Design of Hydraulic Structures Prepared By: Dr. Fadhil Abd Al-Abbas Chapter One: Introduction

1
Design of Hydraulic Structures Prepared by: Dr. Fadhil Abd Al-Abbas

Chapter One: Introduction
2
References:
1. Theory and Design of Irrigation Structures – Volume I by Gupta. 6 th
Edition. 1993.
2. Hydraulic Structures by Novak. 4 th Edition 2007.
3. Irrigation, Water Power and Water Resources Engineering by K.R.

Arora. 4 th Edition 2007.
Syllabus:
First Semester:
Chapter Two: Theories of Creep
Chapter Three: Hydraulic Jump and Energy Dissipation Structures
Chapter Four: Hydraulic Design of Regulators
Chapter Five: Design of pipes and Box Culverts
Second Semester:
Chapter Six: Design of Inverted Siphon
Chapter Seven: Weirs
Chapter Eight: Design of Gates
Chapter Nine: Design of Dams
Chapter Ten: Design of Spillway

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Chapter One
Introduction
1.1. Introduction
A hydraulic structure is a structure submerged or partially submerged in any body

of water, which disrupts the natural flow of water. They can be used to divert, disrupt
or completely stop the flow. An example of a hydraulic structure would be a dam, which
slows the normal flow rate of the river in order to power turbines. A hydraulic structure
can be built in rivers, a sea, or any body of water where there is a need for a change in
the natural flow of water.
Hydraulic structures may also be used to measure the flow of water. When used to
measure the flow of water, hydraulic structures are defined as a class of specially shaped,
static devices over or through which water is directed in such a way that under free-flow
conditions at a specified location (point of measurement) a known level to flow
relationship exists. Hydraulic structures of this type can generally be divided into two
categories: flumes and weirs
1.2. Types of Hydraulic Structures

According to the purpose of its function
1- Storage Structures: the function is to store water such as Dams & Tanks.
2- Conveyance Structures: the function is to convey water from place to another
such as pipelines, Siphons, Culverts, Tunnels, aqueducts and open channels.
3- Flow Diversion Structures: the function is to regulate and divert the quantities
of flow to another structures or canals such as barrages and regulators.
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4- Flow measurement structures: the function is to measure the flow passing

through it such as Weirs, Orifices, nozzles, Venturi and Parshall flume.
5- Energy dissipation structures: the function is to protect the floor of hydraulic
structure from erosion and damage due to severe waves which impact with the
body of structure such as Stilling basins, Surge tanks, Check dams and vertical
drop.
6- Power Stations: the function of these structure is to convert energy from a case
to another such as Pumps, Turbines & Rams.
7- Sediment and Chemical Control Structures: the function is to control or
remove sediments and other pollutants such as Sedimentation tanks, Screens,
Traps, Filters & mixing basins.
8- River Training and Waterway Stabilization Structures: the function is to
maintain river channel and water transportation such as Levees, Cutoffs, Locks,
Piers Dikes, Groins, Jetties and Revetments
Remark: For any hydraulic structure to design, we must study the following:
1- Hydrologic studies.
2- Hydraulic studies.
3- Structural studies.
1.3. Steps for Design of Hydraulic Structures

To construct any hydraulic structure, the following steps must be considered:
1. Prepare information for design.

a. The precise function of design.
b. Discharge (Max. & Min.) Use 1.2 Q max. discharge & 0.7 Q for min. discharge.
c. Head loss.
d. U/S & D/s canal.
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2. Determine the best location of the structure.

3. The shape of approach and the other components of the structure.
4. The requirements of water-way.
5. Protection against scouring.
6. The best method of dissipation energy.
7. Forces acting on various parts of the structure, Hydraulic forces (hydrostatic pressure,
dynamic forces) & other forces, live loads, dead loads, earth pressure.
1.4. Site Conditions

In design of any structure, site condition have be taken into accounts:-
1. Soil properties.
2. Ground water.
3. Soil strength parameter.
4. Permissible bearing pressure.
5. Permeability.
6. Mineral content (especially sulphates) to both soil & ground water.
1.5. Structures on Gypsum Soils

Regardless of the mode occurrence, the effect of saturation of the pore space with
relatively fresh water is that gypsum as taken into solution. Permeability is increased
with consequent increase in seepage rate, soil strength is reduced, cavities are formed in
the soil structure and foundation failure by piping or undermining may occur.
Where site investigation shows significant gypsum concentration in the underlying
soil strata, every efforts should be made to relocate structures to more favorable
locations. Channels U/S & D/S of the structure should be lined and particular attention
paid to joints to ensure that water tights is maintained.
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1.6. Percolation beneath Heading up of Hydraulic Structures
The hydraulic Structures such as barrages, regulators, culverts, etc…, may either
founded on an impervious solid rock foundation or a pervious foundation. It is subjected
to seepage of water beneath the structure in addition to all other forces to which will be
subjected. When founded on un impervious rock foundation, the water seeping below
the body of the hydraulic Structure, endangers the stability of the structures may cause
its failure.
1.7. Causes of Failure of Hydraulic Structures Founded on Pervious

Foundations
1.7.1. Failure by Piping or Undermining
Water starts seeping under the base of hyd. Structure. It starts from U/S side and
tries to exit at the D/S end of the impervious floor. At the point of the exit, the exit
gradient may become more than the critical gradient, in which cause, the water starts
dislodging the soil particles & carrying it away with it causing formulation a hole in the
subsoil. So, formed resulting in the failure of the structure.
Piping can have prevented by the following methods:
a. By providing sufficiently long impervious floor
This long length will reduce the exit velocity & exit gradient. As the water has to
travel along distance beneath the floor, its head will sufficiently have lost before it exits
& its velocity will be such that it has cannot wash away any soil or sand particles.
b. By providing piles at both U/S and D/S ends:
This measure also results is increasing the path of the travel of seepage water &
hence it decreases its exit velocity & exit gradient.
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1.7.2. Failure by Direct Uplift
The water seeping below the structure exerts on uplift pressure on the floor of the
structure if this pressure is not counter balance by the weight of concrete or masonry
floor. The structure will fail by a rupture of a part of the floor. The pervious concept of
the hydraulic structure due to subsurface flow where introduce by many engineers on
the bases of experiments & the research work.
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Chapter Two
Theories of Creep
2.1. Bligh’s Creep Theory
It is directly depended on the possibilities of percolation in porous soil on which
the floor (apron) is built. Water from upstream percolates and creeps (or travel) slowly
through weir base and the subsoil below it. The head lost by the creeping water is
proportional to the distance it travels (creep length) along the base of the weir profile.
The creep length must be made as big as possible so as to prevent the piping action. This
can be achieved by providing deep vertical cut-offs or sheet piles.
According to Bligh’s theory, the total creep length, L = b + 2(d1 + d2 + d3), where b
= L1+L2. If H is the total loss of head, then the loss of head per unit length of the creep
shall be:
𝐻𝐿 𝐻𝐿 𝐻𝐿
2𝑑1 2𝑑2 2𝑑3
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝐇 𝐇
𝐂= = ….. (2-1)
𝐋 𝐛 + 𝟐(𝐝𝟏 + 𝐝𝟐 + 𝐝𝟑 )
𝐇 = 𝐖. 𝐋(𝐮/𝐬) – 𝐖. 𝐋(𝐝/𝐬) ….. (2-2)

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Bligh called the loss of head per unit length of creep as Percolation coefficient or
hydraulic gradient (C). The reciprocal, (L/H) of the percolation coefficient is known as
the coefficient of creep(C').
2.1.1. Assumptions
1. Hydraulic slope or gradient is constant throughout the impervious length of the
apron.
2. The percolating water creep along the contact of the base profile of the apron with
the sub soil losing head enroute, proportional to length of its travel. The length is
called creep length. It is the sum of horizontal and vertical creep.
3. Stoppage of percolation by cut off (pile) possible only if it extends up to
impermeable soil strata.
For more explaining:

Total creep length (L) = 2d1 + L1 + 2d2 + L2 + 2d3 = (L1 + L2) + 2 (d 1 + d 2 + d 3)
Head loss per unit length (hydraulic gradient)

H H
C= =
L (L1 + L2 ) + 2 ( d 1 + d 2 + d 3 )
HL
Head loss occurs on upstream cutoff = × 2d1
L
HL
Head loss occurs on intermediate cutoff = × 2d2
L
10
HL
Head loss occurs on downstream cutoff = × 2d3
L
Head at point C (HC)

H 2d1
HC = (L − 2d1 ) = H −
L L
2d1 H
Hydraulic gradient drop at upstream cutoff = H – HC = H − (H − H) = 2d1
L L
Head at point E (HE)

H H H
HE = (L2 + 2d3 ) = (L2 ) + (2d3 )
L L L
H H
Hydraulic gradient drop at intermediate cutoff = H – HE = H − ( (L2 ) + (2d3 ))
L L
2.1.2. Limitations of Bligh's theory
1. This theory made no distinction between horizontal and vertical creep.

2. Did not explain the idea of exit gradient - safety against undermining cannot simply
be obtained by considering a flat average gradient but by keeping this gradient
will be low critical.
3. No distinction between outer and inner faces of sheet piles or the intermediate sheet
piles, whereas from investigation it is clear, that the outer faces of the end sheet
piles are much more effective than inner ones.
4. Losses of head does not take place in the same proportions as the creep length. Also
the uplift pressure distribution is not linear but follow a sine curve.
5. In case of two piles the width between should be greater than twice the head or the
piles are not effective.
2.1.3. Safety against Piping or Undermining

Safety against piping can be ensured by providing sufficient creep length given by:
𝐋=𝐂𝐇 ….. (2-3)

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C: Bligh’s coefficient for the soil.
H 1
=
L C
Table (1): Recommended Safe Hydraulic Gradients
No. Type of soil Value of C Safe exit gradient less than
1 Light sand and mud 18 1
18
2 Fine sand, alluvial soil 15 1
15
3 Coarse grained sand 12 1
12
4 Sand mixed with boulders and gravel 9-5 1 1
to
9 5
2.1.4. Safety against Uplift Pressure

The ordinate of hydraulic grade line above the bottom of the floor represent the
residual uplift water head at each point. Say for example; if at any point the ordinate of
H.G.L above the bottom of the floor is 1m, then 1m head of water will acts as uplift at
this point. If the uplift head at any point is (Hp), then water pressure equal to (Hp) meters
will acts at this point and has to be counter balanced by the weight of the floor of
thickness say (tp).
Uplift pressure w Hp
Where w is the unit weight of water (w g)
Downward pressure  wG) tp wtp
Where G is the specific gravity of the floor material.
G is approximately taken as 2.24 to 2.4
For equilibrium condition:
w Hp wG tp wtp
Hp G tp tp  tpG 1

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𝐇𝐩
𝐭𝐩 = ….. (2-4)
𝐆−𝟏
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example (2.1): Find the hydraulic gradient and uplift pressure and the thickness of floor
at a point 15 m from the upstream end of the floor in the figure below.
Solution
Water percolates at point A and emerges at point B
Total creep length (L) = 2×6+10+ 2×3+ 20+ 2×8 = 64m
Head of water on structure (H) = 6 m
Hydraulic gradient = H/L = 6 /64 = 1/C = 1/10.67
According to Bligh’s theory, the structure would be safe on sand mixed with
boulders & Gravel
Creep length up to point C = L1 = 2×6+ 2×3+15 = 33m
The residual uplift pressure at the point C under consideration
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HC = (64 − 33) = 2.91 m
64
The thickness of floor at C

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HC 2.91
tc = = = 2.08 m of concrete
Gc −1 2.4 −1
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Homework No. 1: For the hydraulic structure shown below:
1- Sketch the H.G.L from U/S to D/S 2. Find the uplift pressure at key points
④&⑦.
2- Find the thickness of floor at key point ⑥.
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2.2. Lane’s Weighted Creep Theory
Bligh, in his theory, had calculated the length of the creep, by simply adding the
horizontal creep length and the vertical creep length, thereby making no distinction
between the two creeps. However, Lane, on the basis of his analysis carried out on about
200 dams all over the world, stipulated that the horizontal creep is less effective in
reducing uplift (or in causing loss of head) than the vertical creep. He, therefore,
suggested a weightage factor of 1/3 for the horizontal creep, as against 1.0 for the
vertical creep.
𝐻𝐿 𝐻𝐿 𝐻𝐿
2𝑑1 2𝑑2 2𝑑3
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
The total Lane’s creep length (Ll) is given by:
L1 = (d1 + d1) + (1/3) L1 + (d2 + d2) + (1/3) L2 + (d3 + d3)

= (1/3) (L1 + L2) + 2(d1 + d2 + d3) = (1/3) b + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
To ensure safety against piping, according to this theory, the creep length Ll must
not be less than C1HL.
Where HL is the head causing flow, and C1 is Lane’s creep coefficient given in
table 2.
To ensure safety against piping
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Lw > C1 H
H 1
Hydraulic gradient should be less than
Lw C1
H 1
<
Lw Cl
Table (2): Values of Lane’s Safe Hydraulic Gradient for different types of Soils
No. Type of soil C1 Safe exit gradient less than
1 1
Very fine sand or silt 8.5 8.5
2 1
Fine sand 7.0 7.0
3 1
Coarse sand 5.0 5.0
4 1 1
Gravel & sand 3.5 to 3.0 to
3.5 3.0
5 1 1
Boulders, gravel and sand 3.0 to 2.5 to
3.0 2.5
6 1 1
Clayey soil 3.0 to 1.6 to
3.0 1.6
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example (2.2): You are working as a consultant for an engineering company, and you
have received a design of a barrage structure on a river shown in figure below. It is
required to check if the thickness at points X, Y and Z is sufficient to counteract the
uplift pressure (G = 2.4), and check safety against piping if the soil type is coarse sand
(C1 =5).
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Solution
1
Lw = H+V
3
N= 1.5+5.9+2+2 + (5.12+12.32)0.5+10+16+1.5 =52.2 m
V=1+2×5.2+0.5 + (0.52+0.52)0.5+2×3.2+1.5++2×4.6+1.5 = 31.2 m
1
∴Lw = × 52.2 + 31.2 = 48.6 m
3
H = 260-252.9 =7.1 m
H / Lw = 7.1/ 48.6 = 1/ 6.84 < 1/5 Ok - The structure is safe against piping.
Lx = 16.4 m, LY = 20.83 m, LZ = 37.4 m
HX = (7.1/48.6) × (48.6 – 16.4) = 4.7 m of water
HY = (7.1/48.6) × (48.6 – 20.83) = 4.05 m of water
HZ = (7.1/48.6) × (48.6 – 37.4) = 1.63 m of water
tX = 4.7 /(2.4-1) = 3.36 m of concrete > 2 not OK
tY = 4.05 /(2.4-1) = 2.89 m of concrete < 3 OK
tZ = 1.63 /(2.4-1) = 1.16 m of concrete < 1.5 OK
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2.3. Khosla's Theory
It is used to find uplift pressure at key points in a barrage or weir. The following
specific causes of general form were considered:
a. A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile at either ends.
b. A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but with no vertical cut off.
c. A straight horizontal floor thickness with a sheet pile at some intermediate position.
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Some conclusions related with Khosla's theory:

1. Outer faces of end sheet piles were much more effective than the inner ones and the
horizontal length of the floor.
2. Intermediated piles of smaller length were ineffective except for local

redistribution of pressure.
3. Undermining of floor started from tail end.
4. It was absolutely essential to have a reasonably deep vertical cut off at the
downstream end to prevent undermining.
5. Khosla and his associates took into account the flow pattern below the impermeable
base of hydraulic structure to calculate uplift pressure and exit gradient.
6. Starting with a simple case of horizontal flow with negligibly small thickness.
(Various cases were analyzed mathematically.)
7. Seeping water below a hydraulic structure does not follow the bottom profile of the
impervious floor as stated by Bligh but each particle traces its path along a series
of streamlines.
The key points are the junctions of the floor and the pile lines on either side, and
bottom point of the pile line, and the bottom corners in the case of a depressed floor.
The percentage pressures at these key points for the simple forms into which the
complex profile has been broken is valid for the complex profile itself, if corrected for:
The following corrections are effected:
1- The correction for the mutual interference of piles.
2- Correction for the thickness of floor.
3- Correction for the slope of the floor.
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2.3.1. The Correction for the Mutual Interference of Piles
For the figure shown below.
D d+D
C = ± 19√ ( )
b′ b
C: correction at the corner (correction in a percentage of head).

