Introduction to

Criminology
Dr. Daisyree S. Arrieta
Definition of Criminology

• Criminology has variety of acceptable

definitions but one of the most familiar
definitions was given by Edwin
Sutherland, a noted American
Criminologist, he defined criminology
as a body of knowledge regarding
delinquency and crime as a social
phenomenon; it includes within its
scope, the making of laws, the
breaking of laws and the reactions
toward the breaking of laws.
Definition of Criminology

• In its broadest
sense, criminology is the entire
body of knowledge regarding
crimes, criminals and the effort of
the society to prevent and repress
them. In a narrower
sense, criminology is the scientific
study of crimes and criminals.
 • In the Philippines, the newest definition
of the word criminology is stated under sec.
4 (e), of Republic Act No. 11131 otherwise
known as the Criminology Profession Act of
2018, which states that, criminology is the
scientific
In thestudy Philippines,
of crimes, criminals,
theand newest
victims, it also deals with the prevention, and
definition of the word criminology
solution of crimes.
is stated under sec. 4 (e), of
Republic Act No. 11131 otherwise
known as the Criminology
Profession Act of 2018, which
states that, criminology is the
scientific study of crimes,
criminals, and victims, it also deals
with the prevention, and solution of
crimes.
• The etymology of the word Criminology came
from the Latin word, “crimen” (which means crime
or offense), and Greek word “logia” (which means
to study). Hence, Criminology is the study of
crime. The term Criminology was first coined by
an Italian law professor in the name of Raffaele
Garofalo, as criminologia.
 Principal Divisions of Criminology

1. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY – this branch of criminology deals with the

scientific analysis of the study of the causes of crime.
2. SOCIOLOGY OF LAW – this is an attempt at scientific analysis of the
conditions under which criminal law and its administration are
developed.
3. PENOLOGY – this is concerned with the control of crime. This refers
to the branch of Criminology that studies the treatment and
administration of inmates.
 Nature of Criminology

Criminology is an applied science.

• Criminology is an applied science because it uses some of the
principles of other sciences in the detection of crimes and criminals.
• In the study of the causes of crimes, knowledge regarding
anthropology, psychology, sociology, and other natural sciences are
used. Also, in criminal investigations, scientific concepts and
processes of physics, chemistry, medicine, mathematics, ballistics,
polygraphy, and questioned document examination are utilized.
 Nature of Criminology

Criminology is a social science.

• Social science is defined as a branch of science that studies the
society and human behaviour in it, including anthropology,
communication studies, criminology, economics, geography,
history, political science, psychology, social studies, and sociology.
From the above definition, criminology is included among the many
social sciences.
 Nature of Criminology

Criminology is dynamic.
• The word dynamic is used to describe something that is always
moving or active. Criminology is dynamic because its concepts and
applications continue to evolve and adapt to the changing times.
 Nature of Criminology

Criminology is nationalistic.
• This means that the study of criminology takes into consideration
the history, the culture, the social norms, and the laws of the
country. Crimes are studied according to the definition and
application of law in the country where the crimes are committed.
 Brief History of Criminology Education in the Philippines

• The first ever educational institution to offer the criminology course

in the Philippines is the former Plaridel College now known as the
Philippine College of Criminology (PCCr) located at Sta. Cruz,
Manila.
 Brief History of Criminology Education in the Philippines

• Because of the influence of foreign scholars and the

increasing crime rates in the Philippines, Manila Police Major
Eliseo Vibar, Dr. Pedro Solis of the National Bureau of
Investigation (NBI), Supreme Court Associate Justice Felix
Bautista Angelo and others, established this pioneering
college of criminology or educational institution for scientific
crime detection in the whole of Southeast Asia.

