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Molecular Gastronomy

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Some of the key takeaways are that molecular gastronomy studies the physicochemical transformations of food during cooking and the sensory experiences associated with eating. It aims to apply scientific understanding to cooking to develop novel and high-quality foods. Combining science and cooking can benefit education, research, and society.

Molecular gastronomy is defined as a branch of science that studies the physicochemical transformations of edible materials during cooking and the sensory phenomena associated with their consumption. It involves applying the scientific method to understand food properties and interactions.

Combining science and cooking can facilitate implementing new ideas and recipes, challenge scientists to expand understanding of food processes, and educate the public about science, cooking, and nutrition. It can help produce healthy, safe, and nutritious foods that are also desirable.

Food Biophysics (2008) 3:246–254

DOI 10.1007/s11483-008-9082-7

SPECIAL ISSUE ARTICLE

Molecular Gastronomy: A Food Fad or an Interface


for Science-based Cooking?
Erik van der Linden & David Julian McClements &
Job Ubbink

Received: 18 January 2008 / Accepted: 10 March 2008 / Published online: 1 April 2008
# Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2008

Abstract A review is given over the field of molecular improve the awareness of the role of food and nutrition for
gastronomy and its relation to science and cooking. We the quality of life.
begin with a brief history of the field of molecular
gastronomy, the definition of the term itself, and the current Keywords Molecular gastronomy . Science-based cooking .
controversy surrounding this term. We then highlight the Experimental cuisine . Quality of life
distinction between molecular gastronomy and science-
based cooking, and we discuss both the similarities and the
distinctions between science and cooking. In particular, we Introduction
highlight the fact that the kitchen serves as an ideal place to
foster interactions between scientists and chefs that lead to This article provides a short summary of a half-day session
benefits for the general public in the form of novel and on “molecular gastronomy,” which was part of the “Second
high-quality foods. On the one hand, it can facilitate the Symposium on Delivery of Functionality in Complex Food
implementation of new ideas and recipes in restaurants. On Systems,” held at the University of Massachusetts at
the other hand, it challenges scientists to apply their Amherst (Amherst, MA), in October 2007. We give an
fundamental scientific understanding to the complexities abbreviated history of molecular gastronomy and its current
of cooking, and it challenges them to expand the scientific status as presented in that session and a summary of the
understanding of many chemical and physical mechanisms discussion on the topic held between about 70 scientists,
beyond the common mass-produced food products. In both from the academia and industry of whom several are
addition, molecular gastronomy forms an ideal base to involved in collaborations with chefs in restaurants. This
educate the general public about the basic principles of article is meant as a general introduction to the articles on
science and cooking and how they can be utilized to molecular gastronomy in this special issue of “Food
Biophysics.” We close this article with a perspective on
future opportunities for combining food science with
gastronomy.
E. van der Linden (*)
Food Physics Group, Department Agro-Technology
and Food Sciences, Wageningen University,
Wageningen, The Netherlands A Short History of Molecular Gastronomy
e-mail: Erik.vanderLinden@wur.nl
The importance of utilizing the scientific method to
D. J. McClements
Biopolymers and Colloids Research Laboratory, understand food properties was recognized as early as in
Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, the seventeenth century (1783) by Lavoisier and half a
Amherst, MA 01003, USA century later, e.g., by Brillat-Savarin in his monograph
“Physiology of Taste” (1825)1,2. Brillat-Savarin defined
J. Ubbink
Nestlé Research Center, gastronomy as “the reasoned study of all that is related to
Lausanne, Switzerland man as he nourishes himself.” He also gave the field of
Food Biophysics (2008) 3:246–254 247