b: total floor length.
b': distance between two piles.
d: depth of pile on which the effect of pile is required to be determined.
D: depth of pile whose influence has to be determined on the neighboring pile of depth
(d)
Notes:
1- The correction is positive (+ve) for points in the rear of back water and negative (-
ve) for points forward in the direction of flow. i.e.
Effective of D/S pile on U/S pile (+ve).
Effective of U/S pile on D/S pile (–ve).
2- This equation does not apply to the effect of an outer pile on an intermediate pile if
the latter is equal to or smaller than the former and is at a distance less than twice
the length of the outer line.
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2.3.2. Correction for the Thickness of Floor
For different locations of piles, the corrections to be applied are as follows:
a- Correction for u/s pile
Corrected pressure at point C1
𝚽𝐃−𝚽𝐂
𝚽𝐂𝟏 = 𝚽𝐂 + ( ) 𝐭𝟏
𝐝𝟏
b- Correction for intermediate pile

Corrected pressure at point E1
𝚽𝐄−𝚽𝐃
𝚽𝐄𝟏 = 𝚽𝐄 − ( ) 𝐭𝟐
𝐝𝟐
c- Correction for d/s pile

Corrected pressure at point E1
𝚽𝐄−𝚽𝐃
𝚽𝐄𝟏 = 𝚽𝐄 − ( ) 𝐭𝟑
𝐝𝟑
Where:
ΦC1 , ΦD1 , ΦE1 : uplift pressure at C1 , D1 , E1
d1, d2, d3: depth of piles
t1, t2, t3: floor thickness
We can use the following equations to find the uplift pressure (Φ) at E, C &D:
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a. U/S & D/S piles
1 λ−2 1 λ−1
ΦE = cos−1 ( ) , ΦD = cos−1 ( )
π λ π λ
ΦC1 = 100 − ΦE , ΦD1 = 100 − ΦD

1+ √1+α2 b
λ= ; α=
2 d
b. Intermediate pile
1 𝜆1 −1 1 𝜆1 +1 1 𝜆
𝛷𝐸 = cos −1 ( ) , 𝛷𝐶 = cos −1 ( ) , 𝛷𝐷 = cos −1 ( 1)
𝜋 𝜆 𝜋 𝜆 𝜋 𝜆
√1 + 𝛼12 − √1 + 𝛼22 √1 + 𝛼12 + √1 + 𝛼22

𝜆1 = , 𝜆=
2 2
𝑏1 𝑏2
𝛼1 = ; 𝛼2 =
𝑑 𝑑
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2.3.3. Correction for the Slope of the Floor
Due to sloping floor, a suitable percentage correction is to be applied.
𝐛
𝐂𝐬 = ∓ 𝐂
𝐛𝟏
Cs: slope correction.

C: coefficient due to slope from table (3)
b: horizontal length of slope.
b1: distance between two piles which the sloping floor is located.
Notes:
1- The correction is plus for the down slopes and minus for the up slopes following
the direction of flow.
2- The slope correction is applicable to the key point of pile line fixed at the beginning
or the end of the slope.
Table (3): Khosla’s Theory Slope Corrections

Slope (V:H) 1:1 1:2 1:3 1:4 1:5 1:6 1:7 1:8
% Correction 11.2 6.5 4.5 3.3 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.0
2.3.4. Exit Gradient

Exit gradient at the downstream end of an impervious floor length b and vertical
cutoff d is given by
H 1
GE =
d π√λ
GE: exit gradient

H: maximum static head
d: depth of d/s cutoff .
b: length of floor (horizontal).
1+√1+α2 b
λ= , α=
2 d
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Table (4): Safe Exit Gradient for Different Type of Soils
Type of soil Shingle Course sand Fine sand
1 1 1 1 1 1
Safe exit gradient (GE) to to to
4 5 5 6 6 7
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Example (2.3): A hydraulic structure with length of horizontal floor in alluvial soil
15m and 3m deep vertical sheet pile is attached at its downstream end and the head of
water is 4.0m. Find the thickness of the floor (using Khosla’s theory). Is the structure
safe against the exit gradient? (F = 8, G = 2.45 ).
Solution
HE 1 λ−1
tE = , ΦE = cos −1 ( )
G−1 π λ
1+√1+α2 b 15
λ= , α= = =5
2 d 3
∴ λ = 3.05
1 3.05−1
ΦE = cos−1 ( ) = 0.265
π 3.05
24
∴ HE = 0.265×4= 1.06 m of water
1.06
tE = = 0.73 m of concrete
2.45−1
H 1 4 1
GE = = = 0.243
d π√λ 3 π√3.05
1 1
F= = = 4.11 < 8 the structure is unsafe
GE 0.243
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
H.W. 1: Determine the percentage pressures at various key points in figure below.
Also determine the exit gradient and plot the hydraulic gradient line for pond level on
U/S and no flow on D/S.
25
H.W. 2: Use KhosIa's method to calculate the percentage uplift pressures at the three
cut-offs for a barrage foundation profile as shown in the figure below applying
corrections as applicable. (Given slope correction for 1 in 4 slope is 3.3%)
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Chapter Three
Hydraulic Jump & Energy Dissipation Structures
3.1. Introduction
The most common application of the momentum equation in open-channel flow
deals with the analysis of the hydraulic jump. The rise in water level, which occurs
during the transformation of the unstable "rapid" or supercritical flow to the stable
"tranquil" or subcritical flow, is called hydraulic jump, manifesting itself as a standing
wave. At the place, where the hydraulic jump occurs, a lot of energy of the flowing
liquid is dissipated (mainly into heat energy). This hydraulic jump is said to be a
dissipater of the surplus energy of the water. Beyond the hydraulic jump, the water flows
with a greater depth, and therefore with a less velocity.
The hydraulic jump has many practical and useful applications. Among them are
the following:
Reduction of the energy and velocity downstream of a dam or chute in order to
minimize and control erosion of the channel bed.
 Raising of the downstream water level in irrigation channels.
 Acting as a mixing device for the addition and mixing of chemicals in industrial and
water and wastewater treatment plants. In natural channels the hydraulic jump is also
used to provide aeration of the water for pollution control purposes.
The specific energy head, E, of a flowing liquid is defined as the energy head with
respect to a datum plane, for instance passing through the bottom of the channel as
shown in figure below:
27
Mathematically, the specific energy head reads as:
𝐕𝟐
𝐄=𝐡+ = 𝐄𝐬 + 𝐄𝐤 …. (3-1)
𝟐𝐠
Where
h = depth of liquid flow
V = mean velocity of liquid
Es = h = static energy head (also known as potential energy head)

V2 q2
Ek = = = kinetic energy head (depth averaged) and q is the discharge per unit
2g 2gh2
width.
Plotting the specific energy diagram for a channel (water depth h along the vertical
axis), may conveniently be done by first drawing the two (independent) curves for static
energy and kinetic energy and then adding the respective ordinates. The results is the
required specific energy head curve.
28
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3.2. Critical Depth and Critical Velocity

We can see in the specific-energy diagram (as shown in figure above) that the
specific energy is minimum at point C. The depth of water in a channel, corresponding
to the minimum specific energy (as at C in this case) is known as critical depth. This
depth can be found by differentiating the specific-energy head equation and equating
the result to zero. Or,
dE
=0
dh
V2
Or, substituting E = h + , we have:
2g
d V2
(h + )=0
dh 2g
q
With V = , where q is the constant discharge per unit width
h
d q2 q2
(h + 2
)=0 1- =0
dh 2gh gh3
V2
∴h=
g
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Since the flow is (assumed to be) critical, the subcript c is added; therefore
Vc 2
∴ hc =
g
Where
hc = critical depth and Vc = critical velocity
Replacing h by of hc and V by Vc in the specific-energy head equation, the

minimum specific-energy head can be written as:
Vc 2 hc ∗g hc 3
Emin = hc + = hc + = hc + = hc
2g 2g 2 2
Or the static energy head becomes:

2
hc = Emin
3
And the kinetic energy head:

Vc 2 2 1
Ekc = = Emin− Emin = Emin
2g 3 3
q 2
Vc 2 ( )
hc
hc = =
2g g
Or
q2
hc 3 =
g
q2 1
hc = ( )3
g
This is the equation for the critical depth, when the discharge per unit width through
the channel is given. Thus, the critical velocity corresponding to the depth of the channel
is:
q
Vc =
hc
30
Example 3.1: A channel, 6 m wide, is discharging 20 m3/s of water. Determine the
critical depth and critical velocity, i.e. when the specific energy of the flowing water
is minimum.
Solution:
Given: Q = 20 m3/s , b=6m , q = Q/b = 3.33 m2/s

Q = 3.33 m2/s
Depth of water at minimum specific energy or critical depth:
1
q2
hc = ( )3 = 1.04 m
g
q
Vc = = 3.2 m/s
hc
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.3. Types of Flows

Depending on the critical depth as well as the real, occurring depth of water in a
channel, three types of flow can be distinguished:
Tranquil flow: If the depth of water, in the channel is greater than the critical depth,
the flow is called tranquil or subcritical.
Critical flow: If the depth of water in the channel is critical, the flow is called critical.
Rapid flow: If the depth of water in the channel is smaller than the critical depth, the
flow is called supercritical.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 3.2: A channel of rectangular section, 7.5 m wide, is discharging water at

a rate of 12 m3/s with an average velocity of 1.5 m/s. Find:
(a) Specific-energy head of the flowing water,
(b) Depth of water, when specific energy is minimum,
(c) Velocity of water, when specific energy is minimum,
(d) Minimum specific-energy head of the flowing water,
(e) Type of flow.
31
Solution:
Given: b = 7.5 m , Q = 12 m3/s , q = 1.6 m2/s , V = 1.5 m/s , h = q/V =

1.067 m
V2
E=h+ = 1.182 m
2g
1
q2
hc = ( )3 = 0.639 m
g
q
Vc = = 2.5 m/s
hc
Vc 2
Emin = hc + = 0.958 m
2g
Since the depth of water (1.067 m) is larger than the critical depth (0.639 m), the
flow is tranquil or subcritical.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.4. Water Rise in Hydraulic Jump
We can see in the specific-energy diagram (Fig. 3.2) that for a given specific energy
E, there are two possible depths h1 and h2. The depth h1 is smaller than the critical
32
depth, and h2 is greater than the critical depth. To calculate these depths, consider two
sections, on the upstream and downstream side of a jump, as shown in figure below:
Let 1 - 1 = section on the upstream side of the hydraulic jump,
2 - 2 = section on the downstream side of the hydraulic jump,
h1 = depth of flow at section 1 - 1,
V1 = flow velocity at section 1 - 1,
h2, V2 = corresponding values at section 2 - 2, and
q = discharge per unit width = Q/b,
Where Q = total discharge and b = width of channel and hydraulic jump
q = h1V1 = h2V2
Now consider the control volume of water between the sections 1-1 and 2-2, and apply
the law of conservation of momentum. Force F1 on section 1-1:
ℎ1 𝛾ℎ12
F1 = 𝛾(ℎ1 ∗ 1) =
2 2
Where γ = ρ g is the specific weight of the water. Similarly:

γh22
F1 =
2
The net force

γh21 γh22 γ
F = F1 – F 2 = − = (h12 − h22 )
2 2 2
This force is responsible for change of velocity from V1 to V2

We know that this force is also equal to the change of momentum of the control
volume:
Force = mass of water flowing per second change of velocity
γq
F= ( V2 – V1)
g
γq γ
( V2 – V1) = (h12 − h22 )
g 2
2q 2q q q 2q2 h1 − h2
(h12 − h22 ) = ( V2 – V1) ( − )= ( )
g g h2 h1 g h1 h2
2q2 h1 − h2
Or (h1 + h2) (h1 – h2) = ( )
g h1 h2
33
2q2
h1 + h 2 =
g h1 h2
2q2
h22 + h1 h2 =
g h1
2q2
Or h22 + h1 h2 - =0
g h1
Solving the above quadratic equation for h2, we get:

h1 h21 2q2
h2 = − ± √ +
2 4 gh1
Taking only + sign and substituting q = h1V1:

h1 h21 2h1 𝑉12
h2 = − + √ +
2 4 g
The depth of the hydraulic jump or the height of the standing wave is (h2-h1).
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 3.3: A discharge of 1000 l/s flows along a rectangular channel, 1.5 m wide.
What would be the critical depth in the channel? If a standing wave is to be formed
at a point, where the upstream depth is 180 mm, what would be the rise in the
water level?
Solution:
1
q2
Q = 1000 l/s = 1 m3/s, b = 1.5 m, h1= 180 mm, q = 0.67 m2/s, hc = ( )3 = 0.358 m
g
Let h2 be the depth of the flow on the downstream side of the standing wave or hydraulic
jump.
h1 h21 2h1 𝑉12
h2 = − + √ + = 0.63 m = 630 m
2 4 g
Rise in water level h = h2 - h1 = 450 mm

34
3.5. Energy Loss due to Hydraulic Jump
The loss of energy head due to the occurrence of the hydraulic jump is the
difference between the specific-energy heads at sections 1-2 and 2-2. Mathematically,
𝐕𝟏 𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝟐
E = (𝐡𝟏 + ) − (𝐡𝟐 + )
𝟐𝐠 𝟐𝐠
The energy-head loss in the jump is then equal to E1 - E2, represented by E. After
some elaboration it can be derived:
( 𝐡𝟐 − 𝐡𝟏 )𝟑
E = 𝐄𝟏 − 𝐄𝟐 =
𝟒 𝐡𝟏 𝐡𝟐
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 3.4: A rectangular channel, 6 m wide, discharges 1200 l/s of water into a
6 m wide apron, with zero slope, with a mean velocity of 6 m/s. What is the height
of the jump? How much power is absorbed in the jump?
Solution:
b=6m , Q = 1200 l/s = 1.2 m3/s , V = 6 m/s , q = 1.2/6 = 0.2 m2/s

1
q2
hc = ( )3 = 0.16 m
g
q
V1c = = 1.25 m/s < V1 ∴ 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑂𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝)
hc
Height of hydraulic jump

h1 = Q / (V1*b) = 0.033 m
h1 h21 2h1 𝑉12
h2 = − + √ + = 0.476 m
2 4 g
h = h2 - h1 = 0.443 m
Energy observed in the jump
Drop of specific energy head:
E = E1 – E2
We know that due to the continuity of the discharge:
V1 h1 = V2 h2 ∴ V2 = (v1 h1 / h2) = 0.42 m/s
35
V1 2 V2 2
E1 – E2 = (h1 + ) − (h2 + ) = 1.384 m
2g 2g
Dissipation of power in hydraulic jump

P = ρgQ (E1 – E2) = 16.3 kW
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.6. Hydraulic Jump Features
The following features are associated with the transition from supercritical to
subcritical flow.
Highly turbulent flow with significantly dynamic velocity and pressure components.
Pulsations of both pressure and velocity, and wave development downstream of the
jump.
Two-phase flow due to air entrainment.
Erosive pattern due to increased macro-scale vortex development.
Sound generation and energy dissipation as a result of turbulence production.
3.7. Classification of Hydraulic Jump

Hydraulic jumps on a horizontal bottom can occur in several distinct forms. Based
on the Froude number of the supercritical flow directly upstream of the hydraulic jump,
several types can be distinguished (see Table 3.1).
It should be noted that the ranges of the Froude number given in Table 3.1 for the
various types of jump are not clear-cut but overlap to a certain extent depending on
local conditions.
36
Type of Jump Froude Number Illustration Description
Critical Flow Fr = 1 No Jump No Jump
Undular Jump 1 < Fr < 1.7 The water surface shows undulations
A series of small rollers develop on the

surface of the jump, but the downstream
1.7 < Fr < 2.5 water surface remains smooth. The
Weak Jump
velocity throughout is fairly uniform,
and the energy loss is low
There is an oscillating jet entering the
jump from bottom to surface and back
again with no periodicity. Each
Oscillating 2.5 < Fr < 4.5 oscillation produces a large wave of
Jump irregular period which, very commonly
in canals, can travel for meters doing
unlimited damage to earthen banks and
rip-raps
The downstream extremity of the
surface roller and the point at which the
high velocity jet tends to leave the flow
occur at practically the same vertical
section.
4.5 < Fr < 9 The action and position of this jump are
Steady Jump
least sensitive to variation in tailwater
depth. The jump is well-balanced and
the performance is at its best. The
energy dissipation ranges from 45 to
70%
The high-velocity jet grabs intermittent
slugs of water rolling down the front
face of the jump, generating waves
Strong Jump Fr > 9 downstream, and a rough surface can
prevail. The jump action is rough but
effective since the energy dissipation
may reach 85%
37
3.8. The Initial Depth and the Sequent Depth
It may be noted that the depth before the jump is always less than the depth after
the jump. The depth before the jump is called the initial depth h1 and that after the jump
is called the sequent depth h2. The initial and sequent depths h1 and h2 are shown on the
specific-energy head curve (Fig. 3.7). They should be distinguished from the alternative
depths h1 and h2, which are the two possible depths for the same specific energy. The
initial and sequent depths are the actual depths before and after a jump. The specific
energy head E1 at the initial depth h1 is greater than the specific-energy head E2 at the
sequent depth h2 by an amount equal to the energy loss E. If there were no energy
losses, the initial and sequent depths would become identical with the alternative depths
(in a prismatic channel).
We can determine a relationship between the initial depth and the sequent depth of
a hydraulic jump on a horizontal floor in a rectangular channel as shown in the following
formula:
h1 1 V2
= (√1 + 8 Fr 2 − 1) With Fr2 =
h2 2 √g h2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 3.5: A vertical sluice gate with an opening of 0.67 m produces a
downstream jet with a depth of 0.40 m when installed in a long rectangular
channel, 5.0 m wide, conveying a steady discharge of 20 m3/s. It is assumed that
the flow downstream of the gate eventually returns to a uniform flow depth of 2.5
m.
(a) Verify that a hydraulic jump occurs.
(b) Calculate the energy-head loss in the jump.
𝐕𝐈𝐈 𝟐
(c) If the energy-head loss through the gate is (0.05 ), calculate the depth
𝟐𝐠
upstream of the gate and the force on the gate.

