ENG 504 SECONG LANGUAGE ACQUISITION MID TERM EXPECTED Q/A

Question 1: UG Scope and Achievement

1) UG theory aims to describe and explain human language.
2) It is nonetheless directly relevant to the study of SL.
3) It is a linguistic theory, not a learning theory.
4) It has been hugely influential in drawing up sophisticated hypotheses regarding SLA.
5) It helps exploring interplay between the first and second language learners and facilitates
understanding of linguistic knowledge learners bring to the task of SLA.
6) It is primarily concerned with the description and explanation of formal system underlying
language.
7) Its scope does not include a theory of processing or learning.
8) UG is more of a property theory and not a transition theory. Therefore, it must be evaluated as
such.

Question 2: Note on UG
On the basis of messy input, children create mental representation of language which goes beyond the
input they are exposed to and is very similar to that of other native speakers of the same language
variety. Language is the most abstract piece of knowledge. Second language learners are cognitively
mature and presumably much more resourceful in problem solving and dealing with abstract concepts.
From a theoretical point of view, different possible scenarios are open to consideration; for example,

 SL grammars are constrained by universal grammar (UG)

 UG does not constrain SL grammar or UG is impaired

UG approach is concerned with knowledge of language called ‘competence.’ It is not about

performance, about how language is used in real life. A complete theory of language also has to define
how we access our knowledge base and how it relates to a number of sociolinguistic and psychological
variables. Chomsky acknowledges this and has been concerned almost exclusively with addressing the
first two issues. Notion of an innate language faculty in children argues that children go through
developmental stages which are very similar across children of given language though progress rate
varies.

Question 3: Why Noam Chomsky prefer competence over performance.

Noam Chomsky prefers competence over performance. By competence, he refers to the abstract
and hidden representation of language knowledge held inside minds with its potential to create and
understand original utterances in a given language. However, there are difficulties in studying

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competence as language performance data are believed to be imperfect reflections of competence. The
competence can only be assessed indirectly, under controlled conditions, through wide-ranging tests.

Question 4: Functional Research

Functionalist research with social orientation is interested in relationship between the development of
child’s formal language system and aspects of their social world. Some of this work examines
children’s speech acts and their relationship with lexical or grammatical choices. Other work looks
more broadly at the social context in which children interact and types of speech events they are
engaged in. It also seeks to link these influences to linguistic development.

The functional approaches pay attention respectively to the relations between grammatical
development and prototype events, between grammar, pragmatics and text organization, and between
grammar and the social world. The functional tradition is well established in SLL theory. It claims that
language development is driven by pragmatic communicative needs and that the formal resources of
language are elaborated to express more complex patterns of meaning. Functionalist research takes
form of naturalistic case studies, mostly of adults in early stages of SLL. These studies have offered
numerous rich accounts of both rate and route of naturalistic SLL. They vary in their scope of
enquiries. Some adopted a ‘patch’ approach, studying evolution of forms or development of SL within
‘time’ or ‘space’ domain. Whereas others proposed SL ‘basic variety’ that represents a proto-grammar
stage that all learners should pass through.

Question 5: Functionalist view of the transition theory

A transition theory describes the process of language learning. UG is also a transition theory as it is
interested in describing the language transition process or learning process that occurs during the
learning of the second language. In that sense, it does answer the two main questions that Chomsky
said the learners must know or the language theory must answer: it describes the knowledge of the
language (property theory) and also moves on to explain how that knowledge is acquired by the
learners (transition theory).

Question 6: What are three fundamental issues carried forward from the 1970s in SSL?
From the brief and oversimplified account of 1970s first language acquisition research, following
characteristics emerge:
• Children go through stages.

• These stages are very similar across children for a given language, although individual progress
rate varies.
• These stages are similar across languages.

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• Child language is rule-governed and systematic, and their rules do not necessarily correspond to
adult ones.

• Children are resistant to correction.

• Their processing capacity limits the number of rules they can apply at any one time.

Question 7: Transition theory

 ‘Transition theory’ is more concerned with the developmental processes of language education.
 It is interested in finding out the different stages of learning in a second language learner.
 It can relate to the first language acquisition telling about the different learning stages in a
child’s life and how that learning is different or similar to second language learning.
 They can describe what happens in some detail and in some cases make relationships between
different things, but they may not be able to explain why something happens the way it does.

Question 8: Critic on input hypotheses

 Major criticism on this hypothesis claims it to be vague and a-theoretical.

 It is impossible to verify the theory as no independently testable definitions are given.
 The theory specify the internal workings of the ‘Language Acquisition Device’ where
acquisition actually takes place.
 Just comprehensible input is not enough; learners also need to ‘let that input in’ as it is.
 Affective Filter supposedly determines how receptive to the input a learner is going to be.
 This filter captures relationship between affective variables and acquisition process.

Question 9: Criticism on Krashen’s Theory

It was criticized for having methodological problems. Its main weakness was presenting hypotheses as
empirically valid models when those have not been tested. (same answer as Question )

Question 10: What is Krashen’s Monitor Model based on?

It is based around five basic hypotheses:

1. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis

2. The Monitor hypothesis
3. The Natural Order hypothesis
4. The Input hypothesis
5. The Affective Filter hypothesis

Question 11: What is Comprehensible input?

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Comprehensible input is a critical concept for second-language development for students with and
without learning difficulties. Comprehensible input means that students should be able to understand
the essence of what is being said or presented to them. This does not mean, however, that teachers must
use only words students understand. In fact, instruction can be incomprehensible even when students
know all of the words. Students learn a new language best when they receive input that is just a bit
more difficult than they can easily understand. In other words, students may understand most, but not
all, words the teacher is using.

