, R, which must intersect the
plane d/s of its centroid for the reservoir full condition and the sign convention is
reversed for reservoir empty condition.
The eccentricity is determined by evaluating the moments, ΣM* given by

e
M *

V
Where Σv - excludes uplift

For e > b/6, at u/s face –ve stress is developed, i.e. tensile stress. In design, tensile
stress has to be permissible, but difficult to totally eliminate low tensile stress in
gravity dam. Total vertical stresses at either face are obtained by the addition of
external hydrostatic pressure.

2. Horizontal shear stresses: Numerically equal & complementary horizontal (τzy)

and vertical (τyz) shear stresses are generated at any point as a result of variation
of vertical normal stress over a horizontal plane.

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It is normally sufficient to establish the boundary, i.e. u/s and d/s, τ values. If the
angles between the face slopes and the vertical are respectively φu u/s and φd
d/s, and if external hydrostatic pressure, Pw, is assumed to operate at the u/s
face, then

Between the boundary values given by the above equations, the variation in
shear stress is dependent upon the rate of change in vertical normal stress.

3. Horizontal Normal Stresses: The horizontal stresses on vertical planes, σ ,

y
can be determined by consideration of the horizontal shear forces operating
above and below a hypothetical element within the dam. The difference in
shear forces is balanced by the normal stresses on vertical planes. Boundary
values for σ at either face are given by the following:
y
For the upstream face,

For the downstream face,

4. Principal stresses: The vertical stress intensity, σ or σ determined from

max min

z  V 1  6.e  ⎟⎜is

not the maximum direct stress produced anywhere in
B  B
the dam.
The maximum normal stress will be, in fact, the major principal stresses that will
be generated on the major principal plane.
Principal stresses σ & σ may be determined from knowledge of σ & σ and
1 3 z y
construction of Mohr‟s circle diagram to represent stress conditions at a point,
or by application of the equation given below:

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The u/s and d/s faces are each planes of zero shear, and therefore planes of
principal stress. The boundary values σ1 &σ3 are then determined as follows,

Permissible stress and cracking

The following table gives permissible compression stresses factor of safety for
gravity dam body and rock foundation (USBR 1976).

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2.5 Stability Analysis

The stability analysis of a gravity dam section can be done by any one of the
following methods:
a) Gravity method of two-dimensional method
b) Slab analogy method
c) Trial load twist method
d) Lattice analogy method

Gravity Method or Two-dimensional Method.

Being an approximate method, it is used for the preliminary calculations. The

gravity method can be carried out by:

i) Graphical method or
ii) Analytical method

We shall consider only the analytical method

2.5.1 Graphical method

In the graphical method, the entire dam section is divided into a number of
horizontal sections at some suitable intervals, particularly at the places where the
slope changes. For each section the sum of the vertical forces and the sum of all
horizontal forces acting above that particular sections, are worked out and
resultant force R drawn, graphically. This is done for each section and a line
joining all the points where the individual resultant cut the individual sections, is
drawn. The line represents the resultant force and should lie within the middle
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third, for no tension to develop. The procedure should be carried out for the
reservoir full case as well as for reservoir empty case.

2.5.2 Analytical method

The stability of the dam can be analysed in the following steps:

a. Considering unit length of the dam, all vertical loads are determined the
algebraic sum of all vertical forces is calculated, V
b. Considering unit length of the dam, all horizontal forces are determined
and their algebraic sum calculated,  H
c. The sum of the righting moments and the sum of overturning moments at
the toe of the dam calculated,  M
d. The location of the resultant force from the toe of the dam is also
calculated by following, x  
_ M
V
e. Find out the eccentricity of the resultant force by:
B _
e    x
2
f. Determine the normal stress at the toe of the dam by:

N  
V 1  6.e 
B  B 
g. The normal stress at the heel is determined by

N  
V 1  6.e 
B  B 
h. The principal and shear stresses at the toe and heel are determined from
 1  p v . sec 2 
  ( p v  p). tan 

i. The factor of safety against overturning is calculated by:

F.S 
MR
MO
j. The factor of safety against sliding is calculated by:
  V  B.q
S .F .S 
H