gastronomy a practical purpose namely, “to keep human creativity, expression of beauty)13. We should stress that
kind alive with the best possible food.” A scientist who in craftsmanship also benefits from a better physicochemical
more recent times emphasized the link between gastronomy understanding of cooking. Hervé This has also stressed the
and science was Nicholas Kurti, a low-temperature physicist educational potential of molecular gastronomy in its ability
at Oxford University in the UK. In 1969, Kurti held a to demonstrate the contribution that science makes to
presentation entitled “The Physicist in the Kitchen”3, and society14.
this was recorded by the British Broadcasting Corporation. There is obvious intuitive understanding regarding many
A well-known quote of him is “It is a sad reflection that we culinary transformations, but the question is whether these
know better the temperature inside the stars than inside a phenomena appeal to fundamental issues. Another question is
souffle.” A more recent term that invokes the relationship whether a food scientist should be concerned at all by these
between science and gastronomy is “molecular gastronomy,” matters. In addition, because cooking has seldom been taken
which has been defined as “a branch of science that studies seriously by scientists, a general framework to scientifically
the physicochemical transformations of edible materials address issues relating to cooking has been effectively lacking
during cooking and the sensory phenomena associated with for some time, although works of de Pomiane6 and the
their consumption”4. It is interesting to note that the term is previously mentioned contemporary monumental work of
an abbreviation of a more extended term “physical and McGee “On Food and Cooking” have appeared.
molecular gastronomy.” This latter term was the title of the Regarding cooking, one may differentiate between tradi-
first symposium on the science of gastronomy, organized in tional versus creative approaches. Whereas the first is
1992 in Erice, Italy, with the involvement of Elisabeth primarily concerned with the lore of cooking and often
Thomas, Nicholas Kurti, Hervé This, and Harold McGee as involves highly specific but often unsubstantiated recipes,
an invited guest director. The symposium was meant to bring which function only in a narrow context, the latter approach
together scientists and chefs and has been continued every is based on innovative and creative ideas. As, however, most
2 years until 2005. chefs lack the basic understanding of the principal physical
In general, the field of molecular gastronomy may be and chemical transformations during cooking, creative
considered as that part of food science that focuses on home cooking often ends up being implemented by trial-and-error
and culinary eating transformations and culinary phenomena rather than being guided by fundamental insights.
(together known in our times as “gastronomy”). A good As creative cooking is often dealing with novel
contemporary example of a systematic analysis and compi- combinations of ingredients and preparation methods, it is
lation of fundamental knowledge on cooking, accessible to more open to a scientific approach than traditional cooking
the general public, can be found in the monograph by Harold is. As any science, the science of cooking should be
McGee, entitled “On food and cooking: the science and lore hypothesis-driven and should focus on fundamental
of the kitchen,” with its first edition in 19845. Previous work insights and mechanisms specifically relevant for cooking.
in this direction had been undertaken in particular by the Another important aspect of a scientific approach to
French scientist Edouard de Pomiane6,7. In 1988, Hervé This cooking is that its practitioners should aim to understand
published a book entitled in French, “Casseroles et Eprouv- the vision of chefs on ingredients and food, even though
ettes”8, recently translated into English as “Molecular they are usually nonscientific and sometimes irrational, to
Gastronomy”9, and in recent years, several books on the be able to communicate with the chefs, and to be able to
topic have appeared10,11. translate scientific concepts into practical guidelines. An
The scientific program of molecular gastronomy has excellent example of a hypothesis-driven approach to
been recently reformulated by Hervé This12 and is to cooking is described by Harold McGee in his book
explore scientifically: (a) the technical part of cooking, i.e., “The Curious Cook”15. For example, in this book, it is
the science behind recipes (applying the concepts of described how the cooking time of a steak should depend
precisions, referring to details in a recipe, and definitions, on the thickness of the steak and the form (cube or
referring to the main points in a recipe), (b) the artistic cylindrical for example), using results of heat-transfer
component of cooking, and (c) the social component of equations, while subsequently, these relations are experi-
cooking. This presentation was made at a molecular mentally tested in the kitchen. Other good practical
gastronomy session of the Euro Food Chemistry meeting examples of a successful interplay between science and
in Paris, August 2007, which defines the first time that gastronomy can be found in the work of Ferran Adria in
molecular gastronomy was included as a symposium topic his restaurant el Bulli, where art and science are
at a scientific conference12. systematically blended together and, more recently, the
The technical component refers to craftsmanship (repe- foundation Alicia, near Barcelona (see http://www.elbulli.
tition, tradition, well-executed work), whereas the art com/cronologia/index.php?lang=en). Another example is
component refers to more creative aspects (innovation, the successful collaboration between the three-star chef
248 Food Biophysics (2008) 3:246–254

