:

1. Near London is example of PREPOSITIONAL phrase

2. He drew the picture with a crayon; HERE caryon IS INSTRUMENT

3. Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of linguistics which identifies, investigates,

and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems

4. Semantic role is the UNDERLYING relationship that a participant has with the main
verb in a clause.

5. Anaphora can be defined as subsequent reference to an already introduced entity

6. Semantic development in a child's use of words is usually a process of

OVEREXTENSION

7. Sihia is the language of JAPAN

8. Young, Lichun and Jun (2001) analyzed contents of four Chinese journals of Applied
Linguistics

9. Psycholinguistics is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable
humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language.

10. Social-Cultural context still includes factors such as illiteracy rate, population
geographic distribution, educational level and the populations’ ethnic composition

11. The sources of lexicographers are SECONDARY fieldwork

12. The first component is grammatical competence, which involves the accurate use of
words and structures.

13. The deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the
elements determining structural interpretation are represented.
14. If an agent uses another entity in order to perform an action, that other entity fills the
role of instrument .
15. The idea of ‘the characteristic instance’ of a category is known as the Prototype.
16. Semantic development in a child's use of words is usually a process of ......
OVEREXTENSION

17. The sentence can be grammatically correct but SEMANTICALLY

incorrect.

18. One of the tests used to check for the presuppositions underlying sentences involves
negating a sentence with a particular presupposition and checking if the presupposition
remains true.

19. The acquisition of the plural marker is often accompanied by a process of

OVERGENERALIZATION

20. Two Word stage begins around eighteen to twenty months. The child’s vocabulary
moves beyond FIFTY WORDS.

21. Electronic dictionary databases, especially those included with software dictionaries are
often extensive and can contain up to 500,000 headwords and definitions, verb conjugation
tables, and a grammar reference section

22. Two word stage occurs between 18 to 24 month.

Q. E-Dictionary:

An electronic dictionary is a dictionary whose data exists in digital form and can be accessed
through a number of different media.

Electronic dictionaries can be found in several forms, including:

as dedicated handheld devices

as apps on smartphones and tablet computers or computer software

as a function built into an E-reader

As CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs, they are typically packaged with a printed dictionary to be
installed on the user’s own computer. As free or paid-for online products most of the early
electronic dictionaries were print dictionaries made available in digital form. The content was
identical. But the electronic editions provided users with more powerful search functions. But
soon the opportunities offered by digital media began to be exploited.

Electronic dictionary databases, especially those included with software dictionaries are often
extensive and can contain up to 500,000 headwords and definitions, verb conjugation tables, and
a grammar reference section. Bilingual electronic dictionaries and monolingual dictionaries of
inflected languages often include an interactive verb conjugator, and are capable of word
stemming and lemmatization. Electronic dictionaries are also available in logographic and right-
to-left scripts, including Arabic, Persian, Chinese, Devanagari, Greek, Hebrew, Japanese,
Korean, and Thai. Several developers of the systems that drive electronic dictionary software
offer API and SDK – Software Development Kit tools for adding various language-based
functions to programs, and web services such as the AJAX API used by Google.

Q. Stages of Child language learning:

The stages of language production by the children focusing primarily on the unfolding of lexical
and syntactic knowledge are mentioned as follows:

Stage Typical Age Description Age

Babbling 6-8 months Repetitive CV patterns
One- word stage(better one- 9-18 months Single open-class words or
morpheme or one- unit) or word stems
holophrastic stage
Two-word stage 18-24 months ‘mini-sentences’ with simple
semantic relations
Telegraphic stage or early 24-30 months ‘Telegraphic’ sentence
multiword stage structures of lexical rather
than functional or grammatical
morphemes.
Later multiword stage 30+ months Grammatical or functional
structure emerge.

Q. Two Phrase Structure Rule:

These are the rules that form phrases of different types e.g., noun phrase, verb phrase, and
adjective phrase etc. A tree diagram can have two different ways: simply as a static
representation of the structure of the sentence shown at the bottom of the tree diagram. Every
single sentence can have a tree diagram. The other one is the dynamic format which is a way of
generating not only that particular sentence, but a very large number of other sentences with
similar structures. This second approach is very appealing because it would enable us to generate
a very large number of sentences with what looks like a very small number of rules. These rules
are called phrase structure rules.

These rules state that the structure of a phrase of a specific type will consist of one or more
constituents in a particular order. Phrase structure rules present the information of the tree
diagram in another format.