Question 12: What is Cross linguist variation

The term linguistic variation (or simply variation) refers to regional, social, or contextual differences in
the ways that a particular language is used.

Variation between languages, dialects, and speakers is known as interspeaker variation. Variation
within the language of a single speaker is called intraspeaker variation.

Question 13: Names of cognitive theorists

a. McLaughlin
b. Anderson
c. O’Malley and Chamot

Question 14: What is Behaviorists Appoach

View language learning (like any other kind of learning) as a formation of habits; that is creation of
stimulus–response pairing which becomes stronger with reinforcement. In case of first language
learning, the process is relatively simple as we have to learn a new set of habits. Second language
learning involves replacing those habits by a set of new ones, which is complicated. If SL structures are
similar to the learners’ first language then learning will easily take place but in case they are different,
learning will be difficult.

From a teacher’s point of view, this approach had two-fold implications.

1) Learning takes place by imitating and repeating (practice makes perfect).

2) Teachers needed to focus their teaching on structures which were believed to be difficult, which
would be, the areas of differences.

Question: Errors in behaviourism

When we talk about errors in SL utterances, Behaviorists view errors as a result of ‘bad habits’ which
can be controlled through rote learning and pattern drilling using target language models. Recent

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studies contradict this view by claiming that errors and mistakes are patterned although some of them
are caused by first language influence, yet this is not true for all of them. Learner’s language system is
unstable and characterized by high degree of variability which is a central feature of learner inter-
language.

Question 15: What is chomsky strong criticism on Skinner 's behavior view.?
Chomsky strongly criticized Skinner’s Behaviorist views on number of issues and rejected the idea that
one can compare the behaviour of rats in a laboratory, learning to perform simple tasks, to the
behaviour of children learning language without direct teaching. Chomsky claimed that children have
an innate faculty that guides them in their learning of language.

Question 16: Progressive learning pedagogy

Progressive’ language pedagogy (1950s) drew on a version of structuralism developed by
British linguist Palmer. This approach is summed up as follows:

1. The conviction about finite set of ‘patterns’ or ‘structures’ in language systems

2. The belief that reception and practice result in accuracy and fluency in foreign language habits
3. Methodology to teach ‘the basic’ first before encouraging learners to communicate their own
thoughts and ideas

Question 17: Role of intake.... Input processing theory

Input processing theory is primarily focused on explaining the shortcuts and restricted processing
strategies which learners seem to use.
Intake in Light of Input Processing Theory by Bill Van Patten

1. Linguistic data is actually processed from the input.

2. It is held in working memory for further processing.
3. Input processing theory does not offer a complete model of successful processing input.
4. It offers a set of principles.
5. It explains the apparent failures of learners to process the input.

Question 18: Input, Output, and Interaction hypotheses

Input, Output, and Interaction hypotheses have led to very active strands of empirical research. The
first phase of research was inclined toward documenting phenomenon of meaning negotiation. The
second phase developed in the following ways:
a) Relating environmental factors in language learning to linguistic theory, particularly to
Universal Grammar

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b) Interest in the significance of negative evidence

c) Increased attention to information processing theory and the complications involved in
conversion of environmental language firstly into input and subsequently into intake
When we look at the achievements of this tradition, it has been shown that:

 Native speaker and non-native speaker interlocutors can and will work actively to achieve
mutual understanding.
 Negotiations involve both linguistic and interactional modifications, which together offer
opportunities to ‘notice’ aspects of target language form, whether from positive or negative
evidence.
 Non-native speaker participants in ‘negotiations for meaning’ can’t attend to, take up, and use
language items made available to them by native speaker interlocutors.
 Learners receiving negative feedback, relating to particular target language structures, can be
significantly advantaged when later tested on those structures.

Question 19: What connectionist says about language?

According to them:

 It claims that learners are sensitive to regularities in the language input and extract probabilistic
patterns on the basis of these regularities.
 Learning occurs as these patterns become strengthened or weakened through repeated activation
or non-activation.
 Connectionism strikingly differs from other approaches as it does not believe that the learning
of rules underlies the construction of linguistic knowledge rather it happens through associative
process. According to them learning is not rule-governed.
 Connectionism is seen as an alternative to symbolic accounts of language acquisition. It is a
transition theory that explains how associative patterns emerge in learners.

Question 20: Why Processing theorists do not say much about the language itself?
Processing theorists do not say much about language itself. They concentrate on study of processing
constraints operating in SLA.

Question 21: Nature vs nurture

The best known controversy involves B. F. Skinner and Noam Chomsky. Skinner advocates
behaviorist mechanisms; whereas, Chomsky emphasized the role of innate dispositions that expect
natural languages to be organized in particular ways and support the role of Universal Grammar (UG).

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The phrase nature and nurture relates to the relative importance of an individual’s innate
qualities as compared to an individual’s personal experiences (nurture i.e behaviorism) in causing
individual differences, especially in behavioral traits.

Question 22: Cognitive deficit impact on language learning

Many children with cognitive deficit develop language normally. As there are numerous
examples of people with cognitive disabilities or difficulties who performed well in language(s),
evidence of opposite is also found. There are many cognitively ‘normal’ children with impaired
language condition known as ‘specific language impairment.’ A study suggests that some aspects of
language at least might be genetically controlled. Damage to left hemisphere of the brain also results in
language deficit. Language and cognition seem to be largely separate but they do interact.