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2.6 Design consideration and fixing the section of a dam

The free-board and top width for roadway should be selected as follows:
1. Freeboard. The margin between the maximum reservoir level and
top of the dam is known as freeboard. It helps in protecting water
spilling over the dam due to wave action. This can also help as a
safety for unforeseen flood.
Freeboard= 4 - 5% of the dam height
2. Top width. The most economical top width without considering
earthquake forces has been found by Creager to be equal to 14%
of the dam height. Its useful value varies between 6 to 10m and is
generally taken approximately equal to H1/2, where H is the height
of maximum water level above the bed.

U/s face flare: the u/s face of a gravity profile is frequently modified by the
introduction of a significant flare. A flare is advantageous in that it serves to
lengthen the base contact, and so considerably enhances the contact area
available at foundation level to distribute stress and resist sliding.

Design of small dams associated with provision of‟ standard‟ triangular profile of
u/s vertical face & d/s slope of 0.75 horizontal to 1.0 vertical. In the case of large
dams a unique profile should be determined to match the specific conditions
applicable. Two approaches are possible; the multi stage & single stage.

Single stage: is based on definition on a suitable & uniform d/s slope. The apex of
the triangular profile is set at or just above DFL & initial base thickness T is
determined for each loading combination in terms of satisfying F0. The critical
value of T is then checked for sliding stability & modified if necessary before
checking heel & toe stress at base level.
For no tension to occur at u/s vertical face

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The multistage approach defines a profile where the slopes are altered at
suitable intervals. Design commences from crest level, & descends downwards
through profile stages corresponding to predetermined elevations. Each stage is
proportioned as to maintain stress level within acceptable limits, e.g. no tension
under any condition of loading.
The resulting profile allows marginal economics on concrete, but more expensive
to construct than the single –stage. Multi-stage profiles are now seldom
employed, even on large dams.

Division of Gravity Dam Cross section into Zones: Figure below indicates
typical sections of a solid, non-overflow dam. The section of the dam may be
divided into a number of zones, as indicated, it being necessary to design
each zone in accordance with a different rule or combination of rules.

Description of zones, non-overflow dams, rectangular bases

Zone I: It is that portion above the maximum water surface, or if there is ice,
above the bottom of the ice sheet. When ice pressure occurs, the quantity of
concrete in zone I is fixed by requirement of resistance to sliding. If there is no
ice, the height is controlled by the freeboard requirements and the width is
determined by practical consideration or economy for the section as a
whole.
Zone II: For a limited distance below the bottom of Zone I, the resultants,
reservoir full and empty, lie well within the middle third (kern). Both u/s and
d/s faces, therefore, may remain vertical until, at some plane, 5-6, the
resultant, reservoir full, intersects the joint at the exact extremity of the middle
third. That portion of the dam between the bottom of zone I and the plane 5-
6 constitutes zone II.

Zone III: Below the bottom of zone II, the d/s face must begin to batter to
conform to the middle third rule, reservoir full. The resultant, reservoir empty,
still being within the middle-third, the u/s face may remain vertical until at
some plane, 7-8, the resultant, reservoir empty, intersects at the u/s extremity
of the middle third. That portion of the dam between planes 5-6 and 7-8 in
which dimensions are determined by middle third rule, reservoir full,
constitutes zone III.

Zone IV: Below the plane 7-8 the u/s face must begin to batter to conform to
middle third rule, reservoir empty, and for a distance the position of each
face is determined by the position of the resultant, reservoir full or empty as
the case may be. This portion of the dam constitutes zone IV.