 S → NP VP
  NP → {Art (Adj) N, Pro, PN}
 VP → V NP (PP) (Adv)
 PP → Prep NP

Q. Sign Linguistics and Pragmatics are two major branches of applied linguistics

Sign linguistics:

Any unit of language (morpheme, word, phrase, or sentence) used to designate objects or
phenomena of reality.

Pragmatics:

The study of the use of linguistic signs, words and sentences, in actual situations.

Q. Standard Varieties of English in World:

There are different standard varieties of English in the world:

British English

North American English,

Australian English

Indian English, etc.

Standard Variety:

It is an idealized variety, because it has no specific region. It is associated with administrative,

commercial and educational centers, printed in newspapers and books, and used in the mass
media regardless of region. It is more easily described in terms of the written language (i.e.,
vocabulary, spelling, grammar) than the spoken language.

Q. Wave Model:

During the 20th century the wave model has had little acceptance as a model for language
change overall. It has recently gained more popularity among historical linguists due to the
shortcomings of the Tree model. The wave model was originally presented by Johannes Schmidt.

INNOVATION A

INNOVATION B

INNOVATION C
 INNOVATION D

In this diagram, the circles are to be regarded as diachronic; that is, they increase in diameter
over time, like the concentric waves on a water surface struck by a stone. The circles are stable
dialects; characters or bundles of characters that have been innovated and have become more
stable over an originally small portion of the continuum for socio-political reasons. These circles
spread from their small centers of maximum effectiveness like waves, becoming less effective
than dissipating at maximum time and distance from the center. Languages are to be regarded as
impermanent sets of speech habits that result from and prevail in the intersections of the circles.

Q. Role of instruments in Semantics:

If an agent uses another entity in order to perform an action, that other entity fills the role of
instrument.

The boy cut the rope with an old razor.

He drew the picture with a crayon.

In these examples with an old razor and with a crayon are ‘instrument’ with which the agent
performed the action.

Q. Morphology Processing:

Computational morphology deals with the processing of words and word forms, in both their
graphemic, i.e., written form, and their phonemic, i.e., spoken form. The task of an automatic
morphological analyzer is to take a word in a language and break it down into its stem form
along with any affixes that it may have attached to that stem. In processing a sentence such as:
Hussain reads well,

The analysis should be:

Hussain as a proper name

reads as the third person singular present form of the verb read (read+s)

well as either an adverb or a singular noun

Q. Direct Speech Act:

A direct relationship between the structure and the communicative function of the utterance is
called direct speech act.

We do not know something.

We ask someone to provide the information.

Can you ride a bicycle?

Q. The Method of Understanding Discourse:

The role of knowledge in discourse production and comprehension has been a result of findings
in the field of artificial intelligence in order to program computers for producing and
understanding discourse. These programs need more than the language being used; it involves
pre-existent knowledge of the world. Artificial Intelligence tries to understand how this
knowledge and language interact and to reproduce the process in computers. For discourse
analysis, the most important idea to come out of the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is
‘knowledge schemata’.

Mental representations of typical situation used in discourse processing to predict the content of
the particular situation, which the discourse describes. Mind stimulated by key words or phrases
in the text, or by the context, activates a knowledge schema and uses it to make sense of the
discourse. To program a computer AI needs to reproduce the process and to give computers both
the necessary language knowledge and necessary schemata. This is difficult for the existing
computers. How mental schemata operate in discourse production and comprehension. When a
sender judges his receiver’s schema to correspond to a significant degree with his own, he only
needs features which are not contained in it. Other features need to be present by default.

Q. Note on One word stage of Language Acquisition: (5)

Between twelve and eighteen months the child produces a variety of recognizable single-unit
utterances. This stage is characterized by speech, in which single terms are uttered for everyday
objects like ‘Cookie’, ‘Cat’, ‘Cup’ ‘Spoon’ (usually pronounced [pun]).

Other forms such as [ʌsæ]: A version of ‘What’s that’, so the label ‘one-word’ for this stage may
be misleading, the term such as ‘single-unit’ would be more accurate.

Holophrastic

During this stage a single form functions as a phrase or sentence to describe an utterance that
could be analyzed as a word, a phrase, or a sentence. Holophrastic utterances seem to be used to
name objects; they may also be produced in circumstances that suggest the child is already
extending their use.