38
Solution:
Given: gate opening: ho = 0.67 m downstream jet depth: hII = 0.40 m

Channel wide: W = 5.0 m discharge: Q = 20 m3/s
Sequent depth: h2 = 2.5 m
Jump occurs? Energy head loss E? Upstream depth hI? Force on the gate?
(a) If a hydraulic jump is to form, the required initial depth, h1, must be greater than the
jet depth, hII. Velocity of flow in the downstream section:
V2 = Q/Wh2 = 1.6 m/s
V2
Fr2 = = 0.323
√g h2
h2
Initial depth: h1 = (√1 + 8 Fr 2 − 1) = 0.443 m
2
Because h1 > hII, therefore a jump will form

b) Apply the energy equation from section I to II:
V1 2 VII 2 VII 2
(h1 + ) = (hII + ) + 0.05
2g 2g 2g
VII 2
V1 = Q/Wh1 = 4/h1 and VII = Q/WhII = 10 m/s, so = 5.097 m
2g
39
Whence hI = 5.73 m
Let Fx the gate reaction per unit width.
Apply the momentum equation to the control volume between section I and section II:
𝛒𝐠 𝐡𝟐𝐈 𝛒𝐠 𝐡𝟐𝐈𝐈
Fx = − + 𝛒(𝐕𝐈𝟐 𝐡𝐈 − 𝐕𝐈𝐈𝟐 𝐡𝐈𝐈 )
𝟐 𝟐
(Note that the force due to the friction head loss through the gate is implicitly included
in the above equation since this effects the value of hI)
Whence Fx = 123 kN/m
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.9. Stilling Basins
When water is released over the spillway, the potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy at the base of spillway. This energy must be dissipated in order to prevent
the possibility of sever scouring of downstream riverbed and the undermining of
foundation which may cause failure of spillway and dam. For this purpose energy
dissipaters must be used which perform the energy reduction by converting the kinetic
energy into turbulence and finally into heat. The dissipation of energy can be achieved
by means of several methods such as stilling basins. The formation of hydraulic jump
in the stilling basin will lead to dissipation of excess energy. In the stilling basin, the
exiting supercritical flow from the spillway is reduced to subcritical flow by a hydraulic
jump.
Optimum energy dissipation will occur when the flow enters the dissipater
uniformly. To ensure that a stilling basin performs its function efficiently (i.e.
dissipation of energy is occurred properly), basin should be designed in such a way that
the elevation of tail water depth in the downstream channel not be much less than the
elevation of conjugate depth of jump.
40
Design of stilling basin is governed by several parameters such as:
1) Nature of foundation,
2) Approach Froude number,
3) Impact angle of flow with respect to stilling basin floor,
4) Tail water level and
5) Economical considerations.
In order to reduce the cost of project, certain components, such as baffle blocks,
end sills and chute blocks are installed along the basin floor to control and stabilize the
jump which helps to the dissipation of excess energy (Fig. 1). The use of these devices
permits the shortening of the basin and acts as a safety factor against sweep out of the
jump.
3.10. Basic Elements of Stilling Basin

The basins are usually provided with the following special appurtenances:
Chute blocks: Are used to form a serrated device at the entrance to the stilling basin.
Their function is to furrow the incoming jet and lift a portion of it from
the floor producing a shorter length of jump than would be possible
without them.
Baffles: Are blocks placed in the intermediate position across the basin floor. Their
function is to dissipate energy mostly by impact action. They are useful in small
structures with low incoming velocities. They are unsuitable where high
velocities make cavitation possible.
The sill: Is usually provided at the end of stilling basin. Its function is to reduce further
the length of the jump and to control scour. The sill has additional function of
diffusing the residual portion of high velocity jet that may reach the end of the
basin.
41
3.11. Classification of Stilling Basins

Stilling basins can be classified into:
1. Stilling basins in which Fr < 4.5. This is generally encountered on weirs and
barrages.
2. Stilling basins in which Fr > 4.5. This is a general feature for medium and high
dams.
a. Stilling Basin Design for Low Froude Numbers Fr < 4.5

b. R.S. Varshney Stilling Basin
On the basis of extensive model test, R. S. Varshney has evolved a stilling basin
design, which is exhibited in Figure 3.14 and 3.15.
c. S.A.F. (Saint Anthony Falls) Stilling Basin

42
This stilling basin was developed at the St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory,
University of Minnesota. The design rules are:
1- The stilling basin can be designed for Froude numbers F1=1.7 and 17, Length of
basin(LB):
4.5D2
LB =
F0.76
r
2- The height of chute blocks and floor blocks= D1 and the width and spacing = 0.75 D1.
3- The distance from chute blocks to floor blocks= L B/3
4- No floor blocks should be placed closer to side wall than 3D1/ 8
5- The floor blocks should be placed downstream from the openings between chute
blocks.
6- The floor blocks should occupy between 40-55% of basin width.
7- The height of end sill C = 0.07 D2
8- Tailwater depth above stilling basin floor is given by
A. For Fr = 1.7 to 5.5
F21
Tw = (1.1 − ) D2
120
B. For Fr = 5.5 to 11
Tw = 0.85 D2
C. For Fr = 11 to 17
F21
Tw = (1.1 − ) D2
800
9- Height of side wall above tailwater Z = D2/3.

10- Wing walls should be equal in height to stilling basin side walls. The top of the
wing wall should have a slope of 1:1.
11- The wing wall should be placed at an angle 45º to the outlet centerline.
12- Cutoff wall of normal depth should be used at the end of stilling basin.
13- The effect of entrained air should be neglected in the design of stilling basin.
d. U/SB.R. Stilling Basin IV
43
This stilling basin is recommended for Fr = 2.5-4.5 which usually occur on canal
structures and diversion dams. For this range of Froude number an oscillating jump will
be produced in the stilling basin generating a wave that is difficult to dampen. U/SB.R.
Stilling Basin IV is designed to solve this problem. See Figure 22. For better
performance, it is desirable to make the blocks narrower than D1 preferable 0.75 D1 and
to set the tail water (Tw) = (1.05-1.1) D2. The length of basin equals the length of the
jump. Basin IV is applicable to rectangular cross-sections only.
44
e. Indian Standard Stilling Basin
Definition sketches are given in Figs 3.16 and 3.17, Varshney.
45
46
47
b. Stilling Basin Design for Froude Numbers Fr > 4.5

1. S.A.F. Stilling Basin.
2. Indian Standard Stilling Basin II: The dimension sketches are given in Fig. 3.21,
Varshney.
3. U/SB.R Stilling Basin II: This design is recommended for large and medium
spillways and large canal structures. The length of basin is 33% reduced with the use
of appurtenances. The basin contains chute blocks, dentated sill. No baffle piers are
used because high velocities might cause cavitation on piers (i.e velocity > 15 m/sec).
See fig 15-16 (Chow) or Fig. 3.22, Varshney.
4. U/SB.R Stilling Basin III: It is used when the incoming velocities not exceed 15,
atypical design of U/SB.R stilling basin II is shown in the figure below.
48
3.12. Design Steps
1- Set apron elevation to use tailwater depth (Tw) plus an added factor of safety (use
Fig. 15-16b, Chow) on the figure there is a minimum Tw depth line which indicates
the point at which the front of the jump moves away from the chute blocks. Any
lowering would cause the jump to leave the basin. Bureau recommends a minimum
safety margin of 5% of D2 be added to sequent depth.
2- Basin II maybe effective down to Froude No. 4.
3- Length of the basin can be obtained from Fig. 15-16c, Chow.
4- Height of chute blocks= D1, width and spacing= D1. Space of 0.5D1 is preferable
long each wall to reduce spray and maintain desirable pressure.
49
5- Height of the dentated sill= 0.2D2. Maximum width and spacing= 0.15 D2. The block
is placed adjacent to each side wall. The slope of the continuous portion of the end
sill is 2H: 1V.
6- The slope of the chute varies from 0.6 H: 1V to 2H: 1V.
7- This type of basin is suitable for spillways with fall up to 200 ft and flows 500 cfs/ft
of basin width.
8- Water surface and pressure profiles of a jump in the basin are shown in Fig. 15-6d,
Chow.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 3.6: R.S. Varshney Stilling Basin
Water flows under a sluice gate discharges into a rectangular plain stilling basin.
Determine the stilling basin parameters for the following data.
q 34 m3 / s/ m, HL1 m, tail water depth 8.3 m, width of basin   20 m 
Solution:
Design
From blench curves, Ef 2 = 8.5 m
Ef 1 = Ef 2 + HL = 8.5+1 = 9.5 m
From energy of flow curves
D1 = 2.9 m , D2 = 7.3 m , D3 = Tw = 8.3 m
V1 = q /D1 = 34/2.9 = 11.72 m/s
𝑉1 34
Fr1 = = = 2.2 < 4.5 O.K
√𝑔𝐷1 √9.81∗2.9
3 𝑞2 3 34 2
Dc = √ = √ = 4.9 m
𝑔 9.81
Length of Cistern
L = 6 (D2 – D1) = 6 (7.3 – 2.9) = 26.4 m
From Fr and L/D1 relation
L/D1 = 12 , L = 12*2.9 = 34.8 m
50
L = (26.4+34.8)/2 = 30.6 ≈ 31 m
Blocks
a. Chute blocks
1. Height hc and Fr relation
hc = 0.9 m
2. Width and spacing = 0.75 hc = 0.75 * 0.9 = 0.675 ≈ 0.7 m
b. Floor blocks
1. Position
𝐿 𝐿𝐵
From 𝑎𝑛𝑑 relation
𝐷3 𝐷3
LB = 0.9 * 8.3 = 7.5 m

From L and LB relation, LB = 6.7 m
6.7+7.5
Average LB = = 7.1 𝑚
2
2. Height, hB
𝐷2 ℎ𝐵
𝐷3 𝐷3
𝐷2 7.3 ℎ𝐵
= = 1.49 , = 0.22 , hB = 0.22 * 8.3 = 1.83 m
𝐷3 4.9 𝐷3
𝐷2 ℎ𝐵
𝐷𝑐 𝐷𝑐
𝐷2 7.3 ℎ𝐵
= = 1.49 , = 0.31 , hB = 0.31 * 4.9 = 1.52 m
𝐷𝑐 4.9 𝐷𝑐
1.83+1.52
Adopt mean value = = 1.67 𝑠𝑎𝑦 1.7 𝑚
2
3. Width and spacing WB
𝑊𝐵
= 0.8 , WB = 0.8 * 1.7 = 1.36 say 1.4 m
ℎ𝐵
Top width = 0.2 hB = 0.2 * 1.7 = 0.34 say 0.4 m
c. End sill
𝐻
1. Height, He (relation between Fr and 𝑒 )
𝐷3
𝐻𝑒
= 0.18 , He = 0.18 * 8.3 = 1.5 m
𝐷3
51
𝐻𝑒 𝐷3
𝐷𝑐 𝐷𝑐
𝐷3 8.3 𝐻𝑒
= = 1.7 , = 0.3 , He = 1.47
𝐷𝑐 4.9 𝐷𝑐
1.5+1.47
Average He = = 1.485 say 1.5 m
2
2. Top width = 0.02 D2 = 0.02 * 7.3 = 0.146 say 0.15 m

3. Width and spacing of dents = 0.15 D2 = 1.1 m
4. Width of basin = 20 m
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
H.W. 1: Find out stilling basin parameters (R. S. Varshney) for the following flow
data for under sluice bays of a barrage across an alluvial.
Discharge intensity 28 m3/sec/m
Head loss HL 0.8 m
Prejump depth D1 2.68 m
Conjugate depth D2 6.1 m
Tailwater depth Tw 7.32 m
52
3.13. Hydraulic Design of Canal falls
3.13.1. Vertical Drop Fall
The energy is dissipated by means of impact and deflection of velocity suddenly

from the vertical to the horizontal direction.
Cistern length (LC) = 5 √HL ∗ D

1 3 dc
Cistern depth (X) =
4
√(HL ∗ D)2 = 3
q2 1⁄
dc = ( ) 3
g
Lc = the length of cistern

X = the depression below downstream bed
HL = drop in meter
D = depth of crest below u/s T.E.L in meter
53
3.13.2. Design of Sarda Type Fall
1. Crest
a. Length of Crest (Lcr) = Bed width (BW)
Or : Lcr = BW + depth
b. Shape of Crest :
b.1. If Q < 15 m3/s :
- the section is rectangular and D/S face is vertical
- Top width (TW) = 0.55 √D1
- Min. base width (BW min.) = D1/2
Where D1 is the height of crest above downstream bed level. It may be capped
with 25 cm – 1:2:4 cement concrete with its both edges rounded.
b.2. If Q > 15 m3/s :

- the section is trapezoidal
- Top width (TW) = 0.55 √D + D1
- U/S side slopes of 1:3
- Segment top conforming as a quadrant of a circle of 0.3 m in radius at D/S side
- D/S side slope = 1:8
54
c. Level of Crest :
D
Q = C Lt D1.5 ( )1/6
Bt
Where:
Lt = length of crest
Bt = width of crest
The value of C for rectangular crest 1.835 and for trapezoidal crest 2.26
Crest level = U/S F.S.L. + ha – D
2. U/S Approaches
The wing wall are kept segmental with radius equal to 5 – 6 times D making an
angle of 60o at center, and carried tangentially into the beam. The foundations of the
wing walls are laid on impervious concrete floor itself.
For fall less than 15 m3/s, the approach wings may be splayed straight at an angle
of 45o.
55
a. U/S Protection
Brick pitching in a length equal to U/S water depth should be laid on the U/S bed
towards the crest at 1:10 slope.
b. U/S Curtain Wall
Curtain wall thickness = 1.5 * brick thickness