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Zone V: The lower limit of zone IV is fixed by the condition of limiting inclined
pressures (inclined compressive stresses). The maximum permissible unit stress
is reached at the d/s face first, and for a distance the length of the joint must
be determined by this rule for reservoir full and by the middle third rule for
empty reservoir. This portion of the dam constitutes zone V. In this zone the
resultant, reservoir full, intersects well within the middle third and, for reservoir
empty, the resultant continues to intersect at the u/s extremity of the middle
third.
Zone VI: The bottom of zone V is fixed by the condition of limiting inclined
pressure at the u/s face, below which level the slope of the d/s face is
determined by the maximum permissible stress, reservoir full, and the u/s face
by the same rule, reservoir empty. The portion of the dam thus controlled by
these rules constitutes zone VI.
Zone VII: As the dam increases in height, the batters of both u/s and d/s
faces increase. Consequently, at some elevation, the value of sec2_d may
become so great that conformity with the permissible stress rule is
incompatible with the design assumptions. This portion of the dam in which
this condition prevails constitutes zone VII. It usually must be eliminated by
revision of the entire design.

Figure – Zoning for non-overflow gravity dam

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2.7 Design example of gravity dam

2.8 Construction aspects of gravity dam

2.8.1 Diversion
Before the construction begins the water of the river must be temporarily
diverted. It is advantageous to use the low flow period for diversion and dam
construction. The diversion of the river water can be accomplished in either of
two ways:
1. Diversion tunnel. If the geological and topographical conditions are
favorable, a diversion tunnel or a diversion open channel may be
constructed to carry the entire flow around the dam site. The area, in
which construction work has to take place, is closed by cofferdams.
2. Two stage construction. The dam is constructed in two stages. The flow is
diverted and confined to one side of the channel by constructing a
semicircular type of a cofferdam. The construction can be done in water
free side. When the construction in this side of the channel gets
completed the remaining half width of the channel is closed by
cofferdam and the work will continue in the second side.

2.8.2 Galleries
Galleries are the horizontal or sloping opening or passages left in the body of the
dam. The size of the gallery will depend on the size of the dam and the function
of the galley.
1. Foundation Gallery. Serves to drain of water which percolates through the
foundations. Drain holes are drilled from the floor of this gallery after the
foundation grouting has been completed. Its size varies from 1.5mX2.2m
to 1.8mX2.4m. The size should at least accommodate drilling machine.
2. Inspection Gallery. The water seeps through the body of the dam is
collected by means of a system of galleries provided at various elevations
and interconnected by vertical shaft interior of the dam for inspection.
However, galleries in dams are seldom provided for purely inspection
purposes
The size of gallery depends on the function and the size of the dam. The provision
of a gallery in the dam body, change the normal pattern of stresses in the dam
body. Stress concentration may, therefore, occur at corners, and hence in order
to minimize this stress concentration, the corner must be rounded smoothly.
Proper reinforcement must provided to counteract the tension and compression
zones.

2.8.3 Contraction and construction joins

When concrete sets heat is liberated raising the temperature inside the dam but
the temperature outside the dam remains equal to the atmospheric

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temperature. Due to these temperature difference stresses develop and cause

concrete to crack if the following measures not taken:
1. By decreasing the quantity of cement with better grading the aggregate
2. When concrete is poured, it is poured up to a certain height in the first
attempt. This height is called „lift‟. If this lift is reduced, more horizontal
joints will get developed and also sufficient cooling time between two
successive pours
3. By providing suitable spaced contraction joints
4. Using low heat cements
5. Using cooled materials which go into concrete
6. By circulating cold water through pipes bedded in concrete

2.8.4 Foundation treatment

The foundation area for any concrete dam must be immaculate before the first
concrete for the dam is placed. As for fill dams, this is a detailed process of
excavating, cleaning, and repairing the rock throughout the foundation
"footprint" and on both abutments (the sides of the canyon that form the ends of
the dam). Sites immediately downstream of the dam for any power-plant, stilling
basin, or other structure must also be prepared.
At some sites, extensive work may be required. If the rock in the foundation or
abutments is prone to fracturing because of the load imposed by the dam and
its reservoir, earthquake activity, or the properties of the rock, it may be
necessary to install extensive systems of rock bolts or anchor bolts that are
grouted into the rock through potential fracture zones. On the abutments above
the dam, systems of rock bolts and netting may be required to keep large rock
fragments from falling onto the dam. Instruments to monitor groundwater levels,
joint movement, potential seepage, slope movements, and seismic activity are
installed beginning during the early stages of foundation preparation through
completion of the dam.
A cutoff wall may be excavated deep into rock or holes may be drilled in the
foundation for the installation of reinforcing steel, called rebars, that extend up
into the dam and will be tied to the steel inside the first lifts of the dam. The idea
is to build a reservoir that, like a bowl, is equally sound around its perimeter. The
water is deepest and heaviest at the dam (when the reservoir is near capacity)
so the dam and its foundation cannot be a weak point in that perimeter.