Question 23: Types of theories using in SLA

Processability Theory: by Pienemann

 It claims that we need both theory of grammar and a processing component to understand SLA.
 It focuses on the acquisition of the procedural skills required for processing the formal
properties of second languages.
 Pienemann believes that language learning is gradual acquisition of computational mechanisms.
 Limitations in processing skills in early stage of learning prevent them from attending to some
aspects of SL.
 The processing challenge within this framework is that learners must learn to exchange
grammatical information across elements of a sentence.

Question 24: Fossilization

Fossilization refers to the situation when a learner’s SL system seems to ‘freeze’ or become stuck at
some more or less deviant stage.

When second language learner seems unable to get rid of non-native-like structure despite
abundant linguistic input over many years, it is called fossilization. Fossilization in this model would
arise as a result of a controlled process becoming automatic prematurely.

Question 25: Negative feedback and recast in SL classrooms

Observational studies examined the occurrence, and apparent effects of negative feedback in SL
classroom. For instance, Lyster and colleagues (1997) noted that recasts were the most common type of
feedback. However, recasts were much less likely to lead to immediate self-correction by the students.

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A further analysis reported that feedback provided by the teachers varied according to the type of error
that had been made. Teachers were more likely to respond to lexical errors with negotiation (e.g.
clarification requests), whereas they respond to grammatical and phonological errors with recasts.
Recasts were seen as an effective strategy in case of phonological error. However, recasting was much
less effective for repair of grammatical mistakes. The study suggested that more interactive feedback
modes would be more effective in pushing learners to amend their hypotheses about SL grammar as
well as vocabulary.

Question 26: What is Negative evidence?

Negative evidence means any kind of input that informs about unacceptable forms in the target
language. It includes formal correction by teacher and informal paraphrasing by a native-speaking
conversational partner. However, corrections often seem ineffective; therefore, recent theorist put more
emphasis on the provision of positive evidence.

Question 27: There are three methods in children in second language acquisition Please explain
third.
The third method is the autonomous stage: the skill becomes more and more rapid and automatic.
When the learner actions become increasingly automatic after practicing any rule for some time and
become their second nature. (related to Anderson’s Model)

Question: What leads to next phases of research apart from input, output and interaction?????
Question: Example of krashen nature hypothesis??

Question: Language Acquisition Hypothesis???

Question: 7. Factors of cognitive group NO IDEA

Other Important Topics

Question 1. What is a theory?
A ‘theory’ is a more or less abstract set of claims about the significant units within phenomenon
under study. It aims at explanation as well as description. Theories are produced collaboratively and
evolve through a systematic enquiry. These are assessed through hypothesis testing and involve a
reflexive process. A good theory is supposed to give clear and explicit statements about its claims. It
must be testable or falsifiable in some way. The linguists view language as a complex communication
which must be analyzed on different levels.
Question 2. What is Property Theory?
The linguists are more interested in ‘property theory.’ They are concerned with the structure of
the language and how a language changes; how certain words become obsolete; how certain factors

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lead to the addition of new words and merge them in a language system. In property theory, the
language system is important.

Question 3: The two approaches of Cognitive theorists of SLA are:

a. Processing Theorists
Those who believe that language knowledge might be ‘special’ in some way, but they are
concerned to develop transition or processing theories to complement property theories.

Processing approaches investigate

 how second language learner process linguistic information,

 how this ability develops over time?

b. Perceptual Saliency Approach:

The Perceptual Saliency approach argues that human beings perceive and organize information
in certain ways, and it is perceptual saliency of linguistic information that drives the learning process
forward; rather, than an innate language-specific module. We find similarity in linguistic development
across children and across languages because human beings are programmed to perceive and organize
information in certain way. Slobin (1979) has devised operating principles which guide children in
their processing of the linguistic strings which they encounter. These principles are based on the claim
that certain linguistic forms are more ‘accessible’ or more ‘salient’ to the children than others. These
principles are as follows:

1. Pay attention to the end of words.

2. Linguistic elements encode relation between words.
3. Avoid exceptions.
4. Underlying semantic relations should be marked overtly and clearly.
5. Use of grammatical markers should make semantic sense.

Question 4: Emergentist / Constructionist

Emergentist or Constructionist does not consider separation between property and transition
theories as legitimate. They believe that you can explain both the nature of knowledge and how it is
processed through general cognition principles.
Constructivists consider that the complexity of language emerges from associative learning
processes being exposed to a massive and complex environment. Many of them believe that the
language develops as learners move from the learning of exemplars that are committed to memory.
They claim that children pick up frequent patterns they hear around them and slowly make more
abstract generalization as the database of related utterances grow.

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Question 5: Hypothesis which took inspiration from Krashen’s proposals

1. The Interaction hypothesis
2. The Output hypothesis

Question 6: Who were connectionists?

Connectionists are primarily concerned with individual; they do not see learner as a social
being. They are interested in mind as a processor of information rather than in specificity of the
linguistic information it contains. The link they build up with neurology and neurobiology is also
important. The advantages of these models over traditional symbolic models are:

a. They are neurally inspired.

b. They incorporate distributed representation and control of information.
c. They are data-driven with prototypical representations.
d. They show graceful degradation as do humans with language disorders.
e. They are models of learning and acquisition rather than static description.