1
Depth of curtain wall = * water depth + 0.6 ≥ 0.8 m
3
3. Impervious Concrete Floor

a. Total length and its disposition
The minimum length of the floor on the D/S side is given as
Lb = 10.53 dc + 4.877 – 1.5 HL
Where:
Lb = downstream floor length.
This equation is used for clear falls and submergence less than 33%.
The balance of the total length may be provided under and U/S of crest.
b. Floor Thickness
The minimum U/S floor thickness is 0.3 m. The D/S thickness should be
determined by uplift pressure with minimum of 0.6 m for large works (Khosla theory)
and 0.3 m for minor works (Bligh theory).
4. Cistern
a. Length of cistern = 3.8dc + 0.415 + HL
dc
b. depth of cistern (X) = in all cases
3
1 3
X=
4
√(HL ∗ D)2
56
5. Down Stream Protection
a. Bed Protection
Brick pitching about 20 cm thick resting on 10 cm ballast in a length three times
the D/S depth of water. Toe wall 1.5 brick thick and of depth equal to half the D/S depth
of water with minimum 0.6 m provided at the end of pitching.
b. Side Protection
After the wing walls, the side slopes of the channel are pitching with one brick on
edge in a length equal to three times the D/S depth. The pitching should rest on toe wall
1.5 brick thick and of depth equal to half D/S water depth.
c. Curtain Walls
The thickness of curtain wall may be 1.5 brick and of depth equal to half the D/S
water level + 0.6 m with minimum of 1 m.
d. D/S Wings
D/S wings are kept vertical for a length of 5 to 8 times DH L and many then be
gradually warped. They should be taken up to the end of the pucca floor.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 3.7: Design a Sharda type fall with the data given below:
Full supply flow rate U/S / D/S = 10 cumecs
Drop = 1m
Full supply level U/S / D/S =101.5/100.5 m
Full supply depth U/S / D/S = 1.5/1.5 m
Bed level U/S / D/S = 100/99 m
Bed width U/S / D/S = 8m/8 m
Side slope = 1H: 1V
Soil is good loam
Assume Bligh's coefficient = 7
Solution
1. Length of crest
Take crest length = Lt = 8m
57
2. Crest level
Since discharge less than 15 cumecs, rectangular crest with both sides vertical.
1/ 6
D
Q  CLt D 3/ 2
 
 Bt 
Assume Bt = 0.8 m. assumed value range (0.75-1.0) m
 D1 / 6 
10  1.835 * 8 * D 3 / 2  1/ 6 
 0.8 
0.6545 = D1.67
D = 0.776 m say 0.78 m.
10
Velocity approach with 1:1 sides Va=Q/A = = 0.702 m/sec
(8  1.5 *1) *1.5
va2 0.7022
Velocity head=ha=   0.025 m
2 g 2 * 9.81
U/S T.E.L = U/S F.S.L + ha = 101.5 + 0.025 = 101.525 m
R.L. of crest (U/S T.E.L – D) = 101.525 – 0.78 = 100.745 m Say 100.75m
Adopt crest level = 100.75 m
3. Shape of crest
i. Top width:
Bt = 0.55 D1 ,
D1 = 100.75 – 99 = 1.75 m
∴ Bt = 0.55 1.75  0.73m
Adopt Bt = 0.75 m
Check for D
 D1 / 6 
10  1.835 * 8 * D 3 / 2  
1/ 6 
 0.75 
D = 0.771 m
ii. width and base = 0.5*D1

= 0.5*1.75 = 0.875 m say 1 m
Its top shall be capped with 25 cm thick cement concrete.
58
4. The side walls: may be splayed straight at an angle of 45o from the U/S edge of the
crest and extending by 1m in the earthen bank from the line of F.S.L.
5. D/S expansion
Side walls should be straight and parallel up to the end of floor and shall be kept
vertical.
6. U/S protection
Brick pitching in a length equal to U/S water depth = 1.5 m should be laid on the
U/S with a slope of 1:10 downstream and 3 pipes of 15 cm diameter at the bed should
be provided for drainage during maintenance (cleaning).
7. Cistern Element
dc
Depth of cistern =
3
1/ 3 1/ 3
 q2   (10 / 8) 2 
d c    =    0.542 m
 g   9.81 
0.542
Depth of cistern =  0.181m
3
Cistern depth (X) = H L * D 2 / 3
1
4
1
1 * 0.752 / 3  0.21 m
4
Length of cistern (Lc) = 3.8dc + 0.415 + HL
= 3.8*0.542 + 0.415 + 1
= 3.47 m
Lc = 5(HL*D)1/2 = 5*(1*0.75)1/2 = 4.3 m
Provide 4.5 m long cistern at R.L. 98.75 m
8. Length of impervious floor

Bligh's coefficient =C= 7
Maximum static head =H=(crest level – d/s bed level)= 100.75 – 99 = 1.75 m
59
Total floor length required =C*H= 7*1.75 = 12.25 m
Minimum D/S floor length (Lp) required
Lb  10.53dc  4.877  1.5H L  10.53 * 0.542  4.877  1.5 *1 = 9.08 m say 9 m
9. Floor thickness
Minimum floor thickness of 0.3 m should be provided at the U/S region.
1.75
Max Up left head at the toe of crest = * (12.25  3.25)  1.29 m
12.25
1.29
Floor thickness required =  1.03 m
1.25
Provide 1.05 m thick concrete over laid with 0.2 m thick brick pitching.
1.75
Max up left head at 2.25 m D/S from the toe of crest  * (12.25  5.5)  0.96 m
12.25
0.96
Floor thickness required =  0.77 m
1.25
1.75  12.25  7.75 
Floor thickness required at 4.5 m D/S from the toe of crest  *   0.51 m
12.25  1.25 
1.75  12.25  10 
Floor thickness required at 6.75 m D/S from the toe of crest  *   0.26 m
12.25  1.25 
10. Curtain Walls

a. D/S Curtain Wall
The curtain walls at D/S end of floor should be 1.5 brick thick and of depth
d 
  0.6m  to a minimum of 1 m.
2 
1.5
Depth of curtain wall at D/S end floor =  0.6 = 1.35 m
2
Provide 0.4 m*1.4 m deep curtain wall.
b. U/S Curtain Wall

u.s water depth
Depth =  0.6 = 0.5 + 0.6 = 1.1 m
3
60
Provide 0.4 m*1.1 m deep curtain wall.
11. D/S Protection

a. bed protection
Length of bed protection = 3D3 = 3*1.5 = 4.5 m
Provide 4.5 m long dry brick pitching resting on 10 cm ballast which should be
protected by a toe wall 0.4 m wide and 0.8 m deep. (Half D/S w. depth)
b. Side protection
For length similar to that of bed, provide dry brick pitching 0.2 m thick on sides
resting 0.4 m and 0.8 m deep. (Half U/S w. depth)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example: Design a Sarda type fall for data given below:

Full supply flow rate U/S / D/S = 50 cumecs
Drop = 1.5 m
Full supply level U/S / D/S = 101.5/100 m
Full supply depth U/S / D/S = 2 m /2 m
Bed level U/S / D/S = 99.5 m/98 m
Bed width U/S / D/S = 30 m/30 m
Side slope = 1H: 1V
Safe exit gradient = 1/4.5
Design the floor using Khosla's theory.
Solution
1. Length of crest
Take crest length (Lt) = 30 m
2. Crest level
Since discharge greater than 15 cumecs, use trapezoidal crest with C = 2.26
61
1/ 6
D
Q  CLt D 3/ 2
 
 Bt 
Assume Bt = 1 m.
 D1 / 6 
50  2.26 * 30 * D 3 / 2  1/ 6 
1 
D1.67 = 0.7375, D = 0.833 m.
50
Velocity approach with 1:1 sides Va = = 0.781 m/sec
30 * 2  2 * 2
va2 0.7812
Velocity head=ha=   0.031m
2 g 2 * 9.81
U/S T.E.L = U/S F.S.L + ha
= 101.5 + 0.031 = 101.531 m
R.L. of crest = U/S T.E.L – D
= 101.531 – 0.833 = 100.698 m
Adopt crest level = 100.698 m
3. Shape of crest
i. Top width:
Bt = 0.55 D  D1 ,
D1 = crest level - D/S bed level
D1= 100.698 – 98 = 2.698 m
= 0.55 0.833  2.698  1.034 m
Adopt Bt = 1.0 m, U/S face slope 1H: 3V and D/S face slope 1H: 8V.
4. Approaches
Radius of U/S wing wall = 6*D= 6*0.833 = 4.998 m
Adopt U/S wing wall radius of 5.0 m making an angle of 60o at center and carried
tangentially into the berm for a distance 1m from the line of full supply level.
62
5. D/S Wing Wall
D/S wing are kept vertical for a length of 5 DH L = 5 0.833*1.5  5.589 and then
be gradually warped. They should be taken up to end of pucca floor.
6. U/S protection
Brick pitching in a length equal to U/S water depth to ward the crest with a slope
of 1:10. Provide drainage pipes of diameter 20 cm at 3m center to center drain the U/S
water during maintenance (cleaning).
7. Curtain Walls
a. D/S Curtain Wall
 d  2
Depth of curtain wall =   0.6m  =  0.6 = 1.6 m
2  2
Adopt D/S curtain wall of 0.4m*1.6 m deep.
b. U/S Curtain Wall
u.s water depth 2
Depth of curtain wall =  0.6 =  0.6  1.27 m
3 3
Adopt U/S curtain wall of 0.4 m*1.3 m deep including 0.3 m foundation concrete.
8. Cistern Element
dc
X=
3
1/ 3 1/ 3
 q2   (50 / 30) 2 
d c    = 
    0.65 m
 
g  9 .81 
0.65
X=  0.22 m
3
X = H L * D 2 / 3 = 1.5 * 0.8332 / 3  0.29 m
1 1
4 4
Adopt x = 0.3 m
Cistern level 98 – 0.3 = 97.7 m
Length of cistern (Lc) = 3.8dc + 0.415 + HL = 3.8*0.66 + 0.415 + 1.5 = 4.423 m
Lc = 5(HL*D)1/2 = 5*(1.5*0.833)1/2 = 5.589 m
Adopt cistern length = 5.6 m
63
9. Floor thickness and exit gradient

H 1
GE 
d  
Max static head (H) =crest level – D/S bed level
H=100.698 – 98 = 2.698 m
GE = 1/4.5
1 2.698 1
 *
4.5 1.7 3.14 
λ = 5.167
α = [(2 λ – 1)2 – 1]1/2 = 9.282
Total floor length required (b) = α*d = 9.282*1.7 = 15.77 m
Adopt floor length = 16 m
Lb  10.53dc  4.877  1.5H L
Lb  10.53 * 0.66  4.877  1.5 *1.5
Lb  6.95  4.877  2.25  9.577 m
Adopt D/S floor length of 10 m and the rest under and U/S of crest.
10. Pressure Calculation

Assume minimum U/S and D/S floor thickness near cut off = 0.6 m
a. U/S Curtain wall
b = 16 m, d = 1.3 m, α=b/d = 12.308, λ=6.674
1 d 1.3
   0.0815
 b 16
 D1 = 100 –  D = 100 – 18 = 82%
 C1 = 100 –  E = 100 – 26 = 74%
 C correction due to floor thickness =
0.6
82  74  3.7 %
1.3
 C corrected = 74 + 3.7 = 77.7%
b. D/S Curtain wall

d = 1.7 m, b = 16 m, α=b/d = 9.412, λ= 5.232
1 d 1.7
   0.10625
 b 16
64
 E = 28%
 D = 20%
 E correction for thickness =
0.6
28  20  2.82 %
1.7
 E corrected = 28 – 2.82 = 25.18%
11. Floor thickness

i. U/S Floor
The up lift pressure in the U/S is counter balanced by weight of water itself and
therefore no thickness is required. However, provide 0.6 m thick concrete.
ii. D/S Floor
a. At toe of crest
i.e at distance 6m from U/S end.
H = crest level – D/S bed level = 100.698 – 98 = 2.7 m
52.52
% pressure = 25.18  * 9.6  58.35%
15.2
Up lift head due to static head = 0.5835* (2.7)
= 1.575 m of water
1.575
Floor thickness required =  1.26 m of concrete
1.25
Provide 1.3 m thick concrete floor at the toe of crest in a length of 2 m over laid 0.2 m
thick brick pitching.
b. At 2 m from the toe of crest
52.52
% pressure = 25.18  * 7.6  51.44%
15.2
Uplift head due to static head = 0.5144* (2.7) = 1.39 m of water
1.39
1.25
Provide 1.2 m thick concrete floor over laid 0.2 m thick brick pitching.
c. At 4 m D/S from the toe of crest
52.52
% pressure = 25.18  * 5.6  44.53%
15.2
Up lift head due to static head = 0.4453* (2.7) = 1.2 m of water
65
1.20
1.25
d. At 6 m D/S from the toe of crest
52.52
% pressure = 25.18  * 3.6  37.62%
15.2
Up lift head due to static head = 0.3762* (2.7) = 1.01 m of water
1.01
Floor thickness required =  0.81m of concrete
1.25
e. At 8 m D/S from the toe of crest
52.52
% pressure = 25.18  * 1.6  30.71%
15.2
Up lift head due to static head = 0.3071*(2.7) = 0.83 m of water
0.83
1.25
12. Energy dissipater
a. Cistern
Depth and length of cistern have already been worked out.
b. Size and position of friction blocks
Cistern depth (dc) = 0.65 m
i. Length of block = 2dc = 2*0.65 = 1.3 m
ii. Width of block = dc = 0.65 m
iii. Height of Block = dc = 0.65 m
iv. Distance from toe of crest = 1.5 dc = 1.5*0.65 = 0.975 m Say 1 m
Provide two rows of blocks of size 1.3 m*0.65 m * 0.65 m staggered at a distance of 1
m from toe of crest
c. Cube blocks
water depth 2
i. Length =   0.2 m say 0.25 m
10 10
ii. Width = 0.25 m
66
iii. Height = 0.25 m
Provide two rows of cube blocks of size 0.25 m*0.25 m* 0.25 m staggered at the end of
floor.
13. Downstream Pitching

a. Bed Pitching
Length = 3dc = 3*2 = 6 m. thickness = 0.2 m of brick over 0.1 m of dry brick
ballast.
b. Toe Wall
Provide 0.4m * 1 m deep toe wall at end of pitching.
c. Side pitching
Length = 3dc = 3*2 = 6 m. thickness = 0.2 m.
The end should be protected with toe wall in continuation of the bed
67
Chapter Four
Hydraulic Design of Regulators
4.1. Introduction
A canal obtains its share of water from the pool behind a barrage through a structure
called the canal head regulator. Though this is also a regulation structure for controlling
the amount of water passing into the canal (with the help of adjustable gates), it shall be
discussed under diversion works. In this lesson, attention is focused on structures that
regulate the discharge and maintain the water levels within a canal network.
68
4.2. Head and Cross Regulators
The supplies passing down the parent canal and off take channel are controlled by
cross regulator and head regulator respectively.
4.2.1. Cross Regulator
A structure constructed across any canal (a main canal, a branch canal). Its
regulators the quantity of water supplied and also the level of water on the u/s & D/S
side.
4.2.1.1. Functions of Cross Regulators
1. Regulation of the canal system.
2. Raising the water level in the main canal in order to feed the off take channels.
3. To facilitate communication by building a road over the cross regulator with little
extra cost.
4. To absorb the fluctuations in the canal system.
4.2.2. Head Regulator

69
A structure constructed at the head of an off-take channel.
4.2.2.1. Functions of Head Regulators
1. To regulate and control supplies entering the off take channel (distributary) from the
main (parent) canal.
2. To control silt entering into the distributary.
3. To serve for measurement of discharge.
4. For shutting out the river floods.
4.3. Design of Cross & Head Regulator of Off-Take Channel (Design

Criteria)
1. Waterway
The effective waterway of head regulator should not be less than 60% of bed width
of off taking channel and mean velocity of flow for fully open regulator should not
exceed 2.5 m/sec.
2. Crest level
Crest level of the distributary head regulator is generally kept 0.3 m to 0.6 m higher
than crest level of cross regulator. The crest level of C.R. is provided at bed level of
parent canal.
70
The head of water over the crest (He) should be worked out from the formula
3⁄
2
Q = C Be He
C = Coefficient of discharge
Be = Effective length of crest = Bt – 2(N× Kp +Ka )He
Bt = Net length of the crest
N = Number of piers
Kp = Pier contraction coefficient
Ka = Abutment contraction coefficient
Table: Coefficients of contraction for piers and abutments.
Type of pier Description Kp
Square nosed pier 0.02
Round nosed pier 0.01
Pointed nosed pier 0.005
Type of abutment Ka
Square abutment 0.2
Round abutment 0.1
3. Coefficient of discharge (C)