Heston Blumenthal and the physicist Prof. Peter Barham of these mostly are due to a lack of clarity about its meaning.
Bristol University and between Heston Blumenthal and the We therefore provide some definitions and closely related
food scientist Prof. Andy Taylor (Nottingham University), terms below to clarify this term and try to point out their
who share a Ph.D. student together. The collaborations have interrelationship.
been successful from an education point of view as well as a
research point of view. Yet, another example is the creative Molecular Gastronomy Molecular gastronomy may be
output generated between the chef Pierre Gagnaire in Paris defined as the scientific discipline that deals with the
and the scientist Hervé This. development, creation, and properties of foods normally
The term molecular gastronomy has been used in the prepared in a kitchen. It is therefore a subset of the more
culinary arts and in particular by journalists to describe a general field of food science and technology that involves
cooking style adopted by certain chefs that is characterized the scientific study of foods and the application of this
by its reliance on principles, practices, and techniques knowledge to improve foods. The necessity for this subfield
superficially associated with the sciences and with food was born out of a feeling “that the phenomena that occur
technology as applied within industry. The technology, during cooking were neglected in Food Science”12. Molec-
however, has become, in unfortunately too many cases ular gastronomy is characterized by the utilization of the
lately, the only driving factor for the development of a new scientific method to better understand and control the
dish, instead of striving for excellent food per se. In molecular, physicochemical, and structural changes that
addition, it is this technology push that has aroused media occur in foods during their preparation and consumption.
attention with unfortunate consequence of stimulating one- The scientific method is characterized by careful observation,
directional thinking, with the consequence that quite a hypothesis formation and testing, controlled experimentation,
number of serious chefs that were originally associated with scientific objectivity, and experimental reproducibility. The
the term (as they experienced that science could leverage definition given above is therefore in close agreement with
their creativity and help them in making good food) have that given by the authors of the original term: “The scientific
now distanced themselves from it and have stressed that exploration of culinary, and more generally, gastronomical
their cooking style is based on a quest for quality and transformations and phenomena, as described by cooks or by
excellence, rather than for novelty and gimmicks16. culinary books”17. We add that “it is important to emphasize
Therefore, their main idea is that one should not just use that molecular gastronomy is not a type or style of cooking,”
the science for the sake of novelty but science for the sake which we quote from Vega and Ubbink18. For this comment
of getting excellent food. These chefs have stated that a on not being a style of cooking, see also Adria et al.16.
scientific understanding of the behavior of foods during
preparation and cooking is only one of the tools that they Science-based Cooking Science-based cooking as a term
use in their quest for excellence. Consequently, they will was introduced recently by Vega and Ubbink18 as “the
collaborate with scientists and industrial engineers but also conscious application of the principles and tools from food
with professionals from many other disciplines such as science and other disciplines for the development of new
architects and designers to explore the full expressive dishes, particularly in the context of haute cuisine.”
potential of food16. These chefs are thus open toward the
understanding of the cooking process as provided by food Experimental Cuisine This concept was introduced by the
science and to the various tools and working procedures Experimental Cuisine Collective (New York City)19 and
derived from food technology. This development turns encompasses a list of aims, of which we quote: “Contribute
away from a superficial focus on technology and gimmicks. to a rigorous scientific understanding of the physical basis
Conversely, it reemphasizes importance of the understand- for cooking processes” and “Enhance understanding of the
ing of food, ingredients, and cooking methods. The social contexts for cooking and the societal ramifications of
understanding of cooking processes is for some chefs in new food technologies, flavors, and new dining traditions.”
fact the actual meaning of molecular gastronomy. This was Science-based cooking refers to an approach adopted by
articulated in fact by Moshik Roth, the chef of ‘t certain chefs to create novel kinds of foods or to put a
Brouwerskolkje, in The Netherlands (van der Linden, creative twist on traditional foods. This approach is
personal communication). characterized by the willingness of the chefs involved to
break with traditional ingredients and cooking procedures
to create novel foods with new appearances, textures, or
Definitions flavors. These chefs are willing to experiment with new
ingredients and technologies to produce foods. Hence, one
Lately, quite some confusion and disagreements have arisen may contrast this kind of progressive approach to cooking,
around the term molecular gastronomy. We believe that with a more traditional approach that relies on preparing
Food Biophysics (2008) 3:246–254 249