Question 7: Theories of Second Language

Processing; Processability Theory; Teachability Hypothesis;
Perceptual Saliency; Connectionism; Connectionist Approach

Question 8: Teachability Hypothesis

Pienemann’s Processibility theory explains that SL learners follow a fairly rigid route while
acquiring certain grammatical structures. It implies that structures only become ‘learnable’ when
previous steps on this acquisitional path have been acquired. According to Pienamann, learners can
only operate within their Hypothesis space, constrained by available processing resources. It led him to
develop “teachability hypothesis” in which he considers the pedagogical implications of the learnability
or processability model. It predicts:

 Stages of acquisition cannot be skipped through formal instructions

 Instruction will be beneficial if it focuses on structures from ‘the next stage’

Question 9: Schumann’s Acculturation Model

It was related to pidginization or Acculturation. Pidgin is a language that is formulated when two
individuals belonging to two different language backgrounds come into contact with each other and
they have the need to communicate. They try to pick words from both the languages and try to
communicate by using a language which is reductionist that is reduced to the very basic things and it
also simplifies the grammar and it borrows the words or the content words from both the languages.
Therefore we can say According to Schumann:

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 Acquiring a new language is part of a general process of Acculturation.

 Success is determined by the extent to which they can orient to the target language culture.

In this acculturation model, two important factors play a role on acquisition:

a. Social distance
Means the learner’s interact with the SL native group (in term of time as well as how often), the
degree of their interaction, closeness and openness to each other.
b. Psychological Distance
It means that SLL is related to motivation and attitude of a person towards learning the SL and
the beliefs he has for that language and the culture. Language learning is also related to an
individual’s Language anxiety. The less it is the better learning will take place.

Question 10: General benefits of applying cognitive theory to SLA are as follows:

 Learning is an active and dynamic process in which individuals make use of a variety of
information and strategic modes of processing.
 Language is a complex cognitive skill in terms of how information is stored and learnt.
 Learning a language entails a stage wise progression from initial awareness, active
manipulation of information and learning processes to full automaticity in language use.
 Learning strategies parallel theoretically derived cognitive processes and have the potential to
influence learning outcomes in a positive manner.

Question 11: Note on Anderson’s active Control of Thought (ACT) Model

Anderson’s Active Control of Thought (ACT*) model is more wide-ranging, and the
terminology is different but practice leading to automatization also plays central role. It enables
declarative knowledge. Anderson suggests three kinds of memory:

 a working memory
 a declarative long-term memory
 a procedural long-term memory.

This model has been criticized for insisting that all knowledge starts out in declarative form, which is
clearly problematic in case of first language learner as Anderson has accepted in answering to the
criticism. Anderson’s model is a general cognitive model of skill acquisition. It can be applied to those
aspects of SLL that require proceduralization and automatization. According to Anderson, the move
from declarative to procedural knowledge takes place in three stages.
1. The cognitive stage: a description of the procedure is learnt.
2. The associative stage: a method for performing the skill is worked out.

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3. The autonomous stage: the skill becomes more and more rapid and automatic.

Short Notes
Lesson: 02

Four Logical possibilities for with innate mechanisms for SLL:

1. Innate mechanisms operate during SLL the same way that they do in first language learning.
2. These mechanisms cease to be operable after first language acquisition; SL is learnt by other
means.
3. These mechanisms provide a model of natural language which can be copied in SLL.
4. These mechanisms remain partly available but must be supplemented by other means.

Lesson: 03
Language Changes at Various Levels:
1. Lexical Change
2. Morphological Change
3. Syntactic Change
4. Phonological Change

Major Factors Behind the Spread of English:

 The power of the British Empire/Colonialism

 Industrial revolution taking place in England for the first time
 The rise of America as a world power
 Prestigious status of English in various nation states

Lesson: 04
Three main points of view of SLL Learner

The linguistic perspective

Concerned with modelling language structures and processes within mind

Social psychological perspective

Concerned with modelling individual differences among learners and their implications for eventual
learning success

Sociocultural perspective
Concerned with considering learner as social being and member of social group and network

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Lesson: 05
Gardner and Macintyre divide the learner traits into two groups:

Cognitive

 Intelligence
 Language aptitude
 Language learning strategies

Affective (emotional)

 Language attitude
 Motivation
 Language anxiety
 Willingness

Lesson: 07

Krashen’s Monitor Model

The theory evolved in late 1970s; it was refined and expanded in early 1980s. It is based around five
basic hypotheses:
1. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis

2. The Monitor hypothesis

3. The Natural Order hypothesis

4. The Input hypothesis

5. The Affective Filter hypothesis

Lesson: 09
Main goals of SLA are to answer three basic questions about human language:
1. What constitutes knowledge of language?
2. How is knowledge of language acquired?

3. How is knowledge of language put to use?

Linguistic theory aims to:

• Describe the mental representations of language that are stored in the human mind.
• Define what all languages have in common as well as their distinctive characteristics.

Lesson: 11
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Aitchison presents Lenneberg’s criteria as a list of six features (UG)

1. The behavior emerges before it is necessary
2. Its appearance is not a result of a conscious decision.
3. There is a regular sequence of ‘milestones’ as the behavior develops
4. Direct teaching and intensive practice have relatively little effect.
5. Its emergence is not triggered by external events.
6. There may be ‘critical period’ for the acquisition of the behavior

There are three potential sources of cross-linguistic variation relating to functional categories:
1. Languages can differ in terms of functional categories
2. The features of a particular functional category can vary
3. Features vary in strength

Scope and Achievements of UG

 Aims to describe human language

 Directly relevant to the study of SL
 Linguistic theory not a learning theory
 Doesn’t include theory of processing or learning

Lesson: 12

Difference between Universal Grammar UG approach and Cognitive Approaches

Universal Grammar Cognitive Approaches

Property theory Transition theory

Properties of First language (FL) Properties of learning process

Similarities and differences of learnt languages Similarities and differences of learning

Difference between competence and performance No differentiation

……………………….13

According to Anderson, the move from declarative to procedural knowledge takes place in three
stages.
4. The cognitive stage: a description of the procedure is learnt.
5. The associative stage: a method for performing the skill is worked out.
6. The autonomous stage: the skill becomes more and more rapid and automatic.