2.8.5 Formwork and concrete casting

Forms made of wood or steel are constructed along the edges of each
section of the dam. Rebar is placed inside the forms and tied to any
adjacent rebar that was previously installed. The concrete is then poured
or pumped in. The height of each lift of concrete is typically only 1.5-3 m
and the length and width of each dam section to be poured as a unit is
only about 15 m. Construction continues in this way as the dam is raised
section by section and lift by lift. Some major dams are built in sections

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called blocks with keys or inter-locks that link adjacent blocks as well as
structural steel connections.
The process is much like constructing a building except that the dam has
far less internal space; surprisingly, however, major concrete dams have
observation galleries at various levels so the condition of the inside of the
dam can be observed for seepage and movement. Inlet and outlet
tunnels or other structures also pass through concrete dams, making them
very different from fill dams that have as few structures penetrating the
mass of the dam as possible.

2.8.6 Early dam performance

As soon as a significant portion of the dam is built, the process of filling the
reservoir may begin. This is done in a highly controlled manner to evaluate
the stresses on the dam and observe its early performance. A temporary
emergency spillway is constructed if dam building takes more than one
construction season; lengthy construction is usually done in phases called
stages, but each stage is fully complete in itself and is an operational
dam. The upstream cofferdam may be left in place as a temporary
precaution, but it is not usually designed to hold more than minimal
stream flows and rainfall and will be dismantled as soon as practical.
Depending on design, some dams are not filled until construction is
essentially complete.

2.8.7 Appurtenance
The other structures that make the dam operational are added as soon as
the elevation of their location is reached as the dam rises. The final
components are erosion protection on the upstream (water) side of the
dam (and sometimes downstream at the bases of outlet structures),
instruments along the crest (top) of the dam, and roads, side-walks,
streetlights, and retaining walls. A major dam has a full-fledged roadway
along its crest; small dams will have maintenance roads that allow single-
file access of vehicles only.

Away from the dam itself, the powerhouse, instrument buildings, and even
homes for resident operators of the dam are also finished. Initial tests of all
the facilities of the dam are performed.

2.8.8 Completion
The final details of constructions are wrapped up as the dam is put into
service. The beginning of the dam's working life was also carefully
scheduled as a design item, so that water is available in the reservoir as
soon as the supply system is ready to pump and pipe it downstream, for
example. A program of operations, routine maintenance, rehabilitation,
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safety checks, instrument monitoring, and detailed observation will

continue and is mandated by law as long as the dam exists.

3 ARCH AND BUTTRESS DAMS

3.1 Definition and type of arch dams
An arch dam is a curved dam that carries a major part of its water load
horizontally to the abutments by arch action; the part so carried being
primarily dependent on the amount of curvature. The material, of which
the dam is constructed, transmits the forces under the optimum conditions
and very considerable economy.
Arch dams are restricted to relatively narrow valley sections with strong
abutments. They are structurally more efficient than the gccravity or
buttress counterparts, greatly reducing the volume of concrete required.
Extrados and Intrados: Extrados is the upstream face of arches and
intrados is the downstream face of the arches. These terms are used only
for the horizontal (arch) units; the faces of the cantilever units are referred
to as upstream and downstream, as appropriate. See Figure below for
these definitions.

Valley suited for arch dam

Narrow gorges provide the most natural solution for an arch dam
construction, the usually recommended ratio of crest length to dam
height being 5 or less.
The overall shape of the site is classified as a narrow-V, wide-V, narrow-U,
or wide-U as shown in Figure below.