foods based on well-established recipes. Having said this, large quantities of foods that must remain stable and safe
chefs who adopt either the progressive or traditional for long periods during transport and storage, that must be
approach are united in their desire to create high-quality convenient to prepare, that should (ideally) be healthy, and
foods that look and taste delicious and that satisfy their that must still look and taste (reasonably) good when
customers. It should also be mentioned that those chefs consumed. The term molecular gastronomy therefore
who are involved in experimental cuisine are not delineates the subject matter of study and the overall goals
necessarily aware of the scientific principles that underpin of the endeavor, even though the actual scientific concepts
the novel dishes that they are creating. Instead, it is the and experimental methods used in molecular gastronomy
scientific approach in molecular gastronomy that may and food science are often the same.
provide information that chefs can use to better under- We conclude that there are various points of view on
stand the processes occurring during the creation and how to connect science with gastronomy. The interactions
preparation of foods. This knowledge may be used to between scientists, chefs, and other food professionals will
optimize ingredients or preparation procedures (the recipe) substantiate these connections in various ways, and con-
of particular foods, or it may be used to prepare inno- necting the field of food science with gastronomy will
vative foods. undoubtedly enrich the field of food science as it is now
It should be noted that the term “molecular gastronomy” and perhaps broaden it.
invokes mixed responses from scientists, chefs, and the
public alike. The term was originally coined by scientists to
highlight the importance of understanding the molecular
and physicochemical processes that occur during the Role of Molecular Gastronomy: Bridging the Gap
creation of foods in the kitchen. However, some scientists between Culinary Art and Science
believe that molecular gastronomy is a pretentious or trivial
term that has been given to a practice that has been carried One important role of molecular gastronomy may be its
out for many decades namely, food science. Many ability to help bridge the gap between art, craftsmanship,
individuals working in the culinary arts find the term to and science. The kitchen is a meeting place where chefs,
be unrepresentative, unsavory, or even ugly, whereas others who are normally characterized by their artistry, creativity,
find it to be novel and invigorating20. and craft, can interact with scientists who are normally
Ideally, a term is needed that encapsulates the creativity, characterized by their empiricism, rationality, and adherence
artistry, and craft of the chef, as well as the rigorous to the scientific method. The overlap of science, craftsman-
principles of the scientific method and that, at the same ship, and art within foods may help to begin about a
time, sounds agreeable to scientists, chefs, and the general conversation between these traditionally different disciplines.
public. The term “Kitchen Chemistry,” which was the title This will help educate the public about the importance of
of a recent book by the chef Heston Blumenthal of the Fat adopting an integrated and holistic approach to human
Duck restaurant in England, seems to meet many of these knowledge and experience.
criteria, though the term itself neglects the physical aspects Creative cooking and food science are different human
of cooking. The term, however, seems to be more palatable endeavors, with one being characterized primarily by its
for the general public than molecular gastronomy. Howev- creativity and artisanal character and the other by its
er, we also should ask if a new term is needed at all to rationalism. At the same time, successful scientists and
describe the practice currently called molecular gastronomy chefs are united by their passion for achieving excellence in
or would existing terms such as “food science” or “food their chosen field. Scientists have a passion for discovering
chemistry” in the kitchen be sufficient. We believe that how things work at the most fundamental levels, whereas
there is a need for a specific term since molecular chefs have a passion for creating novel and delicious foods
gastronomy (or an equivalent term) does have a number The chefs involved in developing innovative foods are
of features that distinguish it from conventional food usually characterized primarily by their creativity—their
science. Molecular gastronomy may be considered to be ability to imaginatively utilize traditional and nontraditional
primarily concerned with establishing the scientific basis of ingredients and processing tools to create new food forms,
the quality and overall sensory experience of foods combinations, and tastes. Currently, many of the nontradi-
produced in small amounts that will be consumed relatively tional ingredients are long-forgotten species and types of
quickly and close to the place of preparation and where, vegetables, roots, tubers, seafood, and also herbs and spices
next to ingredient costs, the manual labor required to uncommon to Western cooking (but well known in, e.g.,
prepare the food is a major factor (in contrast to industrially Oriental cooking). At the same time, there is a very strong
manufactured food). The current focus within the food focus to use unusual products from the local region or
science area is primarily on the economic production of terroir.
250 Food Biophysics (2008) 3:246–254