An empty bed may elicit the name of a sister who normally sleeps in the bed, even in the absence
of the person named. During this stage the child may be capable of referring to Karen and bed,
but is not yet ready to put the forms together to produce a more complex phrase. It is over
expectation from a toddler to expect such thing. The child can only walk with a stagger and has
to come downstairs backwards.

Q. Source Material of Dictionaries: (5)

The vocabulary of English contains words from more sources than any other language as a
consequence of its history and contacts with any other language. The substratum of English is
AngloSaxon. Overlaid on this stratum is a Stratum of Latinate vocabulary. The invading
Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxon and Jutes also contributed to its richness. English has
imported words from countless languages around the world.

Two basic methods by which a language may increase its vocabulary:

Use of material available

Import world from another language.

All new words are added to the word class: nouns, verbs, adjectives, with the majority being
nouns. Other ways of forming words:

Compounding:

Seatbelt, bookshop Derivatives: Careful, shipment Acronyms: ATM, UNESCO Loanwords:

Spaghetti (Italian), tycoon (Japanese)

The data from which lexicographers draw their information have to be chosen to suit the type of
dictionary they are planning. The sources of lexicographers are:

Primary:

Archives, corpus Secondary: fieldwork, other dictionaries, encyclopedia, www etc.

Q. Origin of Discourse Analysis in your own word (5)

The term discourse analysis was first employed by Zelling Harris as the name for ‘a method for
the analysis of the connected speech or writing for continuing descriptive linguistics beyond the
limit of a single sentence at a time and for correlating culture and language’ (Harris, 1952). The
word ‘discourse’ is usually defined as ‘language beyond the sentence’ and so the analysis of
discourse is typically concerned with the study of language in texts and conversation.

As language-users, we are capable of more than simply recognizing correct versus incorrect
forms and structures. We can cope with fragments in newspaper headlines such as: Trains
collide; two die, and know that what happened in the first part was the cause of what happened in
the second part.

We have the ability to create complex discourse interpretations of fragmentary linguistic

messages. Discourse analysis is the study of how stretches of language used in communication
assume meaning, purpose, and unity for their users.

Q. Concept of Metonymy in your own words (5)

Metonymy is another type of relationship between words based simply on a close connection in
everyday experience.

A container–contents relation (bottle/water, can/juice)

A whole–part relation (car/wheels, house/roof).

A representative–symbol relationship (king/crow.

The President/the White House).

Using one of these words to refer to the other is metonymy. He had the whole can. We also
accept the White House has announced …

Downing Street protested...

Filling up the car,

Answering the door,

Boiling a kettle,

Giving someone a hand,

Needing some wheels

Metonymy meanings are highly conventionalized and easy to interpret. However, making sense
of such expressions often depends on context, background knowledge and inference. The strings
are too quiet (music etc.). I prefer cable (regarding TV channels).

Q. Discourse Typology:

Language teaching divide discourse into two major categories:

Spoken

Written

They are further divided into the following:

Speaking and Listening

Reading and writing

Spoken discourse is less planned and orderly in a conversation. It is more open to intervention by
the receivers. Some kinds of spoken discourses are lesson, lectures, interviews, court trials etc.
These spoken discourses are planned to some extent by the person who initiates the conversation,
and the possibility of subordinate participants can be limited.
In reading novel, one cannot influence its development. At times readers may affect the written
discourse, e.g., a person is writing something and the response of the market can influence his
writing. A teacher as a reader sends the essays back to the students to be rewritten. In the same
way the editors ask writers to edit something from written material. The traditional division of
spoken and writing is based on a difference in production. Fundamental distinction as far as
discourse structure is concerned.

Formal discourse

Informal discourse

Formal discourse is planned discourse. It may be spoken and written.

Less formal

It is unplanned discourse either spoken or written.

However, it is usually spoken. Informal spoken especially by foreign language learner is

informal and unpredictable.

Q. Difference between Homonony and Polysemy:

Polysemy is the phenomenon whereby a single word form is associated with two or several
related senses: face, foot, get, head and run are some examples of polysemy Homonymy is
characterized as the phenomenon where a single word form is associated with two or several
unrelated meanings, for examples, bank, mail, mole and sole, etc.

Two forms may be distinguished via homonymy and for one of the forms also to have various
uses via polysemy.The words date (a thing we can eat) and dates (a point in time) are
homonyms. The ‘point in time’ kind of date is polysemous in terms of a particular day and
month (on a letter), an arranged meeting time (an appointment), a social meeting (with someone
we like), and even a person (that person we like).