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Lesson: 14
Learning strategies can be classified into three categories:
1. Metacognition strategies: selective attention, planning, monitoring, evaluation.

2. Cognitive strategies: rehearsal, organization, inferencing, summarizing, deducing, imagery,

transfer, elaboration.

3. Social or affective strategies: co-operation, questioning for clarification, and self-talk.

General benefits of applying cognitive theory to SLA:

1. Dynamic Process
2. A complex cognitive skill
3. Stage wise progression
4. Positive influence on learning

Lesson: 15
Slobin (1979) has devised operating principles which guide children in their processing of the
linguistic strings. These principles are based on the claim that certain linguistic forms are more
‘accessible’ or more ‘salient’ to the children than others. These principles are as follows:

1. Pay attention to the end of words.

2. Focus on Linguistic elements encode relation between words.
3. Avoid exceptions.
4. Underlying semantic relations should be marked.
5. Use of grammatical markers should make semantic sense.
Lesson: 16
Cognitivists primarily investigate development of processing in SL learners.

Psychologists use laboratory techniques to measure accurately performance indicator.

Linguists apply linguistic analysis techniques to study SL learners’ productions or intuitions. Both
methodologies have their advantages and disadvantages.
Connectionists are primarily concerned with individual; they do not see learner as a social being. They
are interested in mind as a processor of information
The ultimate goal of any SLA model is better understanding of SLA process overall.

The advantages of these models over traditional symbolic models are that:

 They are neurally inspired.

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 They integrate distributed representation and control of information.

 They are data-driven with prototypical representations.
 They show graceful degradation.
 They are models of learning and acquisition rather than static description
Functional/Pragmatic Perspectives Functionalists are centrally concerned with the ways in which SL
learners set about making meaning and achieving their personal communicative goals.

Lesson: 18
‘Interactionist’ perspective mostly does not challenge the concepts of autonomous language module
or cognitive mechanisms at work within the individual learner.

Input hypothesis claims that comprehensive input is the only necessary condition for language
learning to take place

Output Hypothesis.’ Swain argued that students often succeed in comprehending SL text while only
partly processing them. SL production (output) really forces learners to undertake complete
grammatical processing
Adults commonly use ‘special’ speech styles when talking with young children. This is called ‘baby
talk’
Functionalist research has mostly concerned itself with naturalistic adult learners acquiring a socially
dominant TL in the workplace and other non-domestic settings.

Lesson: 20
Swain (1985, 1995) goes beyond this ‘practice’ function and proposes three further functions for
learner output:

 The noticing/ triggering function (conscious-rising role)

 The hypothesis-testing function
 The metalinguistic function (reflective role)
Lesson: 21
Kinds of Attention

 Noticing
 Understanding

Accuracy of Recast Reproduction (Philip, 2003)

The accuracy of recast reproduction depends on the following factors:
1. Learners’ language level

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2. Length of the recast

3. Number of corrections

Input Processing Theory Principles

Principle No.1 Learners have preferences for semantic processing over morphological
processing.

Principle No. 2 The learners have a preference for beginning and ending words.
Autonomous Induction theory tells that understanding of SLA processes requires an adequate theory
of the following phenomena:
1. Representation of language in the mind.
2. How language is processed, both receptively and productively?
3. How our mental representations of language can be changed to process the environmental language
we encounter?

Lesson: 22
The first phase of research was inclined toward documenting phenomenon of meaning negotiation.

The second phase developed in the following ways:

d) Relating environmental factors in language learning to linguistic theory, particularly to Universal
Grammar.

e) Interest in the significance of negative evidence.

f) Increased attention to information processing theory.

Limitations of Interactionist Approach

 Work on interaction has been carried out within a Western or Anglophone educational setting.
More cross-cultural studies are still required
 There are still not many studies that focus on particular language structures
 There is lack of studies that document learners’ use and control of these items.

Following were the leading supporters of the Soviet theorist Vygotsky:

1. Jerome Bruner

2. James Wertsch
3. Barbara Rogoff

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ENG 504 SECONG LANGUAGE ACQUISITION MID TERM EXPECTED Q/A

4. James Lantolf
5. Mercer

6. Wells

Socio-cultural Perspectives (Vygotsky) on Second Language Learning:

This theory proposes that;

 Language learning in social context

 Interaction is central to learning
 It itself constitutes the learning process
 Learning is also a mediated process

........................................