The scientists involved in studying the molecular and they analyze them by probing the properties with their eyes,
physicochemical changes that occur in foods are usually nose, mouth, and touch, and they are interested in these
characterized primarily by their rationality—their ability to properties to know whether the food is ready for being
systematically breakdown a complex system into simpler taken to the next preparation step or to be consumed.
parts whose behavior can be understood within the Having said this, the final arbiter of food quality is always
prevailing scientific framework. We want to stress at this the human sensory system, and so the food industry also
point that a successful scientist requires a great deal of relies heavily on sensory testing of its products by either
imagination to decide what to look at, what is the best way trained or untrained panelists. One area where highly
of accurately describing a complex system, which hypotheses trained sensory scientists are widely used in the food
or theoretical frameworks are the most suitable, and which industry is in flavor houses, where trained individuals (so-
analytical techniques or tests are most appropriate. called noses) help with the formulation, refinement, and
Both chefs and food scientists are passionate about testing of complex flavor mixtures. Trained chefs, who
foods, the former regarding the preparation of excellent have a highly developed sense of the appearance, texture,
food and the latter regarding the understanding of the food and mouth feel of foods, can play a similar role in the
and being the first in elucidating important and novel development of new products within the food industry.
physicochemical mechanisms. Sometimes, a fast route toward the solution of a problem is
Many food scientists and technologists use their under- by applying intuition and experience and not by data-
standing of fundamental scientific principles to design and crunching activities or theoretical analysis. Hence, a chef’s
fabricate novel structures within foods to provide functional intuition and experience of the influence of specific
properties, such as stability, taste, texture, appearance, or ingredients on taste and texture will be a worthwhile asset
flavor. For example, food scientists often create tiny for product development.
hydrogel beads within foods to encapsulate flavor compo- The end goal of food technologists and chefs is often the
nents. These hydrogel beads have inspired some experimental same: the consistent creation of high-quality foods. Never-
chefs to develop innovative dishes, e.g., artificial caviar beads theless, the goals and constraints are different. A chef is
produced by controlled gelation of hydrocolloids. For interested in producing a relatively small quantity of food
example, Chef Ferrán Adriá of el Bulli in Spain has produced for a small number of people in a well-controlled setting,
“apple caviar” by gelling small beads of apple juice/alginate whereas a food technologist is usually interested in mass
solution using calcium, the general procedure originally producing large quantities of food for a large number of
being developed by physical chemists. Reversely, scientists people who are distributed over a wide geographical area.
are inspired by straightforward problems regarding food in Both parties are interested in delivering maximum quality
every day life, such as the stability of an alcoholic beverage but for different audiences and purposes, and, in addition, the
like Pernod, upon dilution in water21. Another example is the attainable standards are quite different. However, food
distilling in the restaurant kitchen of certain flavors from technologists could still learn a lot from the passion of chefs
food-based liquids and the concentrating of them using in their quest for the ultimate food quality and experience.
Rotavap equipment widely used in chemical laboratories. Chefs are involved in many of the same procedures and
The flavors can then be introduced into another food activities as scientists and technologists but with a different
matrix. This development is currently, however, idea- and orientation. They carry out experiments in the kitchen with
technology-driven, and as chefs lack fundamental knowledge different ingredients, processing tools, and preparation
about volatility, partition coefficients, and hydrophobicity/ procedures (e.g., temperatures, times, effect of agitation
hydrophilicity of flavor compounds, it is difficult for them to and stirring, and changes in composition) and carefully
rationally decide how to optimize the extraction process and observe what kind of material is produced, what its
how to control the release of the flavor compounds in the properties are, and how reproducibly it can be produced.
novel food matrix to which they have been added. The chefs use a rational approach in selecting appropriate
Food scientists often test the properties of the materials ingredients and techniques. This rational approach is,
that they produce using a variety of sophisticated analytical however, based on previous knowledge and experience
tools, including microscopy and scattering techniques to and, as argued, not so much on a deep understanding of the
measure structure and appearance, rheometers to measure fundamental properties of the ingredients and preparation
texture, and gas chromatography to measure the concentra- methods. Scientists conversely use a rational approach that
tion of flavor compounds. Scientists ideally do these is based on generic and fundamental understanding of how
measurements to confirm or refute theories and hypotheses matter behaves. In addition, a chef wants in the end to
and to construct relations between properties of ingredients prepare (excellent) food, whereas a scientist is generally
and macroscopically relevant properties of the food matrix. satisfied when he or she understands some fundamental
Chefs are interested in many of the same properties, but aspect of a food. Consequently, whereas there are some
Food Biophysics (2008) 3:246–254 251