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Valleys suited to arch dams are narrow gorges. The ratio of crest length to
dam height is recommended not to exceed five. To determine the site
suitability for an arch dam the following equation of canyon shape factor
(CSF) is proposed:

B  H (sec 1  sec 2 )
CSF 
H

Where Ψ1 and Ψ2 are the angles the sides of the valleys make with the
vertical, b is valley base width and H the height. Usual values of CSF are
from 2 to 5. The lower the CSF value the thinner the section.

Table 3-1 Classification of valley shapes based on CSF value

Valley type Bottom width 1 2 CSF
B
U shaped <H < 150 < 150 < 3.1
Narrow V shaped 0 < 350 < 350 < 2.4
Wide V-shaped 0 > 350 > 350 > 2.4
Composite U-V < 2H > 150 > 150
shaped  4.1
Wide and flat > 2H 1 2
shapes > 4.1
Unclassified Highly irregular valley shape

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The arch dam should be properly laid out to improve the stability and
reduce the stresses. The dam layout should take advantage of the
favorable conditions afforded by curved shapes, and gradual transition.
The rock mass at the abutment should be sufficient and the resultant
thrust at the abutment should be directed well inside the abutment to
avoid sliding.
Arch and cupola dams transfer their loads to the valley sides than to the
floor. Overturning and sliding stability have little relevance here. If the
integrity and competence of the abutments is assured, failure can occur
only as a result of overstress. Arch dam design is therefore, centered
largely upon stress analysis and the definition of an arch geometry which
avoids local tensile stress concentration and/or excessive compressive
stress.
Associated with saving may also be realized in foundation excavation &
preparation, but the sophisticated form of arch dam leads to very much
increased unit costs. In case of complex geology of abutment, saving can
also be negated by requirement of ensuring abutment integrity under all
conditions.

Arch Geometry and Profile

The horizontal component of arch thrust must be transferred into the
abutment at a safe angle, β, i.e. one that will not promote abutment
yielding or instability. At any elevation the arch thrust may be considered
to enter the abutment as shown in Figure below.
In general an abutment entry angle, β, of between 45 and 70° is
suggested. In distributing through the abutment the thrust must not be
aligned too closely with the valley sound rock contours or with any major
discontinuity that may contribute to the abutment instability.

Figure Abutment entry angle geometry for arch dams

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Arch dams may be grouped into two main divisions: Massive arch dams
and multiple arch dams.

Massive arch dam:- the whole span of the dam is covered by a

single curved wall usually vertical or nearly so.
Multiple arch dam:- series of arches cover the whole span of the
dam, usually inclined and supported on piers or buttresses.
These are usually considered as a type of buttress dam and
will be described later.

Massive arch dams in turn are divided into the following types:
i. Constant radius arch dams,
ii. Constant angle arch dams
iii. Variable radius arch dams
iv. Double curvature or Cupola arch dams
v. Arch gravity dams

3.1.1 Constant radius arch dam

Constant radius is the simplest geometric profile combining a vertical

upstream face of constant extrados (outside curved surface of the arch
dam) radius with a uniform radial downstream slope. Though the constant
radius arch dam is not the most economical profile in volume, it is simple
to analyze and construct. Besides, this profile is suitable to relatively
symmetrical “U” shaped valley. For a site with variable span length “V”
shaped valleys a constant radius can have the correct central angle only
at one elevation. Therefore, smallest masonry volume for the whole dam is
obtained by increasing the top angle to get the best average angle.
Usually a maximum of 150o is used for the top arch.

Figure Constant Radius Arch dam

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3.1.2 Constant angle arch dam

The concept of the constant-angle profile follows logically as a
development of the constant-radius profile of minimum volume. Constant-
angle geometry is more complex, however, since, as demonstrated by
Fig. below it leads to a considerable upstream overhang as the
abutments are approached. Excessive overhang is undesirable, as the
resulting local cross-section can prove unstable under construction or for
the reservoir empty condition. To alleviate this it may be necessary to
introduce an upstream prop, as indicated on the figure, or to modify the
central angle 2 of different arches has the same magnitude from top to
bottom. In practice 2 = 1000 to 1500 is used. It uses about 70% concrete as
compared to constant radius arch dam. The profile is best suited to
narrow and relatively symmetrical steep sided V-shaped valleys.

Figure constant angle arch dam.