Homophony Homonymy Polysemy

Two or more different One form (written or spoken) Polysemy is an interesting
(written) forms have the same has two or more unrelated phenomenon that concerns
pronunciation, are described meanings. They have separate cases in which a word or
as homophones histories and meanings. But phrase enjoys multiple, related
they have exactly the same meanings.
form.
bare/bear, bank (of a river) head the object on top of
meat/meet, bank (financial institution) body,
flour/ flower, bat (flying creature) bat froth on top of a glass of
pail/pale, (used in sports) beer,
right/write, mole (on skin) person at the top of a
mole (small animal) company or department
 foot (of person, of bed, of
mountain)
run (person does, water
does, colors do)

Q. Name Types of Aphasia:

The classification of different types of aphasia is usually based on the primary symptoms of
someone having difficulties with language. Following are some of the types of aphasia:

Broca’s Aphasia or Motor Aphasia:

This type is characterized by a substantially reduced amount of speech, in which distorted

articulation and slow and often effortful speech are noted.

Agrammatic:

In this type the speech consists entirely of lexical morphemes (e.g., nouns, verbs) whereas there
are frequent omissions of functional morphemes (e.g., articles, prepositions) and inflections (e.g.,
plural -s, past tense -ed). Here is an example. I eggs and eat and drink coffee breakfast my cheek
… very annoyance … main is my shoulder … aching’ all round here. The patient faces difficulty
in articulating single words. However, comprehension is typically much better than production.

Wernicke’s Aphasia or Sensory Aphasia:

The person with it has difficulties in auditory comprehension. He produces very fluent speech but
feels difficulty to make sense. He uses very general terms. ‘I can’t talk all of the things I do, and
part of the part I can go alright, but I cannot tell from the other people’. He finds difficulty in
finding the correct word, sometimes referred to as anomia.

Conduction Aphasia:

This aphasia is less common, as it is associated with damage to the arcuate fasciculus and is
called conduction aphasia. In its symptoms, the person mispronounces words, but typically do
not have articulation problems. He is fluent, but may have disrupted rhythm because of pauses
and hesitations. His comprehension of spoken words is normally good. He produces words like
the following: vaysse and fosh for ‘base’ and ‘wash’. Language disorders described above are
almost always the result of injury to the left hemisphere.

Q. Tree Diagram: (topic 133)

The most common way to create a visual representation of syntactic structures is through tree
diagrams. We can use the symbols introduced (Art=article, N = noun, NP = noun phrase) to label
parts of the tree as we try to capture the hierarchical organization of those parts in the underlying
structure of phrases and sentences. At the top of the tree diagram, we begin with a sentence (S),
and divide it into two constituents (NP and VP). In turn, the NP constituent is divided into two
other constituents (Art and N) and VP into V and NP.

At the top of the tree diagram, we begin with a sentence (S) and divide it into two constituents
(NP and VP). In turn, the NP constituent is divided into two other constituents (Art and N).

Q. Which Factor get affected because of language barriers?

The experience with an L2 is fundamentally different from that of L1 experience, and it is hardly
conducive to acquisition. They usually encounter the L2 during their teenage or adult years, in a
few hours each week of school time rather than via the constant interaction experienced as a
child with a lot of other things going on and with an already known language available for most
of their daily communicative requirements. Despite the fact that insufficient time, focus and
incentive undermine many L2 learning attempts; some individuals who seem to be able to
overcome the difficulties and develop an ability to use the L2 quite effectively learn the language
fast. However, sounding like a native speaker is difficult. Even in ideal acquisition situations,
very few adults seem to reach native-like proficiency in using an L2. There are individuals who
can achieve great expertise in the written language, but not the spoken language. One of the
greatest examples of this is Joseph Conrad. He wrote a lot of English novels but whenever he
used to speak English, he had his Polish accent.

This might suggest that some features of an L2, such as vocabulary and grammar, are easier to
learn than others such as pronunciation. Without early experience using the sounds and
intonation of the L2, even highly fluent adult learners are likely to be perceived as having an
“accent” of some kind.

This type of observation is sometimes taken as evidence that, after the critical period for
language acquisition has passed, around the time of puberty, it becomes very difficult to acquire
another language fully. The optimum age for learning is ten to sixteen when the flexibility of our
inherent capacity for language has not been completely lost.

4.contrastive linguistic

A practice-oriented linguistic approach that seeks to describe the differences and similarities
between a pair of languages.