similarities between the motivation and passions of chefs actually does that in his courses at the French Culinary
and scientists, the focus and approaches of both are Institute in New York City. His approach in his lectures is
therefore completely different. However, it is increasingly that education is not based on the amount and/or type of
becoming clear that the combination can be highly knowledge that people acquire during a course but rather on
synergistic and can stimulate culinary innovation. This is getting them acquainted with a different way of thinking
a clear example of something that has been pointed by and approaching problems (McGee, personal communica-
Donald Stokes in general, i.e., that combining curiosity- tion, Autumn 2007). This different way of thinking may be
driven research with user-inspired research stimulates referred to as hypothesis-driven thinking, together with
innovation22. solution-focused approaches based on generic knowledge
instead of specific knowledge for a certain type of product
or ingredient. The generic approach allows the chef to think
Food as Art of solutions for his desire to materialize his creative
thoughts.
There is a distinct difference between the perception of Second is that this type of thinking is also desirable to
chefs who are involved in progressive and traditional introduce to children at primary and secondary schools, and
cooking, between the artist and the artisan. The paying food is a wonderfully familiar subject to illustrate things.
customer in a restaurant serving traditional food is expecting Hence, apart form introducing a valuable way of thinking,
the chef to prepare a meal that meets certain predefined the use of the subject food automatically introduces
expectations. The customer is in charge; they actively order a knowledge that is essential for judging issues like health
particular meal and expect it to conform to a specific and food. This knowledge is essential for kids and adults
expectation—if it is not, they may complain. On the other alike and plays an important role in optimizing the choices
hand, the customer in a restaurant that focuses on innovative people make in food eating behavior and thus may even
cooking is expecting to be challenged and entertained, with indirectly aid food-related disease control. Examples of
novel sensory experiences being at the center. Food education in primary schools are available for example in
preparation has become a form of art—with the meal acting France and The Netherlands (the latter country being
as the medium of communication. Furthermore, science can subsidized by the government and chefs association). It is
help in realizing such art. Nevertheless, one has to be careful currently also undertaken by Alicia in Spain.
not to give all experimental cuisine the same label. Just as Third is that courses in food science that relate science
modern art comes in many different flavors (pointillism, with gastronomy and that cover various aspects of
expressionism, impressionism, surrealism, Dadaism, Pop- gastronomy are currently being taught or developed in
Art, postmodernism, etc.), so does experimental cuisine. several academic curricula (The Netherlands, Denmark).
Each meal should be appreciated and judged in its own right, An example is a course on an MsC level at Wageningen
and aspects of originality, quality, and relation to the origins University, which flourishes because of the collaboration
and meaning of the food should be part of this. Nevertheless, with the Wageningen School for Chefs. Infrastructure is
the criteria for judging experimental cuisine are different shared, which enables one to house more than 50 students
than those for judging a traditional meal; in addition to in a professional kitchen for 1 week. Knowledge on the
desirable appearance, aroma, taste, and texture, there are also scientific (physico-chemical and chemical) background of
be other attributes such as creativity, surprise, and novelty. recipes is shared with the creativity and taste-structuring
We note that most of the high-level and innovative desires from a chef’s point of view. This bridges the
restaurants blend innovation with tradition, art, and artisanal material aspects of food with the perception aspects of food.
ways of preparing food. The chef–scientist interaction is felt to stimulate educational
developments at both academia and chef schools.
Fourth, is that the courses developed according to the
Molecular Gastronomy and Education above can easily be rolled out toward the public sector and
industrial sector where appropriate.
Molecular gastronomy provides an excellent opportunity for
improved communication and understanding between artists,
scientists, students, and the general public. The dissemina- Molecular Gastronomy: Who Benefits?
tion of knowledge from academia toward other educational
bodies, as well as the transfer of knowledge and skills If molecular gastronomy is to continue to grow as a serious
between their various levels, works in various ways. endeavor, then it must have strong advocates within a
First, is that the way of thinking of scientists can be variety of communities, including scientists, chefs, the
introduced to chefs. An example is Harold McGee who public, and the food industry. We list some ways that
252 Food Biophysics (2008) 3:246–254