3.1.3 Variable radius angle arch dam

It is a compromise between constant radius and constant angle arch
dams, i.e., neither the radius nor the angle is constant. The radii of the
extrados and intrados surfaces vary from the top to bottom, usually
maximum at the top and minimum at the base. The central angle of the
different arches is not constant; it usually ranges from 800 to 1500. The
central angle for the top arch is made as wide as possible. The dam is
suitable for V and U-V shaped valleys.
The radius is varied to cut the face at the required contour interval so that
there is no overhang. Masonry volume consumed is about 82% of that for
constant radius arch dam of the same height.

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3.2 Loads on arch dams

Loads on arch dams are essentially the same as loads on gravity dams,
except that temperature changes, which usually are not important
considerations in straight dams, cause important deflections and stresses
in curved dams. The principal dead load is the concrete weight. The
principal live load is the reservoir water pressure. Uplift forces are less
important, if no cracks occur it can be neglected.

3.3 Methods of design of massive arch dams

In general the design/analysis can be based on:

- Thin cylinder theory

- Thick cylinder theory
- The elastic theory
- Other advanced methods such as trial load analysis and finite
element methods.

3.3.1 Thin Cylinder theory

It is envisaged that the weight of concrete and water in the dam is
carried directly to the foundation. The horizontal water load is carried
entirely by arch action. The theory assumes that the arch is simply
supported at the abutments and that the stresses are approximately the
same as in thin cylinder of equal outside radius ro.

Figure Thin cylinder model of an Arch dam

Summing forces parallel to the stream axis

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2 R sin  / 2  2 w hre sin  / 2

R   w hre
The transverse unit stress
R  hr
   w e
t *1 t
for a given stress
 w hre
t
 all
Note: the hydrostatic pressure wh may be increased by earth quake and other
pressure forces where applicable:

since re = rc + 0.5t and re = ri + t

 w hrc  w hri
t or t
 all  0.5 w h  all   w h

Condition for least volume of arch.

V  (t *1)r
 hr
t  w  kr

2
 B 
V  kr   k 
2

 2 sin  / 2 
Differentiating V with respect to  and setting to zero,  = 133.5o which is the
most economical angle for arch with minimum volume.
For  = 133.50 r = 0.544B

3.3.2 Thick Cylinder theory

Improvement in thin cylinder theory was made by the considering the arch as
thick cylinder. The compressive horizontal ring stress, σh, for radius R is given by,

Where Ru and Rd are u/s and d/s face radii of the arch element
considered.
Ring stress is maximum at the downstream face. Ring thickness, Tr = Ru - Rd,
is assumed uniform at any elevation. Hence, with pw = γwz1,

In theory, arch thickness should diminish towards the crown and increase
close to the abutments. In practice it is usual to maintain a uniform
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thickness at any elevation for a single-curvature dam, and the maximum

tangential stresses will therefore be those generated at either abutment.

3.3.3 Elastic arch theory

The theory assumes complete transfer of load by arch action only.

Horizontal arch rings are assumed fixed to the abutments, but acting
independently of neighboring rings. Effect of temperature variation on
arch stress is considered. This method can be used for preliminary design
to determine the adequacy of the section designed by the thin cylinder
theory.
Modified Cain‟s Equations are used for calculating forces and moments
at the crown and at abutments.
pr t2
Ho  pr  2 sin  ; where  is in radians
D 12r
 t  
2
sin 2 
D  1     
2 
  2 sin 
2
; if shear is neglected.
 12 r   2 
 t2   sin 2  3t 2  sin 2 
D  1        2 sin  
2
    ; if shear is considered.
  2  12r  2 
2 2
 12r

Figure Constant thickness circular arch, fixed at abutments.

 sin  
Moment at crown: Mo  r ( pr  Ho)1  
  
Forceat abutment : Ha  pr  ( pr  Ho) cos
 sin  
Moment at abutement : Ma  r ( pr  Ho)  cos 
  
After determining forces and moments, stresses at intrados and extrados are
calculated from

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 H 6M 
   2 
 t t 

Hydraulic Structures I Lecture Note 45