Telepahtic stage of language acquisitions=3marks

Between two and two-and-a-half years old, the child starts a large number of utterances that
could be classified as “multiple-word” speech. The salient feature of these utterances ceases to be
the number of words, but the variation in word forms that begins to appear. This is the stage
characterized by strings of words (lexical morphemes) in phrases or sentences such as:
 This shoe all wet

Cat drink milk

Daddy go bye-bye.

Sentence building capacity

Can get the word order correct

Difference between discourse and sentences=3marks

A ‘discourse’ always has the implication of being a reasonably long explanation or lecture. As
such it will inevitably contain many sentences - you would never describe a single sentence as a
discourse, unless it was ridiculously convoluted just to make a point.

invisible meaning define

Pragmatics is the study of “invisible” meaning, or how we recognize what is meant even when it
isn’t actually said or written. A lot of shared assumptions and expectations exist when people try
to communicate.

HEAT

ED

ATTEN

DANT

PARKI

NG

We can park a car in this place, that it’s a heated area, and that there will be an attendant to look
after the car. Our interpretation of the ‘meaning’ of the sign is not based solely on the words, but
on what we think the writer intended to communicate. We are actively involved in creating an
interpretation of what we read and hear.

Inference

A successful act of reference depends more on the listener’s ability to recognize what we mean
than on the listener’s ‘dictionary’ knowledge of a word we use.
Where is the spinach salad sitting?

He is sitting by the door.

Can I look at your Chomsky?

Sure, it is on the shelf over there.

It is clear that names associated with things (salad) may refer to people, and names of people
(Chomsky) to refer to things. The key process here is called inference. An inference is
additional information used by the listener to create a connection between what is said and what
must be meant. The listener has to operate with the inference: ‘If X is the name of the writer of a
book, then X can be used to identify a copy of a book by that writer’. Similar types of inferences
are necessary to understand someone who says that Picasso is in the museum or we saw
Shakespeare in London or Jennifer is wearing Calvin Klein.

Telegraphic speech

Between two and two-and-a-half years old, the child starts a large number of utterances that
could be classified as “multiple-word” speech. The salient feature of these utterances ceases to be
the number of words, but the variation in word forms that begins to appear. This is the stage
characterized by strings of words (lexical morphemes) in phrases or sentences such as:

This shoe all wet

Cat drink milk

Daddy go bye-bye.

Sentence building capacity

Can get the word order correct

While this type of telegram-format speech is being produced, a number of grammatical

inflections begin to appear, the word forms and simple prepositions (in, on).

By the age of two-and-a-half, the child’s vocabulary is expanding rapidly and the child is
initiating more talk while increased physical activity includes running and jumping. By three, the
vocabulary has grown to hundreds of words and pronunciation has become closer to the form of
adult language. At this point, it is worth considering what kind of influence the adults have in the
development of the child’s speech

Syntax

The word ‘syntax’ comes originally from Greek and literally means ‘a putting together’ or
arrangement. There was an attempt to produce an accurate description of the sequence or
ordering ‘arrangement’ of elements in the linear structure of the sentence. In the more recent
attempts to analyze syntactic structure, there has been a greater focus on the underlying rule
system that we used to produce or ‘generate’ sentences.

Collocative meaning with examples=3marks

collocative meaning (collocation) is conveyed by characteristic word combinations.

Examples:

Spatial and temporal deixes=3marks

Spatial deixis: To point to a location (here, there, near that)

Temporal deixis:To a time (now, then, last week)

Semantic process=5marks

How can a computer understand the meaning of an utterance? The parse tree, a given part-of-
speech may have more than one meaning. Spot

We found a nice spot for lunch.

Out, out, damned spot

Would you like a spot of tea? (British English)

Word-sense Disambiguator:

It uses the context of neighboring words in the sentence as well as other words in the document
to figure out which meaning of a given word is most likely. It uses rules that depend on context,
and these rules can be derived by human intuition or by training a machine learning program. A
word’s syntactic and semantic properties are represented in the computer’s digital lexicon. A
word’s syntactic and semantic properties are represented in the computer’s digital lexicon.

Obligatory movement with Reflexes as Object:

Obligatory Movement with Reflexes as Objects

Jane let herself out.

The thief turned himself over to the police.

I dried myself off.

Mary put the fire out.

 ‘Out’ does not indicate lactation.

Tom /turned off/ the ignition.

Tom turned the ignition off.

Tom/ turned/ off the road.

2: Bilingualism and Multilingualism:

Bilingualism: the ability of an individual or the members of a community to use two languages
effectively.