support of molecular gastronomy could benefit these produce high-quality food for the general public at a
diverse communities below: reasonable cost together with a focus on originality and
origin of foods and on added value. This perhaps could
Chefs: A better understanding of the processes occur-
inspire the industry to look for interesting new
ring during the preparation of foods will enable chefs
developments on high-quality food grown and manu-
to optimize the selection of ingredients and preparation
factured in a sustainable way. A new focus on food
procedures (the recipe) of many traditional foods, as
quality, sensory experience, and aspects of sustainabil-
well as facilitating the preparation of new types of
ity may also convince the consumer that it is worth
foods. For example, if a chef wants to create a novel
paying a bit more for their food than they nowadays
foam that will last for a few hours, then it would help if
do, which could help to bring the negative spiral to an
they knew which ingredients and processes when used
end of decreasing prices, shrinking profit margins for
together can produce such a foam (e.g., hydrocolloids
the industry, falling farmer incomes, and finally a drop
and proteins). Working with a scientist gives the chef
in the quality of food products.
opportunities that are seldom possible without this kind
Society: The intersection of molecular gastronomy and
of collaboration, for example, access to processing
the culinary arts is a natural meeting place of the “two
equipment and analytical instruments (as a chef in Chile
cultures”: scientific rationalism and the creative arts.
does while working with Professor José Aguilera). As
Food is a subject that everyone is familiar with and that
argued above, it is important that chefs pick up a
everyone can relate to. On the other hand, few in the
scientific way of thinking, i.e., a generic approach to
general public understand the scientific basis of food or
problems rather than an approach highly specific to a
are able to prepare artistic food creations. The
particular context.
intersection of human understanding and creativity in
Scientists: The complexity, diversity, and dynamism of
foods may help promote support for the general public
the natural and manufactured worlds by necessity mean
for the arts and sciences in general. In addition,
that scientists must often focus on an extremely narrow
consumption of good food may be good for health
field of study. A scientist may spend his or her whole
and could help to reintroduce cooking skills now
live studying the properties of a single molecule or the
largely lost by most of the population. Whatever
characteristics of a particular chemical reaction. Mo-
important trend regarding foods is relevant (reducing
lecular gastronomy brings science back into the real
salt, sugar, and fat or providing enough food for the
world, with all its complexity and subtlety. It forces
world using alterative protein sources, etc.) one always
scientists to put their specialist work into a broader
has the constraint that the taste should be good.
context and helps them appreciate the wider importance
Moreover, special foods are necessary for certain target
of what they are doing. It fosters collaboration, commu-
groups that are going to play a growing role in society,
nication, integration, and an appreciation of the limits of
such as kids, the elderly, and the ill. Food for these
reductionism. It reveals questions and problems for
target groups does have special needs but always with
further study that may otherwise not have become
the condition that it should taste good (which is now
apparent. In addition, it encourages creative thought and
not always the case, in particular in the case of clinical
thoughtful creation and respect for the origin and quality
nutrition). Interaction between chefs and scientists is
of foods. As one scientist during the meeting puts it: “It is
probably essential for meeting the target of healthy food
so nice to see what the impact of science can be in such a
for each group together with the constraint of optimal
direct way, to immediately see the benefit, instead of
taste. At the same time, due to the collaboration between
hearing about why a certain idea cannot be practically
chefs and scientists on healthy food, the results of such
applied because of cost reasons for instance” (statement
collaborations will be, almost automatically, effectively
by Prof. J. Aguilera in20).
communicated in a way that is easily understandable by
the main public. Yet, another important issue regarding
Molecular gastronomy provides a new focus for scientific the societal impact was put forward by another scientist:
research on foods—understanding the basis of quality in all its “It is a great opportunity for the dissemination of
forms and using knowledge to produce quality, instead of scientific understanding to the main public, which is
focusing only on cost reduction. This provides interesting new one of the reasons universities are around in the first
challenges and topics to investigate. It also helps to foster an place” (statement by professor A. Foegeding in20).
interest by the general public in scientific principles. Students: Programs get more focused on food as a
whole and reemphasize the holistic aspects of food in
Food industry: The food industry could use the studies, which up to now are heavily focused at purely
knowledge gained from molecular gastronomy to mass rational and scientific approaches to food. Furthermore,
Food Biophysics (2008) 3:246–254 253