• It started its operation in June 1955 by offering a two-year

course in criminology. The following year, June 11, 1956, it
started offering a four-year course leading to the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Criminology. In June 1972, PCCr
established its graduate school, offering a two-year program
leading to the degree of Master of Arts in Criminology. And in
April 1983, the Doctor of Philosophy program was added to its
graduate programs (Asalan, et al., 2012).
 Development of Criminology

• Criminology developed in the late 18th century, when various

movements, imbued with humanitarianism, questioned the
cruelty, arbitrariness, and inefficiency of the criminal justice and
prison systems.
• During this period reformers such as Cesare Beccaria in Italy
and Sir Samuel Romilly, John Howard, and Jeremy
Bentham in England, all representing the so-called classical
school of criminology, sought penological and legal reform
rather than criminological knowledge.
 Their principal aims were:
 to mitigate legal penalties
 to compel judges to observe the Latin principle of nulla poena sine
lege
 to reduce the application of capital punishment
 to humanize penal institution.
 Development of Criminology

• In the early 19th century the first annual national crime statistics were published
in France.
• Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874), a Belgian mathematician, statistician, and
sociologist who was among the first to analyze these statistics, found considerable
regularity in them (e.g., in the number of people accused of crimes each year, the
number convicted, the ratio of men to women, and the distribution of offenders by
age). From these patterns he concluded that “there must be an order to those things
which are reproduced with astonishing constancy, and always in the same way.”
• Later, Quetelet argued that criminal behaviour was the result of society’s
structure, maintaining that society “prepares the crime, and the guilty are only the
instruments by which it is executed.”
• Whereas Quetelet focused on the characteristics of societies
and attempted to explain their resulting crime rates, the Italian
medical doctor Cesare Lombroso (1836–1909) studied
individual criminals in order to determine why they committed
crimes.
• Some of his investigations led him to conclude that people with
certain cranial, skeletal, and neurological malformations were
“born criminal” because they were biological throwbacks to an
earlier evolutionary stage. Highly controversial at the time he
presented it; his theory was ultimately rejected by social
scientists.
• Lombroso also contended that there were multiple causes of
crime and that most offenders were not born criminal but instead
was shaped by their environment. The research of both
Quetelet and Lombroso emphasized the search for the causes
of crime – a focus that criminology has retained
(www.britannica.com/criminology).
 Major Perspectives of Criminology

• Classical/Choice Perspective – This includes situational

forces. Classical/choice perspective views crime as a
function of free will and personal choice.
 Major Perspectives of Criminology
• Biological/Psychological Perspective – This includes
internal forces. This perspective views crime as a function
of chemical, neurological, genetic, personality, intelligence,
or mental traits.
 Major Perspectives of Criminology
• Structural Perspective – This includes ecological forces.
This perspective view crime as a function of
neighbourhood, conditions, cultural forces, and norm
conflict.
 Major Perspectives of Criminology
• Process Perspective – This includes socialization forces.
It views crime as a function of upbringing, learning, and
control. Family, friends, peers, etc. influence behaviour.
 Major Perspectives of Criminology
• Conflict Perspective – This includes economic and
political forces. This perspective views crime as a function
of competition for limited resources and power.
 Major Perspectives of Criminology
• Development perspective – This includes multiple forces.
This perspective views crime as a result of a combination
of different factors such as biological, social-psychological,
economic, and political forces.
 Criminological Enterprise

• According to Seigel (2013), as mentioned by Lagumen et al. (2020), sub-areas

reflecting different orientations and perspectives are now contained within the
broader arena of criminology, since criminologists have been trained in diverse
fields.
• Taken together, these sub-areas make up the criminological enterprise that
helps criminologists in their quest to understand the criminal mind and
subsequently, the developed criminal behaviours among criminals.
• The criminological enterprise (Siegel, 2000), includes such sub-areas as
criminal statistics, the sociology of law, theory construction, criminal behaviour
systems, penology, and victimology.
 Research Enterprise of Criminology