Multilingualism: ability to use multiple languages is known as multilingualism

3: note on coherence:

Coherence is the key to the concept ‘everything fitting together well’. It is beyond the text that
exists in people, not in words or structures. It is people who ‘make sense’ of what they read and
hear. People arrive at an interpretation that is in line with their experiences, the way the world is.
Coherence is the own understanding of something based on personal experiences. It is a way to
incorporate all the disparate elements into a single coherent interpretation, and a process of
filling the gaps that exist in the conversation or in the texts. Coherence creates meaningful
connections not actually expressed by the words. The process not restricted to trying to
understand “odd” texts. In conversational interactions a great deal of what is meant is not
actually present in what is said.

HER: That’s the telephone.

HIM: I’m in the bath.

HER: O.K.

She makes a request of him to perform action. He states reason why he cannot comply with
request. She undertakes to perform action.

To understand the conversation one requires a reasonable analysis of what took place in the
conversation, then it is clear that language-users must have a lot of knowledge of how
conversation works that is not simply “linguistic” knowledge.

4: note on Discourse Analysis

Discourse - language beyond the sentence

Discourse Analysis –the study of language in texts and conversation

It can be considered in terms of the way language is used, even how pauses are used. It focuses upon
certain questions;

 How we make sense of what we read?

 How we can recognize well-constructed texts as opposed to those that are jumbled or incoherent?
 How we understand speakers who communicate more than they say?
 And how we successfully take part in that complex activity called conversation?

5: briefly explain Denotative meaning

Conceptual meaning or denotative meaning covers those basic, essential components of meaning
that are conveyed by the literal use of a word. It is the type of meaning that dictionaries are
designed to describe. Some of the basic components of a word like ‘needle’ in English might
include “thin, sharp, steel instrument.” These components would be part of the conceptual
meaning of needle. However, different people might have different associations or connotations
attached to a word like needle. They might associate it with “pain,” or “illness,” or “blood,” or
“drugs,” or “thread,” or “knitting,” or “hard to find” (especially in a haystack), and these
associations may differ from one person to the next. These types of associations are not treated
as part of the word’s conceptual meaning. In a similar way, some people may associate the
expression low-calorie, when used to describe a product, with “healthy,” but this is not part of
the basic conceptual meaning of the expression (i.e., “producing a small amount of heat or
energy”). Poets, song-writers, novelists, literary critics, advertisers and lovers may all be
interested in how words can evoke certain aspects of associative meaning, but in linguistic
semantics we’re more concerned with trying to analyze the conceptual meaning.

6: Critical period in language acquisition

The apparent specialization of the left hemisphere for language is usually described in terms of
lateral dominance or lateralization (one-sidedness). Since the human child does not emerge from
the womb as a fully articulate language-user, the lateralization process begins in early childhood.
It coincides with the period during which language acquisition takes place. During childhood,
there is a period when the human brain is most ready to receive input and learn a particular
language. This is sometimes called the ‘sensitive period’ for language acquisition, but is more
generally known as the ‘critical period’.

Though some think it may start earlier, the general view is that the critical period for first
language acquisition lasts from birth until puberty. If a child does not acquire language during
this period, for any reason, then it is almost impossible for him/her to learn language later on.
Many unfortunate well documented cases provide us insight about what happens when the
critical period passes without adequate linguistic input.

7: explain Prosody
Prosody is the study of the tune and rhythm of speech, and the way these features contribute to
meaning. Prosody features apply to a level above that of the individual phoneme and very often
to sequences of words. Speech contains various levels of information that can be described as;

Linguistic - direct expression of meaning

Paralinguistic - may indicate attitude or membership of a speech community

Non-linguistic - may indicate something about a speaker's vocal physiology, state of health or
emotional state.

In linguistics, prosody is concerned with properties of syllables and larger units of speech. These
contribute to linguistic functions such as intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm. Prosody may
reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance: The emotional state of the speaker; the
form of the utterance (statement, question, or command); the presence of irony or sarcasm;
emphasis, contrast, and focus or other elements of language that may not be encoded by
grammar or by the choice of vocabulary.

Explain Social cultural context...

Socio-cultural context refers to the idea that language is closely linked to the culture and society
in which it is used. This means when language is learnt, the socio-cultural context in which it is
used needs to be taken into consideration as well. Social-Cultural context still includes factors
such as illiteracy rate, population geographic distribution, educational level and the populations’
ethnic composition. All of these factors can influence the organization’s performance, affecting
its productivity level and product’s quality patterns.