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 Q) The Affective factors include : language attitudes, language anxiety, and willingness.
Q) The Cognitive factors include: Intelligence motivation, language aptitude and LL strategies.
Property Theory : The linguists are more interested in ‘property theory.’ They are concerned with the structure of the
language and how a language changes; how certain words become obsolete; how certain factors lead to the addition of new
words and merge them in a language system. In property theory, the language system is important.
Transition Theory : ‘Transition theory’ is more concerned with the developmental processes of language education. It is
interested in finding out the different stages of learning in a second language learner. It can relate to the first language
acquisition telling about the different learning stages in a child’s life and how that learning is different or similar to second
language learning.
Q) Nature vs nurture: Nature emphasizes to innateness in SLA and Nurture advocate to it is process to learning language
through outside... Skinner thinks we need to nurture the learning habits, he advocates behaviorist mechanisms. Where as
Chomsky thinks that its inbuilt, he emphasized the role of innate dispositions. (Whatsoever we possess by birth is nature and
whatsoever we get with our experiences is nurture)
Note on input hypothesis? Input hypothesis is linked to the natural order hypothesis. It depends on the comprehensible
input for SLL to take place. Language is only acquired by understanding the input that us i+1. It claims speaking a language
is a result of acquisition not its cause. If input is understood, the necessary grammar is automatically provided
Claims of input hypothesis? (A) If child speaks it is a result of acquisition and not its cause. (B) Speech cannot be taught
directly; it emerges from the acquisition itself. (C) It has to emerge from the comprehensible input. (D) If input is
understood, the necessary grammar is automatically provided.
Criticize input hypothesis? (A) It’s vague and imprecise (B) It does not give any detail of process that goes on during or
in between the stages. (C) It is impossible to verify the theory as no independently testable definitions are given. (D) The
theory does not specify the internal workings of the ‘Language Acquisition Device’ where acquisition actually takes
place.(Does not tell how do we determine level I and level 1.) (E) The level at which the comprehensible input has to be
given or what the components of the comprehensible input would be.
Diff btw critique and criticism ? Criticism > is noun identifying and referring to the statement of negative things
Critique > referring to evaluating 7 ; negative and positive both points .
Fossilization: At times certain errors seem to reoccur in Students of second language, no matter what amount of feed back
you give them This is called fossilization. It refers to the situation when a learner’s SL systems seems to freeze or have
become stuck at some more or less deviant stage.
Schumann theory: According to Schumann theory when language is learned it should be seem as process of complexity of
pidgin. Means when learner learn language or second language it is similar to the pidgins but as they progress in that
language they gradually add complexity to it by using grammar structure and more vocabulary.
Information processing approach: Investigates how different memory stores deal with SL information. How this
information is automatized and restructured with repeated use. It differentiate between Long term memory and short term
memory. Declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge.
Processibility theory: It looked at processing demands made by formal aspects of 2nd lang, which structure will be easy to
learn. Implications for learnability & teachability of 2nd lang structure. It directly relates to teaching learning environment in
classroom.
Fundamental approach problems after 1970: Internal mechanisms, 1st language, psychological variables, social &
environmental variables, input
Universal grammar points about SLL: * It enables all people and researchers to come up with detailed description of the
language itself or what type of differences and similarities are there . * It enables the researchers to formulate a hypothesis
related to nature of the language or the knowledge in the mind of the learner. * universal grammar facilitates more focused
analysis of SLL so it enables to see what is the nature of learner in detail.
McLaughlin model: (1987-1990) Its information processing model . Humans are viewed as autonomous & active beings.
They voluntarily learns a lang. Lang is not just assimilated in their mind when they are exposed to it.
Name 3 stages in which declarative knowledge passes on to procedural ?
The Cognitive Stage, The associative stage, The autonomous stage.
Learning strategies (O’Malley & Chamot 1990) Metacognitive strategies, Cognitive strategies, Social or affective
Strategies
Connectionism theory: Connectionism or parallel distributed processing likens the brain to a computer that would consist of
neural networks, complex clusters of links between information nodes. These links or connections become strengthened or
weakened through activation or non-activation. Learning in this occurs on the basis of associative process rather than
construction of abstract rules. Connectionism rejects that learning of rules underlies construction of linguistic knowledge,
this goes against the concept that language is learned in stages.
Interaction importance in SLA(topic 107): When the learner have SL input, they actually process the language by
interacting with each other. This qualitatively changes the input in nature. Proficiency can be achieved only by
interaction.Through interaction input is questioned, recycled & becomes useful.
0utput hypothesis: means that SL production is very imp for full processing of SL, it is when the learner are actually using
the SL and choosing btw words, syntax etc. It is Output more than input which actually allows to learn the SL.
CDS: Interest triggered since 1960 . CDS might facilitate lang acquisition in various ways. It enables child to manage
attention on some specific piece of linguistic items. It facilitates segmentation. Provides feedback, correct models and reduces
child processing load. It encourages the child into interaction and be part of conversation.
Functional perspectives on SLL (In notes related to 1 st lang. Only) topic 97
Socio-cultural Perspectives on SLL