2
The coefficient of discharge C is 1.84 for crests of width less than or equal to 𝐻𝑒 .
3
In case of submerged falls, C should be reduced depending on the drowning ratio, see
Fig. 6.5.
C =1.840 (H.R. crest)
71
C =1.705 (C.R. crest)
4. Shape of crest
The U/S face of the crest should be given a slope of 1:1. The D/S sloping glacis
should not be steeper than 2:1. The corners at the crest should be rounded as per details
given in fig. 6. 6.
5. Crest width
2
For head regulator Crest width should be kept equal to 𝐻𝑒
3
72
6. Level and Length of D/S Floor

Find discharge per meter length (q) and energy of flow on D/S (Ef2). (From
Blench Curves, Fig. 2.5)
D/S floor level = water level at D/S (F.S.L. D/S) - Ef2
If the actual bed level of canal at D/S lower than calculated value, design D/S
floor level on it.
Find Ef1, D1, D2 (from fig. 2.7 – energy of flow curves)
Length of D/S floor = 5 (D2 – D1)
7. Vertical Cut-offs
The cut-off should be provided at the end of u/s. and d/s. floors for safety against
uplift, scour, undermining and exit gradient. Due to Lacey’s scour depth.
Canal capacity(Q) Min. depth of U/S cut-off below bed Min. depth of D/S cut-off below bed
(m3/s) level or G.L. whichever is lower (m) level or G.L. whichever is lower (m)
Up to 3 1.0 1.0
3.1 - 30 1.2 1.2
30.1 - 150 1.5 1.5
Above 150 1.8 1.8

73
8. Thickness of Top Coat
Canal capacity (m3/s) Thickness of top coat (mm)
Q ≤1.5 100
1.5 ≤ Q ≤ 30 150
30 ≤ Q ≤ 150 200
Q >150 300
9. Freeboard
Canal capacity (m3/s) Freeboard (m)
Q ≤ 1.0 0.3
1<Q≤ 10 0.4
10 <Q≤ 30 0.6
30 <Q≤ 150 0.8
Q >150 1.0
10. Protection Works
Downstream of floor, properly designed filter loaded by concrete blocks should be

provided. The length of inverted filter is kept equal to 2D (D is the depth of D/S cut-off
below D/S bed). Details of minimum thickness of the filter are given in Table 6.3.
The width of gabs between the blocks shall not be more than 50 mm which should
be packed with biggest size of pebbles available. Beyond the filter, an apron of 1.5D
length shall be provided. Similar protection is also provided in the U/S in a length equal
to D. The cubic content of material in launching apron should be equal to 2.25D m 3 .m/
m length.
74
Example 4.1: Design a cross regulator and a suitable head for a distributary which
takes off at an angle of 60o from a canal which discharges 120 m3/s
Discharge of distributary = 10 m3/s
Bed width of distributary = 10 m
Water depth of distributary = 1.2 m
Full supply level of distributary = El. 310.2 m
𝐮.𝐬. 𝟑𝟏𝟏.𝟎𝟎 𝐦
Full supply level of parent channel (F.S.L.) = =
𝐝.𝐬. 𝟑𝟏𝟎.𝟖𝟓 𝐦
𝐮.𝐬. 𝟔𝟎.𝟎 𝐦
Bed width of parent channel = =
𝐝.𝐬. 𝟓𝟔.𝟎 𝐦
𝐮.𝐬. 𝟐.𝟎 𝐦
Depth of water in parent channel = =
𝐝.𝐬. 𝟐.𝟎 𝐦
𝟏
Safe exit gradient (G.E.) =
𝟓
Solution
A. Design of Cross Regulator

1. Fixation of crest level and waterway of cross regulator
The crest level of the cross regulator will be provided at U/S bed level of the channel.
∴ Crest level of C.R. = F.S.L. of parent channel - water depth
= 311 - 2 = 309 m
The water way has been worked out on the basis of the following formula.
3⁄
2
Q = C Be He
Where C is to be worked out with the help of fig. 6.5 depending on the degree of
submergence.
h
Degree of submergence = H𝑑
𝑒
hd = T.E.L.U/S - T.E.L. D/S = 311 - 310.85 = 0.15 m

He = F.S.L. U/S - crest level = 311 – 309 = 2 m
75
h𝑑 0.15
∴ = = 0.075
H𝑒 2
From Fig. 6.5
Cs
= 0.56 , where C = 1.705
C
∴ Cs = 1.705 * 0.56 = 0.95
Substituting the values in above formula
120 = 0.95 ∗ 𝐵𝑒 ∗ 23⁄2
∴ Be = 44.66 m say 45m
Assume 6 bays of 8 m each = 48 m
Use rounded nose piers & square abutment.
Find net length of crest

Bt = Be + 2(N*Kp +Ka) He
= 45 + 2 (5 *0.01 + 0.2) * 2
=46 < 48 O.K.
Provide 5 piers of width 1.6 m each.
Total waterway = (6*8) + (5*1.6) = 56 m O.K.
2. Level and length of downstream floor
Q = 120 m3/s
Q 120
q= = = 2.5 m3 /sec/m
Be 48
HL = T.E.L.U/S - T.E.L.D/S = F.S.L. U/S - F.S.L. D/S = 311 - 310.85 = 0.15 m (v2/2g is negligible)
From Blench Curves, Fig. 2.5
Ef2=1.435m
76
D/S floor level = F.S.L.D/S - Ef2 = 310.85 - 1.435 = 309.415 m
Actual cistern level = 310.85 - 2 = 308.85 m lower than 309.415 m O.K.
Cistern length Lc = 5 (D2 – D1)
Ef1 = Ef2 + HL =1.435 + 0.15 = 1.585 m
From energy of flow curves (Fig. 2.7)
Ef1 = 1.585 m gives D1 = 0.534 m
Ef2 =1.435 m gives D2 = 1.3 m
∴ Lc = 5 (1.3 – 0.534) = 3.83 m say 4.0 m
3. Vertical cutoffs
Q =120 m3/s
Referring to table 6.1, the minimum depth of U/S and D/S cutoff = 1.5 m.
U/S cutoff is at El. = 309 -1.5 = 307.5 m
4. Total floor length and exit gradient

The floor will be subjected to maximum uplift pressure when full supply level is
maintained on the U/S for feeding distributary but no water is flowing down the cross
regulator.
Exit gradient:
H 1
GE =
d π√λ
U/S full supply level = 311.00
D/S floor level = 308.85
∴ Max. static head (H) = F.S.L.U/S - G.L.D/S = 311.00 – 308.85 = 2.15 m
2
Find economical total floor length (b) by trial & error (length of D/S floor ≤ 𝑏)
3
Min. length of D/S floor = 4 + (3× (U/S bed level – D/S bed level)
77
= 4+ (3× (309-308.85)) = 4.45 m
1 2.15 1 1+√1+𝛼2 1+√1+𝛼2
= ⇒ λ= 5.2; λ = ⇒ 5.2 =
5 1.5 𝜋√𝜆 2 2
∴α = 9.35
b=αd
b = 9.3×1.5 = 14.0 m
D λ α b 2/3 b
1.5 5.2 9.35 14 9.33
1.6 4.57 8.08 12.93 8.62
1.7 4.05 7.03 11.95 7.96
2.0 2.92 4.75 9.5 6.33
2.25 2.31 3.48 7.84 5.22
2.5 1.87 2.56 6.39 4.26
D/S cutoff is at El. = 308.85 – 2.25 = 306.6 m

D/S floor length = 5.0 m
D/S glacis length with (3H: 1V) slope = 3 (309 - 308.85) = 0.45 m
U/S. floor length = 3.0 m
Total floor length = 8.0 m
5. Pressure calculation
a. Upstream cutoff (d = 1.5 m, b = 8 m)
Assume U/S floor thickness near cut off =0.6 m (Q > 1.5 m3/sec)
ФE1= 100% of head
b 8
α=
d
= 1.5 = 5.33
78
1+ √1+α2 1+ √1+5.332
λ= = = 3.21
2 2
1 λ−2 1 3.21−2
ΦE = cos−1 ( ) = cos−1 ( ) = 37%
π λ π 3.21
1 λ−1 1 3.21 − 1
ΦD = cos−1 ( ) = cos−1 ( ) = 26%
π λ π 3.21
ΦC1 = 100% − ΦE = 100% − 37% = 63% of head
ΦD1 = 100% − ΦD = 100% − 26% = 74% of head
t 0.6
Correction of ΦC1 for floor thickness = + (ΦD1 − ΦC1 ) = (74 − 63) = +4.4%
d 1.5
Correction of ΦC1 due to interference of D/S cutoff

𝐷 𝑑+𝐷 1.8 0.9+1.8
𝐶 = ± 19√ ( ) = + 19√ ( ) = +3.2%
𝑏′ 𝑏 7 8
∴ ΦC1 corrected = (63+4.4+3.2) % = 70.6% of head
b. Downstream cutoff
d=2.25 m, b=8 m
Assume D/S floor thickness near cut off = 0.6 m (Q > 1.5 m3/sec)
b 8
α=
d
= 2.25 = 3.55
1+ √1+α2 1+ √1+3.552
λ= = = 2.34
2 2
1 λ−2 1 2.34−2
ΦE = cos−1 ( ) = cos−1 ( ) = 46%
π λ π 2.34
1 λ−1 1 2.34−1
ΦD = cos−1 ( ) = cos −1 ( ) = 31%
π λ π 2.34
ΦC = 0%
t 0.6
Correction of ΦE for floor thickness = − (ΦE − ΦD ) = − (46 − 31) = −4.0%
d 2.25
Correction of 𝛷𝐸 due to interference of U/S cutoff

D d+D 0.75 1.65+0.75
C = ± 19√ ( ) = − 19√ ( ) = −1.8%
b′ b 7 8
∴ 𝛷𝐸 corrected = (46-4-1.8) % = 40.2% of head

79
6. Floor thickness
a. D/S Floor
1. At 2 m From D/S End
70.6−40.2
%pressure = 40.2 + ( ) × 1.5 = 47% of head
7
Max. static head (H) = 2.15 m

47
Head = H × % pressure = 2.15× = 1.0 m of water
100
Head 1.0
Minimum concrete thickness t min = = = 0.71 m
γc −γw 2.4−1
Provide 0.75 m thick concrete floor for 1.5 m.

70.6−40.2
% pressure = 40.2 + ( ) × 3.5 = 55.4% of head
7
55.4
Head =2.15× = 1.19 m of water
100
Dynamic head at toe of crest = 50 % (D2 – D1) + Фat toe × HL

= 0.5× (1.3 - 0.534) +0.554×0.15 = 0.47 m < 1.19
Head 1.19
∴ t min = = = 0.85 m
γc −γw 2.4−1
Provide 0.9 m thick concrete floor for 2 m.

b. U/S Floor
The net uplift pressure on the U/S floor will be nil as all the uplift pressure shall be
counter balanced by the weight of standing water. Theoretically no floor thickness is
required, however, 0.6 m thick floor shall be provided. The floor shall be thickened to
1.0 m under the crest in 2 m length.
7. Upstream protection
a. Block Protection
Length of protection = Depth of U/S cutoff (D) =1.5 m
80
Provide 2 rows of 0.8m *0.8m * 0.6m C.C. blocks over 0.6 m thick inverted filter. (From
table 6.3)
b. Launching Apron
Volume per meter length = 2.25D m3/ m
If thickness is 1.2 m, then the required length
2.25D 2.25×1.5
= = = 2.81 m
1.2 1.2
Provide 3.0 m long launching apron
8. Downstream protection
a. Block Protection
Length of protection =2D = 2 * 2.25 = 4.5 m
Provide 6 rows of 0.8m * 0.8m * 0.6m blocks over 0.6 m inverted filter
b. Launching Apron
Volume per meter length = 2.25D m3/ m
If thickness is 1.2 m, then the required length
2.25D 2.25×2.25
= = = 4.2 m
1.2 1.2
Provide 4.5 m long launching apron

Provide 0.4 m thick and 2.25 deep toe wall between filter and launching apron.
B. Design of Distributary Head Regulator

1. Fixation of Crest and Waterway
The crest level should be provided 0.5 m higher than upstream floor level.
Crest level = 309 + 0.5 = 309.5 m
hd = T.E.L. U/S - T.E.L. D/S = 311 - 310.2 = 0.8 m
He = F.S.L. U/S - Crest level = 311 – 309.5 = 1.5 m
hd 0.8
∴ = = 0.533
He 1.5
81
From Fig. 6.5
Cs
= 0.98 , where C = 1.84
C
∴ Cs = 1.84×0.98 = 1.8
The effective width of waterway is found by
3⁄
2
Q = C Be He → 10 = 1.8 𝐵𝑒 1.53/2 → ∴ 𝐵𝑒 = 3 𝑚
Provide 60% of distributary width = 0.6 *10 = 6 m
Provide 2 bays of 3 m each separated by 1 m thick pier.
Therefore, the overall waterway 2*3 + 1= 7 m
2. Level and Length of D/S Floor
Q = 10 m3/s, water way = 6 m

Q 10
q= = = 1.67 m3 /sec/m
Be 6
Head loss HL = 311 - 310.2 = 0.8 m

Using Blench curves (Fig. 3.5)
HL = T.E.L.U/S - T.E.L.D/S = F.S.L.U/S - F.S.L.D/S = 311 - 310.2 = 0.8 m (v2/2g is negligible)
Cistern length Lc = 5 (D2 – D1)
Ef1 = Ef2 + HL =1.37 + 0.8 =2.17 m
From energy of flow curves (Fig. 2.7)
Ef2 = 1.37 m gives D2 = 1.32 m
Ef1 = 2.17 m gives D2 = 0.32 m
∴ Lc = 5 (1.32 – 0.32) = 5.0 m
Provide cistern length = 6m
D/S floor level = F.S.L.D/S - Ef2 = 310.2 - 1.37 = 308.83 m
82
Actual cistern level = 310.2 - 1.2 = 309.0 m > 308.83 m.
Provide D/S floor level at El. 308.8 (Ground Level)
3. Vertical cutoffs
a. U/S Cutoff
Q =10 m3/s
Referring to table 6.1.
Provide U/S cutoff depth 1.5 m
U/S cutoff is at El. = 309 - 1.5 = 307.5 m
b. D/S Cutoff
The minimum D/S cutoff depth = 1.2 m
4. Total Floor Length and Exit Gradient
Exit gradient:
𝐻 1
𝐺𝐸 =
𝑑 𝜋√𝜆
U/S full supply level = 311.00

D/S floor level = 308.85
∴ Max. static head (H) = F.S.L.U/S - G.L.D/S = 311.00 – 308.2 = 2.2 m
2
Find economical total floor length (b) by trial & error (length of d.s. floor ≤ 𝑏)
3
D/S glacis length 2H:1V slope 2 309.5 308.8= 1.4 m

Min. length of D/S floor = 5+ (2×(crest level – D/S bed level) =6 + (2×(309.5 - 308.8))
= 7.4 m
1 2.2 1 1+√1+α2 1+√1+α2
= ⇒ λ= 8.50; λ = ⇒ 8.5 =
5 1.2 π√λ 2 2
∴α = 15.99
b=αd
b = 15.99 * 1.2 = 19.0 m
83
d λ α b 2/3 b
1.2 8.50 15.99 19.00 12.79
1.4 6.26 11.47 16.05 10.7
1.6 4.75 8.50 13.62 9.08
1.7 4.24 7.42 12.60 8.40> 7.4 OK
∴D/S cutoff is at El. = 308.8 – 1.7 = 307.1 m

He = F.S.L. U/S - crest level = 311 – 309.5 = 1.5m
2 2
Crest width = 𝐻𝑒 = × (1.5) = 1.0 𝑚
3 3
U/S glacis length 1H:1V slope = 1(309.5-309.0) = 0.5 m

U/S. floor length = 4.1 (balanced)
Total floor length = 13 m
5. Pressure calculations
a. Upstream Cutoff
Assume U/S floor thickness near cut off =0.6 m (Q > 1.5 m3/sec)
ФE1= 100% of head
b 13
α=
d
= 1.5 = 8.67
1+ √1+α2 1+ √1+8.672
λ= = = 4.86
2 2
1 λ−2 1 4.86−2
ΦE = cos−1 ( ) = cos−1 ( ) = 29%
π λ π 4.86
1 λ−1 1 4.86 − 1
ΦD = cos−1 ( ) = cos−1 ( ) = 20%
π λ π 4.86
ΦC1 = 100% − ΦE = 100% − 29% = 71% of head
ΦD1 = 100% − ΦD = 100% − 20% = 80% of head
t 0.6
Correction of ΦC1 for floor thickness = + (ΦD1 − ΦC1 ) = (80 − 71) = +3.6%
d 1.5
84
Correction of 𝛷𝐶1 due to interference of D/S cutoff
𝐷 𝑑+𝐷 1.3 0.9+1.3
𝐶 = ± 19√ ( ) = + 19√ ( ) = +1.0%
𝑏′ 𝑏 12 13
∴ ΦC1 corrected = (71+3.6+1.0) % = 75.6% of head
b. Downstream Cutoff
d=1.7 m, b=13 m
Assume D/S floor thickness near cut off = 0.6 m ( Q > 1.5 m3/sec)
b 13
α= = = 7.65
d 1.7
1+ √1+α2 1+ √1+7.652
λ= = = 4.35
2 2
1 λ−2 1 4.35−2
ΦE = cos−1 ( ) = cos−1 ( ) = 32%
π λ π 4.35
1 λ−1 1 4.35 − 1
ΦD = cos−1 ( ) = cos−1 ( ) = 22%
π λ π 4.35
ΦC1 = 0%
t 0.6
Correction of ΦE for floor thickness = − (ΦE − ΦD ) = − (32 − 22) = −3.5%
d 1.7
Correction of 𝛷𝐸 due to interference of U/S cutoff

D d+D 0.70 1.1+0.70
C = ± 19√ ( ) = − 19√ ( ) = −0.6%
b′ b 12 13
∴ ΦE corrected = (32 - 3.5 - 0.6) % = 27.9% of head

6. Floor thickness
a. D/S Floor
75.6−27.9
%pressure = 27.9 + ( ) × 1.5 = 33.86% of head
12
0.3386× 2.2
Minimum concrete floor thickness tmin = = 0.53 𝑚 < 0.6
2.4−1
Provide 0.6 m thick concrete floor for 1.5 m length.