Social context

Particular social background

Social status

Cultural context

cultural setting

cultural backgrounds

Style, subject matter, and attitudes

Activities that can raise awareness of socio-cultural context include using stories, analyzing
newspaper headlines, and looking at slang and idiomatic language.
Define Person deixis..

Deixis is the phenomena of requiring contextual information to create the meaning of a phrase.
The term of ‘deixis’ is used from the Greek word which means ‘to show’ or ‘to indicate’, used to
denote the elements in a language which refer directly to the situation. It stipulates what a deictic
reference to the participant role of a referent is such as: -

The Speaker: The utterer of a message. Deictic center of his/her own deictic references

The addressee: The listener of a message

The Referents: Neither speaker nor the addressee, might present there but not addresses
directly

The deictic center is a reference point in relation to which a deictic expression is to be

interpreted. The deictic center is also most typically the present time, location, participant role
and so forth of speaker. So, the speaker, the actual location and actual time of the utterance are
respectively, the deictic center for the interpretation of ‘I’, ‘here’, ‘now’, e.g.,‘I am here now

Discourse as a dialogue

Developmentally, dialogue comes first, both for the human species, and for the human
individual. There is no hard evidence of the origins of language in prehistoric communities to
assume that speech preceded writing and dialogue preceded monologue. The earliest written
texts of Western European culture, the Socratic dialogues, present as conversation that modern
writers would present as monologue. Perhaps some of this preference remains in modern
practices which favour face-to-face interaction: lectures, job interviews, and news interviews.
Turn-taking and interaction are among the first communicative skills. Parents hold
‘conversations’, even with very young babies, as the following ‘dialogue’ between a mother and
her two-month-old daughter clearly shows:

M: Whatcha gonna tell me?

B:(Gurgling noise)

M: Come on whatcha gonna tell me?

B: (Two gurgling noise. Squeak. Blows air through lips)

M: That’s a nice story. What else are you gonna tell me? Come on.

B: (Gurgling and dribbling noise) M: Let’s hear some more.

Define prototypical dictionary...

The prototypical dictionary has the form of a static (book) or dynamic product (e-dictionary)
with an inter-structure that establishes links between the various components (e-dictionary) and
is usually alphabetically structured. A dictionary provides many useful things.

A reference book

Record of lexicon of language

Quick to find information

Serves as a guardian of purity of that language provides information on

Spelling, form, meaning, usages of words and fixed collocation

Principles of CDA...

 Social and political issues are constructed and reflected in discourse

 Ideologies are constructed and reflected in the use of discourse
 Power relations are performed through discourse.
 Discourse both reflects and reproduces social relations.

Syntactic Processing: (5)

How can a computer characterise the grammatical structure of a sentence? A syntactic parser
tries to find the best grammatical analysis of a sentence. However, there are ambiguous sentence
with more than one possible grammatical structure like the following:

I can fish

For this purpose we use ‘Toy grammar’. This toy grammar recognizes:

Four different kinds of VPs: (Aux V, V NP, V, and Aux V NP)

Three kinds of NPs (D N, N, and Pronoun)

Terminals categories and non-terminals categories

Our toy grammar covers only three different verbs, one auxiliary verb, one determiner, two
nouns, and one pronoun, but even so it can describe quite a variety of sentences. Grammars
written in this format are called context-free grammars.

Neurolinguistics (5)

Neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the
comprehension, production, and acquisition of language. As an interdisciplinary field,
neurolinguistics draws methodology and theory from fields such as neuroscience, linguistics,
cognitive science, neurobiology, communication disorders, neuropsychology, and computer
science.

The study of the relationship between language and the brain is called ‘Neurolinguistics’. The
field of study dates back to the nineteenth century when the location of language in the brain was
an early challenge. The accident of Mr. Gage made it clear to the scientists that language may be
located in the specific parts of the brain; it is not clearly situated right at the front.

Rules of Politeness(3)

Politeness principle, like co-operative principle, may be formulated as a series of maxim, which
people assume are being followed in the utterances of others. Any flouting of these maxims will
take on meaning, provided it is perceived for what it is. Robin Lakoff (1973) formulated the
following maxims:

 Don’t impose
 Give option
 Make your receiver feels good

These maxims explain many of those utterances with no new information

 I'm sorry. I saw you were home.

In English requests or pleas are made in the form of elaborate question.