• Criminologists do not just rely on reading reports and

researches in order to study and analyze the causes of
crimes. Most criminologists engage themselves in conducting
their own researches to have a better understanding of the
causes of crime and crime trends.
• Research methods are procedures for obtaining information
on individual and/or aggregate phenomena for the purpose of
(1) creating a general explanation or theory to explain a
phenomenon; (2) testing the applicability of an existing theory
to a subgroup of the population; or (3) testing the effectiveness
of an existing social policy or program. Topics (1) and (2) are
critical to the dialectic of scholarly knowledge in criminology
and criminal justice.
• Somewhat unique to the field of criminal justice, however, is a
heavier emphasis on (3) as a product of research. The
phenomena of primary interest to criminologists include
juvenile delinquency, adult criminality, and victimization, at
both the individual and aggregate levels.
 Research Enterprise of Criminology

The interests of criminal justice researchers

appear more eclectic, only a few of which
include police practices and effectiveness,
the dynamics of criminal case processing,
sentencing discrimination, inmate violence,
and correctional program effectiveness
(criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com.)
 Research Methods in Criminology

Quantitative and qualitative approaches are two of the

methods often used in conducting criminological research. In
the collection and analysis of data, quantitative research deals
with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals
with words and meanings.
Both are important for gaining different kinds of knowledge.
Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It
is used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type
of research can be used to establish general facts about a
topic.
Common quantitative methods include experiments,
observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-
ended questions.
 Research Methods in Criminology

• On the other hand, qualitative research is expressed in

words. It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or
experiences.
• This type of research enables you to gather in-depth
insights on topics that are not well understood.
• Common qualitative methods include interviews with
open-ended questions, observations described in words,
and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories
(Streefkerk, 2019).
 The following are some of the other research methods used in the
field of criminology:

• Citation and Content Analysis - Citation and content analyses are two
methodological techniques used by criminologists for a variety of
purposes. Citation analysis is a way of evaluating the scholarly impact
of a scholar, scholarly work, journal, book, or academic department
within a discipline. Content analysis allows criminologists to
systematically examine the contents of a book, article, television
program, or other work. It is often used as a way of discovering
patterns within individual works or bodies of work. Both are quantitative
methods that are less likely to be affected by personal bias than other
techniques.
 The following are some of the other research methods used in the
field of criminology:

• Crime Classification System - In the United States, there are three

main systems in place to measure and track crime. The Uniform Crime
Reports and the National Incident-Based Reporting System use police
report data to determine the scope of crime within particular areas and
to provide detail about individual criminal incidents. The National Crime
Victimization Survey measures crime on the basis of interviews in
which people are asked about their experiences with crime. Each of
these systems has been carefully constructed and modified over time
to increase detection and improve the amount and depth of information
that is collected.
 The following are some of the other research methods used in the
field of criminology:

• Crime Mapping - Crime mapping is the process through

which crime analysts and researchers use location
information about crime events to detect spatial patterns
in criminal activity. Early crime mapping efforts typically
involved placing physical markers, such as pins, on maps
to designate the locations where crimes occurred.
Patterns of criminal activity were determined primarily
through visual inspection of these maps.
 The following are some of the other research methods used in the
field of criminology:

• Crime Reports and Statistics - Crime reports and statistics convey

an extensive assortment of information about crime to the reader
and include topics such as the extent of crime and the nature or
characteristics of criminal offenses, as well as how the nature and
characteristics of crime change over time. Aside from these big-
picture topics related to crime, crime reports and statistics
communicate specific information on the characteristics of the
criminal incident, the perpetrator(s), and the victim(s).
 The following are some of the other research methods used in the
field of criminology:

• Criminal Justice Program Evaluation - Evaluations are increasingly

important to help guide monetary and administrative decisions
regarding criminal justice programs. As resources continue to
decline in tough budget years, evaluations will likely become even
more important.
 The following are some of the other research methods used in the
field of criminology:

• Edge Ethnography - Edge ethnography is the qualitative social

science approach that emphasizes depth of understandings of
socially marginal and stigmatized populations and settings wherein
the researcher undergoes dangerous and potentially threatening
(personally, socially, professionally) exposures. Central to the
conduct of edge ethnography is the researcher voluntarily exposing
himself or herself to some form of danger through immersion in the
culture or setting being studied.
 The following are some of the other research methods used in the
field of criminology:

• Experimental criminology - is a part of a larger and increasingly

expanding scientific research evidence– based movement in social
policy. In general terms, this movement is dedicated to the
improvement of society through the utilization of the highest-quality
scientific evidence on what works best (see, e.g. Sherman et al.,
1997). The evidence-based movement first began in medicine and
has, more recently, been embraced by the social sciences.
 The following are some of the other research methods used in the
field of criminology:

• Fieldwork in criminology continues to evolve and redefine itself along

epistemic, methodological, and analytic standpoints. Contemporary
fieldworkers, called street ethnographers, continue to write about
dilemmas in the field concerning process and outcomes. For example,
publications on the emotionality of initiating and sustaining a field study
are becoming commonplace, largely because of an increased number
of relevant publication outlets. Modifications made to traditional non-
probability sampling designs, such as respondent-driven sampling,
have created opportunities for collaborative work among street
ethnographers and statisticians.
 The following are some of the other research methods used in the
field of criminology:

• Quantitative Criminology - The foundation of a sound quantitative

criminology is a solid base of descriptive information. Descriptive
inference in criminology turns out to be quite challenging. Criminal
offending is covert activity, and exclusive reliance on official
records leads to highly deficient inferences. Despite important
challenges in descriptive analysis, researchers and policymakers
still strive to reach a better understanding of the effects of
interventions, policies, and life experiences on criminal behaviour
(http://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/).
LESSON 3
 Schools of Thought in Criminology

At the end of this lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Identify the different schools of thought in criminology;
2. Determine the different philosophers behind each school of thought
and their contributions in the field of criminology;
3. Analyze each theory and determine its strengths and weaknesses in
identifying criminal tendencies; and
4. apply specific theories in examining criminal behaviour.
 School of Thought

- refers to an opinion or way of thinking

about something that is shared by a group
of people
(https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/).
Some books define schools of thought as a
group of belief or ideas supporting a
specific theory.
Theory

• is a set of accepted beliefs or

organized principles that
explain and guide analysis and
one of the ways that theory is
defined is that it is different
from practice, when certain
principles are tested
(https://www.vocabulary.com/di
ctionary/).
• Several schools of thought have emerged since the birth of
criminology as a body of knowledge in Europe in the 1700s,
(Asalan, et al., 2012), these schools have been challenged, have
been discredited, and have continued to be explored by the
younger generation of criminologists, a proof that criminology is
indeed, dynamic.
Classical School of Criminology

• The classical school of criminology was developed in the eighteenth century,

where classical thinking emerged in response to the cruel forms of punishment
that dominated at the time.
• It is considered that writers such as Montesquieu and Voltaire encouraged
perhaps the emergence of this new ‘classical’ thinking, by becoming involved in
campaigns for more enlightened approaches to be taken towards crime and the
punishment given by the justice systems at the time.
• Also the development of society craved new forms of legal regulation due to the
fact that there needed to be predictability in the system, as technology and
properties in particular needed legal protection and workers needed to be
disciplined in a consistent way.
Classical School of Criminology

• There were two main contributors to this theory of criminology

and they were Jeremy Bentham and Cesare de Beccaria.
• They are seen as the most important enlightenment thinkers in the
area of ‘classical’ thinking and are considered the founding fathers
of the classical school of criminology.
• They both sought to reduce the harshness of eighteenth century
judicial systems, even though coming from different philosophical
stances.
Classical School of Criminology

• Bentham’s contribution to ‘classical’ theory is based on the fact that

he was a utilitarian, interested in the happiness and well being of
the population and therefore believing that punishment, in the form
of the infliction of pain, should always be justified in terms of a
greater good.
Classical School of Criminology

• Utilitarianism is a philosophy that argues that what is right is the

one that would cause the greatest good for the greatest number of
people. At the heart of Bentham’s writing was the idea that human
behaviour is directed at maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain,
(the pleasure-pain principle).
• Bentham believed that crime was committed on the outset, by
individuals who seek to gain excitement, money, sex or anything of
value to the individual.
Classical School of Criminology

• According to Beccaria; ‘It is better to prevent crimes than to punish them’.