%pressure = 41.8% of head
85
Provide 0.7 m thick concrete floor for 2.0 m long.
3. At the toe of glacis (beginning of the hydraulic jump)
75.6 − 27.9
%pressure = 27.9 + ( ) × 5.5 = 49.8% of head
12
Unbalanced head = 0.498 * 2.2 = 1.095m
Unbalanced head due to dynamic condition = 50% (D2 – D1) + Фat toe * HL
= 0.5× (1.32 -0.32) +0.498×0.8 = 0.898 m < 1.095
1.095
∴ t min = = 1.39 m
2.4−1
Provide floor thickness 1.4 m.

b. U/S Floor Thickness
Same as provided in U/S floor for the cross regulator (minimum thickness of 0.6 m in
the U/S which should be thickened under the crest).
7. U/S Protection
Same as provided in the U/S of cross regulator.
8. D/S Protection
a. Block Protection
Length of filter = 2D = 2×1.7 = 3.4 m
Provide 6 rows of 0.6m ×0.6m×0.4m C.C. blocks over 0.4 m thick inverted filter.
b. Launching apron
Volume per meter length = 2.25 * D = 2.25 * 1.7= 3.825m3/ m
Assume thickness of launching apron = 0.8 m, then
3.8
Required length = = 4.75 m
0.8
Provide 5.0 m long launching apron.

Masonry toe wall 0.4 m thick and 1.2 deep shall be provided between filter and
launching apron.
86
Chapter Five
Design of Pipes and Box Culvert
5.1. Introduction
A transverse structure is built under the road to transport the water from side to
another.
5.2. Design Criteria

The operating head, i.e. the difference of the upstream and downstream levels (say
HL) will give us the maximum head causing flow. The area of the opening should then
be decided, so that it is sufficient to pass the design discharge (Q).
If V is the velocity through the culvert opening, which runs full in such a case,
then the head loss (HL) will be equal to:
V2 V2
1. The entrance loss (he) = K e 2. Friction loss in the barrel (hf) 3. The outlet loss (ho) = K o
2g 2g
87
Note: The entrance & outlet losses depends on the type of the shape provided for
entrance & outlet, and it may be:
1. Square edged entrance (K e = 0.505)
2. Well rounded entrance (K e = 0.05)
r
3. Curvature entrance ; if =0 ⇒ K e = 0.1
D
r
= 0.05 ⇒ K e = 0.25
D
4. For grooved or socket end pipe, the value of K o =1

V2
5. Losses in bent hb = K b ∗
2g
Kb can be calculated as shown in the table below:
R/D 90o 45o 22.5o

≥5 0.6 0.45 0.3
4.3 0.65 0.5 0.35
2 0.75 0.55 0.4
1 1 0.75 0.5
Elbow 0.7 --- ----
T 1.8 --- ----
The friction loss hf can be calculated by Manning's formula as:

𝟏 𝟐⁄𝟑 𝟏⁄𝟐
𝐕= 𝐑 𝐒
𝐧
hf = S × L
L: length of culvert
If the flow in the pipe is full flow then
R = D/4; where D: diameter of the pipe
88
𝐧𝟐 𝐕 𝟐 𝐋
∴ 𝐡𝐟 = 𝐃 𝟒 ⁄𝟑
( )
𝟒
∴ HL = Entrance loss + Friction loss + Velocity head in barrel
𝐕𝟏𝟐 𝐧𝟐 𝐕 𝟐 𝐋 𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟐
𝐇𝐋 = [𝐊 𝐞 + 𝐃 𝟒 ⁄𝟑
+ 𝐊𝐨 ] = [𝐊 𝐞 + 𝐊 𝐟 + 𝐊 𝐨 ]
𝟐𝐠 𝟐𝐠 𝟐𝐠
( )
𝟒
𝟐𝐠 𝐧𝟐 𝐋
𝐊𝐟 = 𝐃 𝟒 ⁄𝟑
( )
𝟒
Hence, knowing the area, the discharging capacity of the culvert, or by knowing
the discharge, the required area can be easily computed. The required sized pipe (or a
rectangular barrel) may then be constructed through the road embankment.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 5.1: Design a box culvert for the given data:
Q = 43.8 m3/sec; length of culvert (L) = 50 m; Ke = 0.3; Ko= 0.6; n = 0.015; operating
head (HL) = 0.4 m. If the inlet height of the culvert does not exceed 3 m.
Solution:
V2
HL = [ K e + K f + K o ]
2g
2g n2 L Q2
HL = [K e + D 4⁄3
+ Ko] ; Q = AV and A = D*D
A2 2g
( )
4
2×9.81× 0.0152 × 50 43.82

0.4 = [0.3 + D 4⁄3
+ 0.6] ⇒ D = 4 m (By trial & error)
D4 2×9.81
( )
4
But the max. height of culvert equal to 3.0 m,

∴ use a rectangular box
A 16
A = D2 = b × h = 16 ⇒ b= = = 5.33m
h 3
89
Example 5.2: A precast concrete pipe culvert is to be constructed under road as
sketched below. Find the head drop (H) that takes place with a discharge of 0.5
cumec and a pipe diameter of 0.75 m.
Solution:
0.05
For inlet ke 0.25 (approx.) because r D   0.066
0.75
For outlet ko = 1
0.75
For bend R D   1.0   45  from table Kb = 0.75
0.75
124.58 n2 L 124.58  0.0152 * 40
For friction kf = 4
 4
 1.65
3 3
D (0.75)
 K  0.25  1.0  1.65  0.75  3.65

V2
H  K
2
, H  3.65 * (0.5) * 1
 0.24 m
2g 2 * 9.81 2 0.752 2
 ( )
4
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
H.W.1: A concrete pipe culvert is to be constructed under road to carry a maximum
discharge 9 m3/sec. If the length of pipe culvert 10 m on slope 1/100. Find the diameter of
the pipe and draw the culvert between the change of discharge and the diameter.
90
Chapter Six
Design of Inverted Siphon
6.1. Introduction
Inverted siphons are used to convey canal water by gravity under roads, rail roads,
other structures, various types of drainage channels and depressions. A siphon is a
closed conduit designed to run full and under pressure. Inverted siphons (sometimes
called sag culverts or sag lines). The structure should operate without excess head when
flowing at design capacity.
6.2. Application
Economics and other considerations determine the feasibility of using an inverted
siphon or another type of structure. The use of an elevated flume (aqueduct) would be
an alternative to an inverted siphon crossing such features as a deep roadway cut or
91
another channel. The use of a raised grade line and culvert may be a more economical
alternative to employing a siphon under a road.
6.3. Hydraulic Design Consideration

The size of siphon is a function of head, velocity and economy for the pipe. The
following steps may take into consideration during the process of design of siphon:
1. Assume internal dimension for the siphon. Note that when Q < 2.5 m3⁄sec, use
round section and when Q > 2.5 m3⁄sec, use square section.
2. Compute the total head losses which consist of:
a. Entrance and outlet.
b. Head loss in the two screens (trash rack).
c. Head loss due to friction in the barrel.
d. Head loss in the two elbows.
3. Energy grade line elevation is the differences between U/S and D/S = the sum of
all computed losses.
92
Example 6.1: Design an inverted siphon required to pass a canal discharge of 4.0
m3⁄sec under main road with 0.2m head loss. The velocity in the canal is 0.82 m ⁄sec
and the depth of water in the canal 1.5m. Safety screen are provided of entry and
exit. The inverted siphon has 22.5 ̊ elbows of each end. The site dimension are
shown as below. (Take n= 0.013, Ke= 0.2, Ko= 0.3, Kscreens= 0.2, Kelbows= 0.05)
Solution:
Total head loss = 0.2m
∆H = 0.2m = U⁄S (W. L) − D⁄S (W. L) = sum of the losses
For discharging more than 2.5 m3 ⁄sec , use square section.
Q = 4 m3 ⁄sec , hence use square section.
A d
A = d2 P = 4d R= =
P 4
Velocity in the canal = 0.8 m/sec

V2 0.822
Velocity head = = = 0.034m
2g 2∗9.81
Discharge in the barrel Q = 4 m3 ⁄sec

Assume velocity in the barrel = V1
Q 4
V1 = = m⁄sec
A d2
93
V21 16
Velocity head= =
2g 2gd4
Length of the barrel = 7.5 + 26.8 + 7 = 41.3 m

1. Friction losses in the barrel
2𝑔𝑛2 𝐿 𝑉12 n2 ∗L (0.013)2 ∗41.3∗(4)4⁄3 16 0.709
ℎ𝑓 = ∗ = = ∗ V12 = ∗ = … (1)
𝑅 4⁄3 2𝑔 (d/4) 4⁄3 (d)4⁄3 d4 d5.33
2. Entrance & outlet losses:

V21 V2 V21 V2 V21 V2 V21 V2
= Ke ( − ) + Ko ( − ) = 0.2 ( − ) + 0.3 ( − )
2g 2g 2g 2g 2g 2g 2g 2g
16 0.4077
=( − 0.034) = ( − 0.017) … (2)
2gd4 d4
3. Head loss in two elbows:

V21 16 0.08155
= 2 ∗ 0.05 ∗ = 2 ∗ 0.05 ∗ = … (3)
2g 2∗9.81∗d4 d4
4. Head loss in two screens

𝑉2 𝑉2 0.822
= K 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = (0.2 + 0.2) = 0.4 ∗ = 0.0137 … (4)
2g 2𝑔 2∗9.81
∴ Total loss = sum of Eq. ( 1 + 2 + 3 + 4) = 0.2m

0.709 0.4077 0.08155
0.2 = +( − 0.017) + + 0.0137
d5.33 d4 d4
0.709 0.4893
0.2 = + + 0.0307
d5.33 d4
By Trail & Error  d = 1.5 m

 Use dimension of Box = 1.5 ∗ 1.5 m
94
Chapter Seven
Weirs
7.1. Definition
An overflow structure designed to measure the discharge of water in a river or open
channel. It is placed perpendicular to the flow direction of water. It is also used to
prevent flooding or to make a river more navigable.
7.2. Practical Purposes of Weirs
Weirs are used for the following purposes:
1. To maintain high water level in order to divert water into a diversion channel for
irrigation or Power purpose.
2. To gauge the discharge of branch channel at their intakes, the discharge of drains at
their escape & the discharge of canals funding power houses.
95
3. Water can be stored for a short period
4. To reduce the head acting on a barrage.

96
5. To reduce the water slope in case of a very steep land.
6. To escape the water in canal automatically.
7. To control silt movement into the canal system, we can use the weir to many
purpose at the same time.
Weirs are good flow measuring devices. They are commonly constructed as:
97
1. Sharp – Crested Weir: with opening of the shapes :
a. Rectangular b. Triangular c. Trapezoidal d. circular
Sharp – Crested weirs also classified as:
a. Contracted weirs: where the width of the channel is greater than the width of the
weir opening.
b. Suppressed weirs: where the width of the channel and the width of the weir opening
are equal.
98
2. Broad – Crested Weir :
Where the flow is significantly influenced by viscous drag which is enumerated in the
form of a discharge – coefficient.
7.3. Hydraulics and Theories of Weirs
1. Rectangular Sharp – Crested Weirs
Hydraulic equation of this type can be simplified to the theoretical form as:
𝟐 𝟑⁄
𝐪= √𝟐𝐠 𝐇 𝟐 … (1)
𝟑
For real weir flow

99
𝟐 𝟑⁄
𝐪 = 𝐂𝐝 . √𝟐𝐠 𝐇 𝟐 … (2)
𝟑
Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge.
The experimental work of Rehbock led to an empirical formula for Cd of well-

ventilated sharp- crested rectangular weir:
𝐇 𝐻
Cd =0.611 + 0.08 if ( ≤ 5)
𝐏 𝑃
The effective width (b) is considered as:
1. b = B (for suppressed rectangular weir)

2. b = (B – n× 0.1 H) (for contracted rectangular weir)
n: number of contractions (usually one to each side)
2. Triangular Weir (V- notch)

This type is widely used as measuring device for small flow rates.
100
A simplified analysis yield the fundamental formula as:
𝟖 𝟓⁄
𝐐 = 𝐂𝐝 ∗ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛂 √𝟐𝐠 𝐇 𝟐 … (3)
𝟏𝟓
Coefficient (Cd) for Lenz is:

𝟎. 𝟕
𝐂𝐝 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔 +
𝐑 𝒆 𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝐖 𝟎.𝟏𝟕
Re: Reynolds No.
W: Surface tension
The conditions of (Cd) for Lenz:
1. H > 0.06 m 2. Re > 300 3. W > 300
Note: Cd ≈ 0.59 for weir of (2α = 90 )̊
3) Trapezoidal Weir (Cipolletti Weir) with (S.S 1:4)
This can be considered as one rectangular notch of width (b) and two half V-notch
(angle = α =14). The discharge equation may be written as:
101
𝟐 𝟑⁄ 𝟖 𝟓⁄
𝐐 = 𝐂𝐝𝟏
𝟑
√𝟐𝐠 (𝐛 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝐇) 𝐇 𝟐 +
𝟏𝟓
𝐂𝐝𝟐 √𝟐𝐠 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ∝ 𝐇 𝟐 ... (4)
due to presence of 2 ends contractions.
When we use this type of weir , we can obtained W.L more stability than The
type of rectangular Weir because that (b) increase with increase of the depth & give a
greater discharge & keep the W.L At stable , therefore ; its use in the escape weir.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 7.1: Determine the discharge over a sharp crested weir 4.5m long with no
lateral constrictions (suppressed). The measured head over the crest being 0.45m
and the sill height of the weir is 1m.
Solution:
2 3⁄
Q = C b √2g H 2
3
H 0.45
= = 0.45 < 5
P 1.0
H 0.45
Cd =0.611+ 0.08 = 0.611 + 0.08 = 0.647
P 1
2 3⁄
Q = 0.647 ∗ ∗ 4.5 √2 ∗ 9.81(0.45) 2 = 2.61 m3 /sec
3
102
Example 7.2: A 6m long weir was measured to carry a 1.4 m3/ sec discharge when
the crest is over topped by 0.2m of water. Determine the discharge coefficient of
the weir?
Solution:
Q 1.4
Cd = 2 3 = 2 3 = 0.883
b √2g H ⁄2 ∗6∗√2∗9.81∗(0.2) ⁄2
3 3
Example 7.3: A 30 m long weir is divided into 10 equal bays by vertical posts each
0.6 m wide. Calculate the discharge over the weir under an effective head of 1m?
Cd = 0.623
Solution: Sometimes the total length of a weir is divided into a number of bars or span
by vertical posts in such case, the number of bays or spans, into which the weir is
divided.
No. of bays = 10 (30 m length of weir)
Width of each post = 0.6 m
Effective length L = (30 - 9* 0.6) = 24.6m
No. of end contractions, n = 2*10 = (one bay has two end contraction)
2 3⁄
Q= Cd (L − 0.1nH)√2g H 2
3
= 2/3 *0.623*√2g (24.6 -0.1*20*1) * 13⁄2 = 41.6 m3 ⁄sec