students get more exposure to real problems related to chefs to work on particular food products. The dissemination
foods. Provided that the balance between science and of the results of this research will then be highly restricted to
practical solutions is maintained, very interesting thesis a small number of scientists.
subjects arise and stimulate the students. In certain The combination of science and gastronomy will enable
cases, students may follow internships at places like educational developments on all levels, from primary
Alicia. education to academia. The combination will be inspiring
and will add value to the current educational programs,
perhaps even increasing the interest of students for the
The Future of Molecular Gastronomy exact sciences and/or increasing the public interest in
health-related food issues in general.
The future of molecular gastronomy will stand or fall with At present, the food industry is largely focusing its
its ability to prove that it is a relevant scientific discipline or research efforts on the development and economic production
eventually a subdiscipline of food science. To prove this of foods that promote human health and wellness, e.g., foods
(and we as authors of this article are convinced that with lower salt levels, lower sugar levels, high protein
molecular gastronomy has a long-term scientific merit), a contents, or foods that are fortified with bioactive compo-
stimulus should be given to scientists to focus on food and nents, such as calcium, phytosterols, and w-3 fatty acids.
food ingredients, with the aim of elucidating the basic Nevertheless, these foods must also be acceptable and
physicochemical mechanisms of cooking. The results of desirable to the food consumer; that is, they should have
these studies should serve several aims. First, as with all good appearance, texture, and flavor. A better scientific
scientific investigation, its results should be communicated understanding of what precisely makes a food look and taste
to fellow scientists by means of publications, conference delicious may help in the mass production of high-quality,
presentations, and seminars and should be intellectually safe, healthy, and nutritious foods.
scrutinized by these fellow scientists. Second, a professional It is hoped that this article stimulates thought for
working relation should be built up with chefs, chef schools, identifying opportunities that bring together chefs and
and training organizations, and the scientific results should scientists for the benefit of education, research, and society
be translated in basic concepts and recommendations, which as a whole.
chefs are able to appreciate and master. Third, molecular
gastronomy should prove its merit via its interaction with the
general public and emphasize the importance of food and its Acknowledgments We thank all presenters and participants of the
session on Molecular Gastronomy held during the Second International
preparation in the overall quality of life.
Symposium on Delivery of Functionality in Complex Food Systems
The traditional model of doing scientific research (University of Massachusetts at Amherst, October 8–10, 2007) for their
involves obtaining financial support for a particular project contributions and for the open and stimulating round-table discussion. J.U.
from government agencies or industry, carrying out the would like to thank Cesar Vega for the close collaboration on the science
of food and cooking.
research, and then publishing the results in scientific
journals. A scientist’s reputation is built on the quality,
relevance, and quantity of their research output. At present,
there are few places for scientists to obtain external funding References
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