This is at the heart of the classical school of criminology.
• Beccaria believed that laws needed to be put into place in order to make
punishments consistent and in line with the crime. He believed that crime
prevention in its effectiveness is down to three main ideas, these being the
certainty of the crime and how likely it is to happen, the celerity of the crime and
how quickly the punishment is inflicted and also the severity of the crime, and
how much pain is inflicted.
• Beccaria thought that the severity of the penalties given should be
proportionate to the crime committed and no more than what is necessary in
order to deter the offender and others from committing further crimes.
Classical School of Criminology

• Classical thinking says that criminals make a rational choice, and choose to
do criminal acts due to maximum pleasure and minimum pain.
• The classical school says criminals are rational, they weigh up the costs and
therefore we should create deterrents which slightly outweigh what would be
gained from the crime.
• This is the reason behind the death penalty being viewed by classical thinkers
such as Beccaria and Bentham as pointless, because there would be no
deterrent.
• However when considering manslaughter, as Bentham also believes, if the
severity of the punishment should slightly outweigh the crime then surely capital
punishment should be used, there doesn’t seem to be any stronger a deterrent
to other criminals thinking of undertaking the same criminal behaviour, than
seeing another eradicated due to their actions.
Classical School of Criminology

• Classical thinking has had a significant impact on criminological

thinking in general and perhaps a greater impact on criminal justice
practice. In Europe and America the idea of punishments being
appropriate to the nature of the crime has become a foundation for
modern criminal justice systems.
Classical School of Criminology

• Since the introduction of the classical school of criminology and

classical thinking, the use of capital punishment, torture and
corporal punishment has declined.
• Neither Beccaria nor Bentham believed in the death penalty,
apart from, Bentham argued, in the case of murder.
• The second half of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries also
saw the establishment and growth of the prison, as a major
system of punishment, the idea and concept of prison was to
take punishment away from the body and instead punish the
mind and soul, and these are the keys to changing a person’s
outlook and views of their criminal behaviours.
Classical School of Criminology

 Many elements of classical ideas are very useful in modern

society and these show the strengths that the theory does have.
 Deterrence continues to underlie all judicial systems and indeed
underpinned the principles of the first commissioners of Sir
Robert Peel, in the creation of the Metropolitan police. Prisons
are also used as major deterrents and also to try and reduce
rates of crime.
• In late 19th century the classical school came under criticism by a form
of scientific criminology which emerged due to Darwin’s great works
being published between 1850 and 1870, this therefore had a
profound effect on scientific thought and individuals views of human
behaviour (All Answers Ltd., 2018).
Neo-Classical School of Thought

Neoclassical criminology can be defined, simply, as a school of

thought that assumes criminal behaviour as situational dynamic
and individually-determined.
Neoclassical theories of crime assert that deterring, reducing, or
eliminating crime can occur through stricter child-rearing practices,
enhanced punishments, and/or an increase in surveillance and
security.
Neo-Classical School of Thought

 Neoclassical thought is typically linked to politically conservative

crime control policies.
 This is primarily because these theories advocate for an
increase in more aggressive forms of policing, zero-tolerance
parole and probation practices, and increased prison sentences
for all crimes.
Neo-Classical School of Thought

 Perhaps the most important assumption that neo-classicists

share is that criminal behaviour is a rational choice. The
rational choice perspective assumes that all human beings have
free will, they know all of their choice options, and will make
choices that maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
Neo-Classical School of Thought