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.4. Design of Escape Weir
1. Rectangular Escape Weir
Let AB be the normal water line in the canal which should be ended at a
natural drain of the point B.
103
To avoid a sudden drop in water a weir is constructed (Escape Weir). For the
determination of the dimensions of this weir, knowing (alternatively) either b or p
the remaining dimension (p or b) can be directly obtained from the weir formula:
𝟐 𝟑⁄
𝐐 = 𝐂𝐝 ∗ √𝟐𝐠 𝐇 𝟐
𝟑
Regarding that
P = D – H or H=D–P
As Q & H are given
On the other hand, knowing both the canal properties & the range of max. &
min. water depth (Dmax, Dmin). Then two cases at four D ranges can be chosen:
1
D1 = Dmin + (Dmax - Dmin)
4
3 1
D2 = Dmin + (Dmax - Dmin) or D2 = Dmax - (Dmax - Dmin)
4 4
Now, if the corresponding discharges for D1 & D2 are Q1 & Q2 and

corresponding depth over sill are:
H1 & H2
3⁄ 3⁄
Q1 = Cb H1 2 = Cb (D1 − P) 2 ... (1)
3⁄ 3⁄
Q2 = Cb H2 2 = Cb (D2 − P) 2 ... (2)
104
2
Where C = Cd . √2g
3
From which b & P are found.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 7.4: Given an open channel of the following properties:
Min water depth = 1m (0.7 Q)
Max water depth = 2.5m (1.2Q)
Bed width = 2m
Bed slope = 15 cm/km
Side slope = 1:1
Manning’s roughness = n = 0.03
It is required to design an escape weir at the end of this channel assuming
𝟐
that: 𝐂 = 𝐂𝐝 √𝟐𝐠 = 1.6
𝟑
Solution:
1 1
D1 = Dmin + (Dmax - Dmin) = 1+ (2.5- 1) = 1.375
4 4
3 3
D2 = Dmin + (Dmax - Dmin) = 1 + (2.5 – 1) = 2.125
4 4
Using the Manning’s eq. With the canal properties:

1
Q= AR2⁄3 S 1⁄2 ; A = B*d + z*d2 or (B +z*d) d ; P = B + 2d(1+z2)0.5
n
105
1 (2+1.375 ∗1)∗1.375 2⁄3
Q1 = (2 + 1 ∗ 1.375 ) ∗ 1.375 ∗ [ ] ∗ (0.00015)1⁄2
0.03 2+2∗1.375 √2
Q1 = 1.62 m3/sec
1 (2+1∗2.125)∗2.125 2⁄3
Q1 = (2 + 1 ∗ 2.125) ∗ 2.125 ∗ [ ] ∗ (0.00015)1⁄2
0.03 2+2∗2.125√2
Q2 = 3.8 m3/sec
Using the weir formula:
3⁄ 3⁄
Q1 = Cb H1 2 = Cb (D1 − P) 2
3⁄ 3⁄
Q2 = Cb H2 2 = Cb (D2 − P) 2
1.62 = 1.6 * b * (1.375 - P)1.5 ……………(1)

3.8 = 1.6 * b* (2.125- P)1.5 ……………(2)
_____________________________________________
2.125−P
(2.346)2/3 =
1.375−P
From which P = 0.4 m & then b = 1.05 m

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Trapezoidal Notch – Fall Escape
In the previous type of escape weir the canal cannot be drained totally unless
a pipe is provided at bed level. This pipe adds a certain variable to the problem.
A solution which is simpler being to adopt a V – notch fall on which the

inclination of the sides takes the place of the depth (p) as a variable:
nD
tan θ = =n or n = tan θ
D
Two values of Q & D must be known to determine the two unknowns (b &
h) from an equation which may be derived as follows:
The equation of the trapezoidal weir was previously given as:
106
2 8
Q = C1
3
√2g(b − 0.2H)H3⁄2 + 15 C2 √2g(tanθ)H 5⁄2 … (1)
For very low rectangular weir:

C1 =1.06 (1+P/H) P=0 … (2)
=1.06 (1+0) = 1.06 ≈ 1.0
Assume C2 ≈ 0.6
Then the last equation may approximate in SI units as:
2 8
Q=1∗
3
√2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ b ∗ H3⁄2 + 15 ∗ 0.6 ∗ √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ n ∗ H 5⁄2
In which n = tan θ
Or
Q = 2.95 * b * H3/2 + 1.417 * H5/2
Rearranging (out of brackets)
Q = 2.95 H3/2 (b + 0.48 n H)
But we have:
P=0 no. sill
H=D
Finally
Q = 2.95 D3/2 (b + 0.48 n D) ... (3)
107
Example 7.5: For the previous example it is required to design a trapezoidal
notch escape?
Solution: From manning’s equation it has been found that:

D1 = 1.5 m ; Q1 = 1.91 m3/sec
D2 = 2.0 m ; Q2 = 3.364 m3/sec
Using equation (3):
Q = 2.95 D3/2 (b + 0.48 n D)
1.91 = 2.95 * 1.53/2 (b + 0.48 n * 1.5) ... (1)
3.364 = 2.95 * 23/2 (b + 0.48 n * 2) ... (2)
From eq. (1) & (2)
b = 0.352 – 0.72 n ... (1)
b = 0.403 – 0.96 n ... (2)
From which n = 0.2125 = tan 𝜃
θ = 12 ̊
& b = 0.352 – 0.72 * 0.2125 = 0.2 m
108
Chapter Eight
Design of Gates
8.1. Types of Gates
1. Stop Logs: are custom designed steel bulkheads that are used in channels or control
structures to hold back the flow of water. They are individually lowered on top of
one another via a vertical guide system to a pre-determined height, to suit the
dimensions of the sluice that they are restricting the water flow through. The design
of the Stop Logs is a single rectangular unit that can be used in single or modular
format to hold back different volumes of water.
2. Vertical Gates: It is used in small and large structures of width ranged between
1m to 8 m. There is a groove built in the both sides of channel to facilitate the
movement of gate to the upward and downward directions.
109
The design of vertical gate would involve the design of the following:
1- Gate leaf
2- Groove embedment
3- heisting equipment
8.2. Principle for Design of Lifting Gate
1- The gate will act as slab support on two walls.

2- The total load was not uniform distributed but it various from top to bottom.
3- The total load transmitted to a stiffener member is equal to the area of loading may
equal to the area of loading member.
The loading may be equally divided into n number (n part), each stiffener is located
such that it carry a total load equal to the calculated
𝟏
𝐀 = 𝛄𝐖 𝐡𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝐚= 𝐲𝟐
𝟐𝐧
110
8.3. Procedure for Design
1. Find the water depth.
- Front side water level (F.S.W.L)
- Bed level (B. L) under gate.
2. Height of gate (L) = water depth + 0.1 ∗ water depth = 1.1 * d
3. Draw pressure diagram.
Pressure at any point= γW ∗ depth of water
4. Assume n division.
5. Find the location of stiffener from principle each.
6. Bending moment calculation.
Total load stiffener (beam) equal (W)
W = γW ∗ a ∗ L
- Stiffener is simply supported beam.
- The stiffener it can be angle, I beam or channel.
W. L
B. M =
8
M
7. Find Z (The section modulus) =
fs
I bt 2
Z= =
c 6
W.L2
The plate as continuous slab( )
10
8. Calculate the thickness of plate. Consider a unit of 1m width of slab spacing

vertically & supported on the stiffener.
Find the max. Bending moment
M = fs ∗ Z
bt2
Mmax. = fs ∗ Find t
6
111
Example 8.1: Design a vertical gate with the following information:
F.S.W.L = 35.25 m, Crest Level = 32.75 m, Width of Gate = 3 m, fs = 20000 psi
Solution:
Water depth = F.S.W.L – Crest level = 35.25 – 32.75 = 2.5 m

Height of gate = 1.1 * 2.5 = 2.75 m
Assume the number of division (n) = 5
1 1
a= y2 = (2.75)2 = 0.756 m2
2n 2∗5
𝑦12
a1 = = 0.756 → y1 = 1.23 m
2
Area Formula Value of y Division Height

0.756 ½ y12 y1 = 1.23 1.23
1.512 ½ y22 y2 = 1.74 0.51
2.268 ½ y32 y3 = 2.13 0.39
3.024 ½ y42 y4 = 2.46 0.33
3.78 ½ y52 y5 = 2.75 0.29
  2.75
112
Calculation of Plate Thickness
Consider a unit of 1.0 m

Width of slab spacing vertically & supporting on the stiffeners.
Loads on span L1, L6 are about half strip
L2, L3 , L4 , L5 are equal & about (1/5) of the total area.
Assume an average uniform load on each strip, the total load (w) on each of
them is the same.
The biggest moment will be the one with largest span.
Note: For accurate solution use moment distribution for determining (B.M.).
113
820+1490
W = 0.67 ∗ ( ) = 775 𝑘𝑔
2
𝑊𝑙 775∗0.67
M= = = 52 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚 = 4580 Ib.in
10 10
B.M (Ib .in) = B.M (T.M) * 88000

Use fs = 20000 psi
𝑀
Section modulus = Z = … (1)
𝑓𝑠
𝑏 𝑡2 40 𝑡 2
Z= = … (2)
6 6
B = 1 m = 40 inch
20000∗40 𝑡 2
M = 4580 =
6
3
t = 0.185 = inch
16
Design of Stiffeners (Beam Design)

𝑊𝐿
Each stiffener is simply supported beam (M = )
8
Area of one strip = 756 kg/m

The stiffener can be angle, L beam
756 ∗ 3 = 2268kg = 5100 Ib
WL 5100*118
M   75225
8 8
M 75225
Z   3.76 in3
fs 20000
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
H.W: Design a sliding gate wing type of beams (w8*40) which have an elastic
section modulus equal to 582 cm3. If the height of gate 5m, span 3.5m and fs =10000
T/m2?
114
Chapter Nine
Dams
9.1. Introduction
The dam is a barrier constructed across the river to store water on its upstream side
due to construction of a dam the water level of the river on its upstream is very much
raised. Due to rise in water level large areas lying upstream of the dam get submerged.
Dams are constructed to store the river water in form of on artificial lake or reservoir.
The stored water can be utilized for generation of hydro-electric power, water supply,
and irrigation or for any other purpose.
9.2. Classification of Dams
Dams may be classified in several way as follows:

1. Classification Based on Materials of Construction
a. Earth fill dams

b. Rock fill dams
c. Concrete dams
115
d. Masonry dams
e. Steel dams
f. Timber Dams
2. Classification Based on Flow over its Top
a. Over flow dams

b. Non over flow dams
3. Classification Based on the Use of the Dam
a. Storage dams
b. Diversion dams
c. Detention dams
d. Multi-purposes dams
4. Classification Based on the Mode or Resistance Offered by the Dams against
External Forces
a. Gravity dams
b. Buttress dams
c. Arch dams
5. Classification Based on Rigidity of the Dams
a. Rigid dams
b. Non- rigid dam
9.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Gravity Dams
Advantages
1. Maintenance cost is negligible.
2. They are especially suitable for deep steep valley conditions where no other dam is
possible.
3. If suitable foundation is available, such dams can be constructed for very large
heights.
116
4. Because they can be constructed in very large heights, they can store more amount
of water.
5. If suitable separate place is not available for installation of spillways, they can be
installed in the dam section itself.
6. This dam gives prior indication of instability. If remedial measures are taken in time-
unsafe dams may even be rendered safe. Even if they cannot be made safe they give
sufficient time for the people to move out the area likely to be submerged due to
failure of the dam.
7. Silting rate of the reservoir can be reduced considerably by installing under sluices
in the dam near the bed of the reservoir. Sluices can be operated from time to time
and silt may be scoured out of the reservoir.
8. They are not affected by very heavy rainfall. Earth dams cannot sustain very heavy
rainfall because of heavy erosion.
Disadvantages
1. They are very costly in initial construction.
2. They take lot of time to construct.
3. They require skilled laborer for construction.
4. Such dams can be constructed only on good foundation.
5. If height of the dam is to be raised, it cannot be done unless provision for it had been
made in the construction of the lower part of the dam.
9.4. Earth Fill and Rock Fill Dams
Advantage
1. They can be constructed on any type of foundation.
2. They can be constructed in comparatively less time.
3. They do not require skilled labor.
4. Initial cost of construction is low as locally available soils, and rock boulders are
normally used.
117
5. Their height can be increased without any difficulty.
6. They are especially suitable for condition where slopes of river banks are very flat.
Gravity dams under such conditions are not found suitable.
Disadvantage
1. The fail all of a sudden without giving any per-warning
2. Flood water affect the dam safety
3. Spillways have to be located independent of the dam
4. They cannot be constructed as over flow dams
5. They require continuous maintenance
6. They cannot be constructed in narrow steep valleys
7. They cannot with stand heavy rains unless properly protected
8. They cannot be constructed in large height. The usual height is 30 m for which
most of the earthen dams
9.5. Factors Governing Selection Types of Dams

1. Topography
4. V-shape nor row valley select arch dam
5. Narrow U-shape valley indicates choice of over flow concrete dam
6. A low, rolling plan suggest earth dam
2. Geology & Foundation
a. Solid rock-foundation: select any type
b. Gravel &coarse sand foundation: select earth dam or Rock fill dam
c. Silt & fine sand foundation: select earth dam or low concrete dam up to 8m
d. Clay foundation: select earth dam with special treatment
3. Availability of Materials of Construction
a. If sand, gravel and stone is available , concrete gravity dam may be suitable
b. If coarse and fine grained soils are available, an earth dam may be suitable
118
4. Length and Height of Dam
If the length of the dam is very long and its height is low, an earth dam would be a
better choice. If the length is small and height is more, gravity dam is preferred.
5. Spillways
a. Separate spillway lead to constructing earth dam
b. Large spillway with dam lead to concrete gravity dam and no separate
6. Road Way over the Dam
We can construct earth or gravity dam
7. Generation of Hydro-Electric Power
Concrete or masonry gravity dams because it can be constructed at height level and
develop sufficient head for running the turbines.
9.6. Concrete Dams
Is a structure which is designed in such a way that its weight resist the force exerted
up on it. It may constructed of concrete or masonry.
119
9.7. Forces Acting on Gravity Dams
1. Water pressure
2. Uplift pressure
3. Silt pressure
4. Wave pressure
5. Pressure due to earth quake force
6. Ice pressure
7. Weight of the dam
1. Water Pressure
P=1/2 ɣ h2
If the upstream face is partly vertical and partly inclined, the resultant water pressure
can be solved in tow components
1
→ P = ɣ h2 & P1= ɣv ↓
2
1
← P2 = ɣ h12 & P3= ɣv1 ↓
2
120
2. Uplift Pressure
1 (2h1 + h)
ɣh1 + (ɣh − ɣh1 ) = ɣ( )
3 3
3. Earthquake Forces
a. Effect of vertical acceleration:
When the acceleration is vertically upward the inertia force:

FV = W Kv
W: Weight of the dam
Kv: Coefficient of earthquake acts vertically downwards, these increasing the
downwards weights.
When the acceleration is vertically downward the inertia force acts upwards and
decrease the downward weight.
Net Weight = W (1 ± Kv)
Note: Kv is (+) for acceleration is vertical upward and (-) for acceleration is vertical
downward.
b. Effect of Horizontal Acceleration
121
I. Hydrodynamic Pressure
The horizontal acceleration of the dam and foundation towards the reservoir causes
a momentary increase in the water pressure. The increase in water pressure (Pe) is given
by:
4h
Pe = 0.55 Kh γ h2 (acts at )
3π
Kh = coefficient of earthquake at horizontal direction