The theorists who advocate this perspective view language learning in essentially social terms. They claim that target
language interaction cannot be viewed simply as a source of ‘input’ for autonomous and internal learn ing mechanisms;
rather, it plays more central role in learning. This theory was originally presented by Soviet developmental psychologist
Vygotsky who argued that humans do not act directly on physical world but rely on tools and labour activity, use symbolic
tools or signs to mediate, and regulate their relationships with others.
What is functionist approach in regard to social factor?
Functional/Pragmatic Perspectives on Second Language Learning
The researchers who adopt this approach are centrally concerned with the ways in which SL learners set about making
meaning and achieving their personal communicative goals. They emphasize the importance of learners’ speech acts and
how they exploit immediate social, physical and discourse context to make meaning. They argue that the meaning-making
efforts are a driving force in ongoing second language development that interacts with the development of formal
grammatical systems. Functionalism in linguistics is the explication and explanation of grammatical structure in which
semantic and pragmatic constructs are integral.
What is interaction and information processing theory?
Interaction in Second Language Acquisition
Various studies during 1970s and 1980s demonstrated that the talk addressed to learners was typically grammatically
regular but somewhat simplified linguistically. The degree of simplification reported in many descriptive studies was
puzzlingly variable. Also, these studies stopped short at description of distinctive features of ‘Foreigner Talk Discourse.’ Long
proposed a more systematic approach to linking features of ‘environmental’ language, and learners’ second language. Long
proposed his Interaction hypothesis as an extension of Krashen’s original Input hypothesis. Following on Long’s original
studies, many others used a similar taxonomy and taught us a good deal about the types of task that are likely to promote
extensive negotiation of meaning, inside and outside the classroom. They also demonstrated that negotiation of meaning
occurs between non-native speaker peers as well as between more fluent and less fluent speakers, given the right task
conditions.
1. Information processing approach investigates how different memory stores (short-term memory, long-term memory) deal
with SL information and how this information is automatized and restructured.
2. Processability theory looks more specifically at processing demands made by various formal aspects of second language,
and implications for learnability and teachability of second language structure.
Here, we will discuss two information processing models:
• McLaughlin’s Information processing model (1987, 1990)
• Anderson’s Active Control of Thought (ACT* ) model (1983, 1985)
cognitive and affective approach
The Cognitive Approaches to Second Language Learning (SLL)
The Second Language Acquisition (SLA) researcher under these approaches put more emphasis on the learning component
of SLL; they are interested in transition theories. Their focus is still very much on the learner as an indiv idual. They are more
interested in understanding how the human brain processes and learns new information. UG theorists were interested
primarily in competence; they were not centrally concerned with how learners access linguistic knowledge in real time or
what strategies are employed when an incomplete linguistic system lets the learner down? On the other hand, these are the
central issues for cognitive theorists.
The two approaches of Cognitive theorists of SLA are:
1. Processing Theorists
Those who believe that language knowledge might be ‘special’ in some way, but they are concerned to develop transition or
processing theories to complement property theories. Processing approaches investigate how second language learner
process linguistic information, and how this ability develops over time?
2. Emergentist / Constructionist
Emergentist or Constructionist does not consider separation between property and transition theories as legitimate. They
believe that you can explain both the nature of knowledge and how it is processed through general cognition principles.
Constructivists consider that the complexity of language emerges from associative learning processes being exposed to a
massive and complex environment. Many of them believe that the language develops as learners move from the learning of
exemplars that are committed to memory. They claim that children pick up frequent patterns they hear around them and
slowly make more abstract generalization as the database of related utterances grow.
3 factors of cognitive
The Cognitive factors include intelligence, language aptitude, and language learning strategies.
Elaborate the term noticing in attention theory
Researchers have developed the idea that the amount of attention may influence the extent to which SL input and
interaction actually produce SL intake. Schmidt (1990, 1994, 2001) has been most influential in promoting this view. He is
careful to distinguish among different types of attention. He uses the term ‘noticing’ to refer to the process of bringing some
stimulus into focal attention and registering its simple occurrence, whether voluntarily or involuntarily. He reserves the
terms ‘understanding’ and ‘awareness’ for explicit knowledge: ‘awareness of a rule or generalization.’ Schmidt is optimistic
about the contribution of both kinds of attention. His main evidence supports the significance of noticing. He argued that
noticing is the necessary and sufficient condition for conversion of input to intake for learning; later, he modified this view to
the claim that: more noticing leads to more learning.
can children with cognitive deficit develop language or not give Ur opinion ?
Many children with cognitive deficit develop language normally. As there are numerous examples of people with cognitive
disabilities or difficulties who performed well in language(s), evidence of opposite is also found. There are many cognitively
‘normal’ children with impaired language condition known as ‘specific language impairment.’ A study suggests that some
aspects of language at least might be genetically controlled. Damage to left hemisphere of the brain also results in language
deficit. Language and cognition seem to be largely separate but they do interact.
Characteristics is SLL
From the brief and oversimplified account of 1970s first language acquisition research, following characteristics emerge:

• Children go through stages.

• These stages are very similar across children for a given language, although individual progress rate varies.
• These stages are similar across languages.
• Child language is rule-governed and systematic, and their rules do not necessarily correspond to adult ones.
• Children are resistant to correction.
• Their processing capacity limits the number of rules they can apply at any one time.

How children and adult learnt the additional language.

The second language learners may be children or the adults who embark on learning of an additional language, at least
some years after they have started to acquire their first language. They may be leaning the target language formally in
school or college, or may be learning it through informal social interaction. They may be learning a highly localized language
to become an insider in local speech community; or may be learning a language of wider communication relevant to their
region in order to get access to economic development and public life. There are three main points of view among SLL
researcher as far as learner is concerned. The linguistic perspective is concerned with modelling language structures and
processes within mind. Social psychological perspective is concerned with modelling individual differences among learners
and their implications for eventual learning success. Socio-cultural perspective views the learner as social beings and
members of social groups and networks. The first two are primarily concerned with analyzing and modeling the inner mental
mechanisms available to the individual learner. They aim to document and explain the developmental routes, but are less
concerned with the speed or rate of development. They minimize or disregard social and contextual differences.
Short note on interaction in second language. TWICE
When we examine the role of input and interaction in first language acquisition, we come to know that adults commonly use
‘special’ speech styles when talking with young children. This is called ‘baby talk’ which might be helpful to language
acquisition. But such child-directed speech (CDS) has undergone criticism from UG theorists. For instance, Noam Chomsky
described the notion that aspects of first language acquisition could be related to the input as ‘absurd.’ In turn, some child
language specialists criticized parameter-setting models of acquisition as overly deterministic and ignoring substantial
evidence of probabilistic learning from ‘noisy’ input. Interactionists such as Gallaway and Richard (1994) have pointed out
the ways in which CDS might facilitate language acquisition. These include: managing attention, promoting positive affect
facilitating segmentation, feedback, correction models, reducing processing load, encouraging conversational participation,
and explicit teaching of social routines. However, interactionists are cautious about any possible contribution of CDS to
language acquisition.
Psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics in SLL
From a psycholinguistic view, interaction offers opportunities to fine-tune the language input they are receiving which
ensures that the input is well adapted to their internal needs. Interaction is also interesting to linguistic theorists because of
the controversies over usefulness of negative evidence’s provision for second language development. Negative evidence
means any kind of input that informs about unacceptable forms in the target language. It includes formal correction by
teacher and informal paraphrasing by a native-speaking conversational partner. However, corrections often seem
ineffective; therefore, recent theorist put more emphasis on the provision of positive evidence.
Elaborate the term understanding & awareness in attention theory.
How things happen and how things work (explicit knowledge). This understanding leads to reconfirmation of the hypothesis
that might be in the mind of the learner ( learner readjust the structure of mind)
Individual psychological variables that effect learning
psychological variables affecting learning a. motivation b. personality c. language aptitude
How behaviorist view errors and how they can be controlled
When we talk about errors in SL utterances, Behaviorists view errors as a result of ‘bad habits’ which can be controlled
through rote learning and pattern drilling using target language models. Recent studies contradict this view by claiming that
errors and mistakes are patterned although some of them are caused by first language influence, yet this is not true for all
of them. Learner’s language system is unstable and characterized by high degree of variability which is a central feature of
learner inter-language.
krashen hypothesis
The Input Hypotheses is only concerned with acquisition and not learning.
According to Krashen::
“Human acquires languages in an only way- by understanding messages, or by receiving comprehensible input” and learners
improve and progress along ‘the natural order’ when they receive L2 comprehensible input”
(Krashen, 1985)
It focuses on receptive skills and not on productive skills.
It’s not acquired by repeating the words, but with interactions or receiving meaningful comprehensible input.
Comprehensible input has a structure that is “a little beyond” the current understanding (of meaning not understanding of
form) of the language learner.
For Example: If a learner has a prior knowledge of go, book and table then he could have been given an instruction
“ Go, and fetch the book from the table.”
Here go, book and table can be represented by i, means current level of acquired understanding and fetch will be
represented by 1 being equal to the next level of input that is just above the learners’ level. According to Krashen, this ca n
be represented as i+1.
it was criticized by few linguists. Who stated that:
•The hypothesis is untestable and lacks clear definition hence it’s found vague.
•The input hypothesis focuses only on comprehensible input as important, but not sufficient, for second language acquisition
to the neglect of any possible importance of output.
For Example: If a person is a beginner of Chinese language, how is this input Hypothesis going to let him, acquire Chinese
language keeping in the mind for him, there can’t be any comprehensible input he has zero knowledge of the target
language.
universal grammar approach
On the basis of messy input, children create mental representation of language which goes beyond the input they are
exposed to and is very similar to that of other native speakers of the same language variety. Language is the most abstract
piece of knowledge. Second language learners are cognitively mature and presumably much more resourceful in problem
solving and dealing with abstract concepts. From a theoretical point of view, different possible scenarios are open to
consideration; for example,
• SL grammars are constrained by universal grammar (UG)
• UG does not constrain SL grammar or UG is impaired
UG approach is concerned with knowledge of language called ‘competence.’ It is not about performance, about how
language is used in real life. A complete theory of language also has to define how we access our knowledge base and how it
relates to a number of sociolinguistic and psychological variables. Chomsky acknowledges this and has been concerned
almost exclusively with addressing the first two issues. Notion of an innate language faculty in children argues that children
go through developmental stages which are very similar across children of given language though progress rate varies.
O'Maley And chamot Three categories.
O’Malley and Chamot (1990) suggest that the learning strategies are procedures undertaken by the learners to make their
language learning as effective as possible. Learning strategies must not be confused with communication strategies; they do
overlap but there is difference in focus. Learning strategies facilitate learning whereas communication strategies help
overcoming a specific communicative problem. Learning strategies can be classified into three categories:
1. Metacognition strategies: selective attention, planning, monitoring, evaluation.
2. Cognitive strategies: rehearsal, organization, inferencing, summarizing, deducing, imagery, transfer, elaboration.
3. Social or affective strategies: co-operation, questioning for clarification, and self-talk.
Input Processing Principles
Principle No.1: Learners have preferences for semantic processing over morphological processing.
Example: ‘We travelled by train yesterday.’
Principle No. 2: The learners have a preference for beginning and ending words.
Example: Learners give importance to the beginning and ending words of recast/feedback.
This approach has led to a series of pedagogical experiments. Input processing theory is primarily focused on explaining the
shortcuts and restricted processing strategies which learners seem to use.
Schumann theory
It was related to pidginization or Acculturation. Pidgin is a language that is formulated when two individuals belonging to two
different language backgrounds come into contact with each other and they have the need to communicate. They try to pick
words from both the languages and try to communicate by using a language which is reductionist that is reduced to the very
basic things and it also simplifies the grammar and it borrows the words or the content words from both the languages.
Schumann said that when a language is learnt (L1) it is a process of complexification of pidgins. So when the learners learn
a language or SL their language is similar to a pidgin. Once they progress learning the SL They gradually add complexity to
it by using more developed and mature grammatical structures and vocabulary.
Schumann says the process by which the language and its progress of learning moves on from a pidgin like state to a more
fluent and accurate state or native like speech is through a process which he has named as acculturation..
dcp in children???
acquisition learning hypothesis criticism???