‘Could you possible ’

‘May I ask you to ’

‘I am sorry to bother you’

‘You know much more about cars than I do’

Clearly, the cooperative and politeness principles are in conflict with each other whereas
politeness and truth are mutually incompatible with each other.

‘How is my new hairstyle’?

These conflicting demands of the two principles are something which people are aware of, for
example, ‘a white lie’.

Chinese favourite topic for Linguistic research: (3)

The favourite topics of study for Chinese researchers included language policy, language
teaching, correlation between national ideology and language teaching, translation studies,
significance of research in China and theories of language. One of the significant findings of this
research is that there was an utter difference between research trends in the first and second
decade of the study period in China in the field of applied linguistics.

Connotatice mean? Write a brief note:

Connotative meaning is what people think about two words and find whether it is possible or
impossible for the word to have two different meanings from its denotative meaning. Based on it,
the meaning depends on personal interpretation. Sometimes, people have the same or different
thought. Sometimes when a word has both positive and negative sense value, the word is called a
connotative meaning word. It is also pointed out that connotation meaning is subjective, in
notion that there is a shift from common meaning because it has been added by sense and certain
value, for example, bookworm is used for a person who always read books, with a negative
sense.

Connotative meaning is the communicative value that an expression has, by virtue of what it
refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It can vary from age to age, from society
to society, and from individual to individual.

Accent and Dialect (3)

Whether we speak a standard variety of English or not, we all have certain accents, they can be
distinct or less noticeably recognised accents. It is a myth that some speakers have accents while
others do not have.

Accent: An accent is a manner of pronunciation peculiar to a particular individual, location, or

nation. Technically, it is the description of aspects of pronunciation that identify where an
individual speaker is from, regionally or socially.

Dialect: Dialect includes the features of grammar and vocabulary as well as the aspects of
pronunciation. You don’t know what you’re talking about. For example, ‘Ye dinnae ken whit yer
haverin’ aboot.’ (by a speaker of Scottish English might say)

Overextension in Semantic with one example (3)

One child first used bow-wow to refer to a dog and then to a fur piece with glass eyes, a set of
cufflinks and even a bath thermometer. The word bow-wow seemed to have a meaning like
‘object with shiny bits.’ Other children often extend bow-wow to refer to cats, cows and horses.
This process is called overextension and the most common pattern is for the child to overextend
the meaning of a word on the basis of similarities of shape, sound and size, and, to a lesser
extent, movement and texture.

Example:

Thus the word ball is extended to all kinds of round objects, including a lampshade, a doorknob
and the moon.
Idea of Physical Context: (5)

There are some very common words in our language that cannot be interpreted at all if we do
not know the context, especially the physical context of the speaker. These are words such as
here and there, this or that, now and then, yesterday, today or tomorrow, as well as pronouns
such as you, me, her, him, it, and them. Some sentences of English are virtually impossible to
understand if we do not know who is speaking, about whom, where and when. Look at the
following sentence:

You’ll have to bring it back tomorrow because she isn’t here today.

It contains a large number of expressions (you, it, tomorrow, she, here, today) that rely on
knowledge of the immediate physical context for their interpretation (i.e., that the delivery driver
will have to return on February 15 to 660 College Drive with the long box labeled ‘flowers,
handle with care’ addressed to Ms. Ruby). Expressions such as tomorrow and here are obvious
examples of bits of language that we can only understand in terms of the speaker’s intended
meaning.

Lexicographer have a lot corpus at their end to work with … (5)

A dictionary describes the vocabulary of a language or a coherent subset of a language. For each
language and subset a set of texts can be assembled which provides evidence of the choices and
combinations of choices that are made by users of the language. Such a set of text is called
corpus almost always in electronic form nowadays. The adequacy of the corpus depends on its
size, its diversity and skill of those who assemble it. A corpus is close to the centre of dictionary
project. The lexicographer should formulate a policy concerning the way in which the corpus
will be used.

How child is taught to speak?

The linguistic repertoire of the child increases with the passage of time. The question arises
whether the child is being taught or not. The idea is that a child is not really supported by what
the child actually does. In the vast majority of children; no one provides any instruction about
how to speak the language nor should we picture a little empty head gradually being filled with
words and phrases. A more accurate view highlighted the children actively construct from what
is said to them, possible ways of using the language. The child’s linguistic production appears to
be mostly a matter of trying out constructions and testing whether they work or not. A child is
not simply imitating adult speech but a child hears and repeats versions of sayings on different
occasions.