II. Horizontal Inertia Force
The inertia force acts in a direction opposite to the acceleration imparted by the earth
quake forces
FH = W Kh
W = weight of the dam (This force can be considered at the center of gravity of the
mass)
4. Wave Pressure
Wave pressure depends on the height of the wave (hw) developed
𝟒
𝐡𝐰 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟐 √(𝐕 ∗ 𝐅) + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟑 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟏 √𝐅 (for F ≤ 32 km)
𝐡𝐰 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟐 √(𝐕 ∗ 𝐅) (for F > 32 km)

hw = height of the wave in (meter)
V = wind velocity in (km / hr)
F = straight length of water expanse in (km)
 Wave pressure (PW) = 2000 γ hw2 kg / m = 2 γ hw2 Ton / m
122
5. Silt Pressure
𝟏
Psilt = 𝐊 𝐚 𝛄𝐬 𝐡𝟐𝐬
𝟐
𝟏−𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
𝐊𝐚 =
𝟏+𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
γs: Submerged unit weight of silt material

hs: Height of silt
If the upstream face of the dam is inclined, the vertical weight of silt supported on the
slope also acts as vertical force
6. Ice Force
The coefficient of the thermal expansion of ice being five times more than that of
concrete. The ice force acts linearly along the length of the dam at the reservoir level.
The average value of (5 Kg / cm2) or (50 Ton / m2) may be taken as an ice force.
123
7. Weight of the Dam
W1 = V1 γcon ; W2 = V2 γcon
Wdam = ∑ W = W1 + W2 + W3 +
…..
9.8. Structural Stability of Gravity Dams

Failure and inertia for structural stability of concrete gravity dam due to the
following reasons:
1. Overturning of the dam
2. Compression or crushing of the dam
3. Sliding of the dam
4. Development of tension in the dam
1. Failure by Overturning
If the resultant of all forces acting on a dam at any section of its sections passes
outside the toe and the dam shall rotates and overturning about the toe. The factor of
safety against overturning is:
(F.S) overturning = (∑ Rotating moments) / (∑ Overturning moments)
(F.S) overturning = (∑ MR) / (∑ MO)
The value of F.S against overturning should not be less than (1.5)
2. Compression or Crushing
A dam may fail by the failure of its materials, the compressive stress produced may
exceed the allowable stress and dam material may get crushed. The vertical stress
distribution at the base is given by:
124
∑𝐕 𝐌𝐂
Pmax, min = ∓
𝐁 𝐈
∑V
: Direct Stress
B
MC Ve 6Ve
∓ : Bending Stress = ∓ = ∓
I ⅙ B² B²
+ will be used for calculating normal stress at the toe

- will be used for calculating normal stress at the heel
e: eccentricity of the resultant from the center of the base
∑ V: total vertical force
B: base width of the dam
3. Sliding (Shear Failure)
Sliding occur when the net horizontal force at the base of the dam exceeds the
frictional resistance developed at the level
𝛍 ∑(𝐕−𝐔)
F.S sliding = ∑𝐇
> 1.0
∑ (V-U): net vertical force = ∑ V

∑ H: sum of horizontal forces causes the sliding
μ: coefficient of friction = ( 0.65 – 0.75)
4. Tension
∑𝐕 𝟔𝐞
P heel = ( ) ∗ (𝟏 − )
𝐁 𝐁
125
B
- If e > ( ), the normal stress at the heel will be (-ve) or tension and no tension
6
should be permitted at any point of the dam.
B
- The eccentricity (e) should be less than (i.e. (e < B/6))  the resultant should
6
always lie within the middle third.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 9.1: Determine the heel and toe stresses and the factor of safeties for
sliding and overturning for the gravity dam section shown in the figure below for
the following loading conditions:
- Horizontal earthquake (Kh) = 0.1

- Normal uplift pressure with gallery drain working
- Silt deposit up to 30 m height
- No wave pressure and no ice pressure
- Unit weight of concrete = 2.4 Ton/m3 and unit weight of silty water = 1.4 Ton/m3
- Submerged weight of silt = 0.9 Ton/m3
- Coefficient of friction = 0.65 and angle of repose = 25
Solution:
126
Name of forces Magnitude La (m) Moment toe
1- vertical forces
W1 (126+140) * 0.5 * 1*2.4 = 21168 + 84.3 +1778112
W2 150 * 8 *1*2.4 = 2889+ 130 374400
W3 (30+6)*0.5*1*2.4 = 216 + 136 29376
W4 (30+6)*0.5*1*1.4 = 126 + 138 17388
W5 114 *6*1*1 = 684 + 137 93708
∑W + 25074 ∑ M = 229284
2- Uplift Pressure
U1 ⅓ (1)(144)(21)(1) = - 1008 ↑ 129.5 - 130536
U2 ½ (⅓ *1*144)*119*1 = - 2856 ↑ 79.33 - 226576
U3 ½ (⅔*1*144)*21*1 = -1008 ↑ 133 - 134065
∑U - 4872 ∑ M = -491176
3- horizontal forces
P1 = ½γh2 0.5 * 1442 * 1*1 = - 10368 144/3 - 497664
Ps = ½γs hs2 ka 0.5 *0.9 * 302 *0.4058 = - 164.4 30/3 - 164.4
∑H - 10532.4 - 499014
4- earth quake
F1 = W1 * Kh
21168 *0.1= - 2116.8 140/3 - 98784
F2 = W2 * Kh
2880*0.1 = - 288 150/2 - 21600
F3 = W3 * Kh
216 *0.1 = - 21.6 30/3 - 216
Hydrodynamic (Pe)
0.55 * 0.1 *1 * 1442 = - 1150.848 144/3 - 703346
(0.55 kh γ h )
2
E - 3577.284 ∑ M = - 190934.6
127
 M = +2292984 – 499014 – 190934.6 – 491176 = 1111859.4 Ton. m
 V = W - U = 25074 – 4872 = 20202 Ton
e = (B/2) - X = (B/2) – ( M /  V)
e = (140 /2) – (1111859.4 / 20202) = 15 m
Pmax, min = (∑V / B) (1± ((6e)/B))
= (20202/140) (1 ± ((6*15) /140))
Pmax = 237.06 Ton / m2
Pmin = 51.54 Ton / m2
F.Ssliding = (μ ∑ (V-U)) / (∑ H) > 1.0
= 0.933 ˂ 1 not o.k
(F.S) overturning = (∑ MR) / (∑ MO) = 2292984 / (Mu + MH + ME)
128
Chapter Ten
Design of Spillway
10.1. Introduction
A spillway is a structure constructed at a dam site through which the design flood
could be disposed of safely to the downstream, just after the reservoir gets filled up. Up
to the normal pool level, water starts flowing over the top of the spillway crest. A
spillway is essentially a safety valve from a dam.
In general, spillways comprise five distinct components namely:

1. Entrance channel
2. Control structure
3. Discharge carrier
4. Energy dissipator
5. Outlet channel
129
The entrance channel transfers water from the reservoir to the control structure,
which regulates the discharge from the reservoir. Water is then conveyed from reservoir
to the low-level energy dissipater on the riverbed by the discharge conveyor. An energy
dissipater is required to reduce the high velocity of the flow to a non-scouring
magnitude.
The crest of the spillway is usually provided at F.R.L (Full Reservoir Level) or
(Normal Pool Level). However, in order to control floods the gates could be provided
at the top and the water level could be increased up to maximum water level. The height
between F.R.L and M.W.L is called the "Flood lift". Reservoir level should not cross
MWL. Following are different types of spillways usually adopted in practice.
A spillway can be located either within the body of the dam or at one end of it or
entirely away from it.
10.2. Classification of Spillways
The spillways can be classified of the following major types, depending upon the
type of the structure constructed for disposing of the surplus water:
130
1. Straight drop spillway
2. Ogee spillway (overflow spillway)
3. Chute spillway (open channel spillway)
4. Side channel spillway
5. Shaft spillway
6. Siphon spillway
Major dam will be usually provided with an overflow spillway with crest gates.
However, the type and location of spillway depends on the site conditions of
topography.
10.3. Ogee Spillway (Overflow Spillway)
Ogee spillway is an improvement upon the free over fall spillway, and is widely
used with concrete, arch and buttress dams.
The discharge passing over the ogee spillway is given by the equation weir:
Q = C Le HD3/2
Where:
131
Q: Discharge.
Le: Effective length of the spillway crest.
C: Coefficient of discharge
He: Total head over the crest = (Ha + Hd)

𝐕𝐚𝟐
𝐇𝐚 =
𝟐𝐠
𝐐
𝐕𝐚 = (𝐇+ 𝐇𝐝 )𝐁
B: width of canal
Le = L – 2 [N*Kp + Ka] HD
L: The net clear length of the spillway crest
Kp: Pier contraction coefficient
N: Number of piers
Ka: Abutment contraction coefficient
Pier Shape Kp
132
Square nosed piers without any rounding 0.10
Square nosed piers with rounding on radius at corners =0.1 of pier thickness 0.02
Rounded nose piers and 90o cut water nosed piers 0.01
Pointed nose piers 0.00
Abutment Shape Ka
Square abutment with head wall at 90o to the direction of flow 0.2
Rounded abutment with head wall at 90o to the direction of flow 0.1
For high spillway the approach velocity is very small and the velocity head can be
neglected.
∴ (Ha = 0) → (HD = Hd)
If H / Hd > 1.33 (High ogee spillway)
10.3.1. Crest of Spillway

For spillway having a vertical face the D/S crest is given by:
X1.85 = 2 Hd0.85 y
The U/S profile may be designed as the equation:

𝟎.𝟕𝟐𝟒(𝐱+𝟎.𝟐𝟕𝐇𝐝 )𝟏.𝟖𝟓
𝐲= + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝐇𝐝 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟏𝟓𝐇𝐝𝟎.𝟑𝟕𝟓 (𝐱 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝐇𝐝 )𝟎.𝟔𝟐𝟓
𝐇 𝟎.𝟖𝟓
𝐝
133
Example 10.1: Design ogee spillway for concrete gravity dam having downstream
face sloping at (0.781H: 1V), the discharge for the spillway is (8000 m 3/sec) the
height of spillway crest is kept at level (204 m) the average river level at the site is
(100 m), the spillway length consist (6) span having clear width (10 m) each with
pier thickness=3m, kp=0.01, ka=0.1, C=2.2.
Solution:
N=5
L = 6 * 10 = 60 m
Le = L – 2 [N*Kp + Ka] He = 60 – 2 [5 (0.01) + 0.1] He = 60 – 0.3 He
Q = C Le HD 3/2
8000 = 2.2 (60 – 0.3 He) (He3/2)
By trial and error
HD = 16.3 m
Let HD = Hd
Q
Va = (H+ Hd )B
8000
Va = = 0.887 m/sec
((204−100)+ 16.3)(60+5∗3)
H/Hd = (204 – 100)/16.3 = 6.4 > 1.33 » High spillway

V2a 0.8872
Ha = = = 0.04 m
2g 2∗9.81
∴ This is very small value and may neglected

D/S Profile
X1.85 = 2 Hd0.85 y
y = X1.85 / 2 Hd0.85
y = X1.85 / 2 (16.3)0.85
y= X1.85 / 21.45
dy/dx = (1.85 X0.85) / 21.45
134
1/0.781 = 0.0862 X0.85 → X = 22.4 m
The coordinates of the D/S profile are:
X 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 22.4
𝐱 𝟏.𝟖𝟓
𝐲= 0 0.17 0.61 1.28 2.18 3.3 4.62 6.15 7.87 9.79 11.9 14.19 14.67
𝟐𝟏. 𝟒𝟓
U/S Profile
0.724(x+0.27Hd )1.85
y= + 0.126Hd − 0.4315Hd0.375 (x + 0.27Hd )0.625
H 0.85
d
y = 0.724 ( x + 0.27 *16.3 )1.85 +0.126*16.3 – 0.4315 *16.30.375 ( x + 0.27 *16.3)0.625

16.30.85
The values U/S profile extends up to
X = - 0.28*Hd = - 0.28*16.3 = - 4.56 m
X 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2.0 -2.5 -3.0 -3.5 -4.0 -4.56
Y 0 0.01 0.06 0.14 0.27 0.43 0.66 0.95 1.37 2.06
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
H.W: Design ogee spillway for a concrete gravity dam and find the maximum flood
discharge could be disposed of safely to the downstream. It is having downstream
face sloping at (0.85H: 1V), the height of spillway crest is kept at (0.85H:1V), the
height of spillway crest is kept at level (310 m), the average river bed level at the
site is (190 m), the spillway length consist (5) span having clear width (12 m) each
with pier thickness = 3m , kp=0.01 , ka=0.1 , C=2.2 . If the D/S crest profile is
given by: x1.85 = 25 y , and the U/S by:
𝟎.𝟕𝟐𝟒 (𝒙+𝟎.𝟐𝟕 𝑯𝒅 )𝟏.𝟖𝟓

𝒚= + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟔 𝑯𝒅 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟏𝟓 𝑯𝟎.𝟑𝟕𝟓
𝒅 (𝒙 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕 𝑯𝒅 )𝟎.𝟔𝟐𝟓 .
𝑯𝟎.𝟖𝟓
𝒅
Neglect the approach velocity head

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1

Design of Hydraulic Structures Prepared by: Dr. Fadhil Abd Al-Abbas

2. Hydraulic Structures by Novak. 4 th Edition 2007.

3. Irrigation, Water Power and Water Resources Engineering by K.R.

Chapter Two: Theories of Creep

Chapter Three: Hydraulic Jump and Energy Dissipation Structures

Chapter Four: Hydraulic Design of Regulators

Chapter Five: Design of pipes and Box Culverts

Chapter Seven: Weirs

Chapter Eight: Design of Gates

Chapter Nine: Design of Dams

Chapter Ten: Design of Spillway

A hydraulic structure is a structure submerged or partially submerged in any body

1.2. Types of Hydraulic Structures

4- Flow measurement structures: the function is to measure the flow passing

1.3. Steps for Design of Hydraulic Structures

1. Prepare information for design.

2. Determine the best location of the structure.

1.4. Site Conditions

1.5. Structures on Gypsum Soils

1.6. Percolation beneath Heading up of Hydraulic Structures

1.7. Causes of Failure of Hydraulic Structures Founded on Pervious

1.7.2. Failure by Direct Uplift

𝐇 = 𝐖. 𝐋(𝐮/𝐬) – 𝐖. 𝐋(𝐝/𝐬) ….. (2-2)

For more explaining:

Head loss per unit length (hydraulic gradient)

Head at point C (HC)

Head at point E (HE)

2.1.2. Limitations of Bligh's theory

1. This theory made no distinction between horizontal and vertical creep.

2.1.3. Safety against Piping or Undermining

𝐋=𝐂𝐇 ….. (2-3)

2.1.4. Safety against Uplift Pressure

Where w is the unit weight of water (w g)

Downward pressure  wG) tp wtp

Where G is the specific gravity of the floor material.

G is approximately taken as 2.24 to 2.4

For equilibrium condition:

w Hp wG tp wtp

Hp G tp tp  tpG 1

The thickness of floor at C

Homework No. 1: For the hydraulic structure shown below:

The total Lane’s creep length (Ll) is given by:

L1 = (d1 + d1) + (1/3) L1 + (d2 + d2) + (1/3) L2 + (d3 + d3)

No. Type of soil C1 Safe exit gradient less than

Some conclusions related with Khosla's theory:

2. Intermediated piles of smaller length were ineffective except for local

C: correction at the corner (correction in a percentage of head).

b- Correction for intermediate pile

c- Correction for d/s pile

ΦC1 = 100 − ΦE , ΦD1 = 100 − ΦD

√1 + 𝛼12 − √1 + 𝛼22 √1 + 𝛼12 + √1 + 𝛼22

Cs: slope correction.

Table (3): Khosla’s Theory Slope Corrections

2.3.4. Exit Gradient

GE: exit gradient

Mathematically, the specific energy head reads as:

h = depth of liquid flow