 Neo-classical theories minimize or ignore other factors, such as

historical oppression, blocked opportunities, and poverty.
Neoclassical theorists place the blame for committed crimes solely
on the individuals, rather than on environmental factors. Crime,
then, is a result of people making a calculated choice to maximize
pleasure while avoiding the pain of punishment. However,
neoclassical theorists do not assume that everyone will make a
decision to commit a crime. The decision to commit a crime
hinges on a number of individual and situational factors
(https://study.com/academy).
Neo-Classical School of Thought

• Neoclassical school argues that children under 7 years of age

are incapable of making their own decisions. The insane and the
feebleminded were incapable of freedom of action. Also, it states
that the court shall take into account factors such as mitigating
circumstances, incompetence, pathology, and the past record of
offenders (Lagumen, et al., 2020).
Positivist School of Criminology

• In the early 1800s, public executions used to be commonplace.

The idea was that society would be afraid of the public punishment
that came with wrongdoing and adjust their actions.
• This reasoning for punishment aligns with a view known
as utilitarianism. evolve. Positivist criminology began to emerge,
which is the study of criminal behaviour based upon external
factors (https://study.com/academy).
Positivist School of Criminology

• In the late nineteenth century, some of the principles on which the

classical school was based began to be challenged by the emergent
positivist school in criminology, led primarily by three Italian thinkers:
Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo.
• It is at this point that the term ‘criminology’ first emerged, both in the
work of Italian Raffaele Garofalo (criminologia) in 1885 and in the
work of French anthropologist Paul Topinard (criminologie) around
the same time.
Positivist School of Criminology

 Positivist criminology assumes that criminal behaviour has its own distinct set of
characteristics. As a result, most criminological research conducted within a
positivist paradigm has sought to identify key differences between ‘criminals’ and
‘non-criminals’.
 Some theorists have focused on biological and psychological factors, locating the
source of crime primarily within the individual and bringing to the fore questions of
individual pathology. This approach is termed individual positivism.
 Other theorists – who regard crime as a consequence of social rather than
individual pathology – have, by contrast, argued that more insights can be gained
by studying the social context external to individuals. This approach is
termed sociological positivism.
Positivist School of Criminology

 The primary idea behind positivist criminology is that criminals

are born as such and not made into criminals; in other words, it
is the nature of the person, not nurture that results in criminal
propensities.
 Moreover, the positive criminologist does not usually examine
the role of free will in criminal activity (https://study.com/).
Positivist School of Criminology

 One famous positive criminologist was Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso devised

his own classification of criminals and these are born criminals, insane
criminals, and criminaloids.
 A person who is in possession of at least five (5) atavistic stigmata is a born
criminal. Insane criminals are those who became criminals because of
some brain defects which affected their ability to understand and differentiate
what is right from what is wrong. On the other hand, criminaloids refer to
criminals who do not possess five (5) atavistic stigmata and who are not
suffering from any brain defects. They are habitual criminals, criminals with
passion, and others (Asalan, et al., 2012)
Positivist School of Criminology

 In the 1960s and 1970s, positive criminology theories focused

on abnormal chromosomes giving rise to criminal propensities.
 One theory, known as the XYY theory, indicated that violent
males had an extra Y chromosome, which resulted in likelihood
toward crime. However, this theory was later disproved
(https://study.com/academy).
French School of Thought

 The French school of thought emphasized the interaction between social and
psychological factors; the importance of biological and physical factors in
crime causation.
 It posited that crime was socially defined and that it was socially determined.
According to Triplett (2018), as mentioned in the book of Lagumen et al.
(2020), the French school is in contrast with Lombroso’s Italian School of
Criminal Anthropology which general viewpoint was shaped by the
evolutionary theory of Darwin and more by that of Jean-Baptiste Lamark.
 It emphasized the possible of environmental causes of human behaviour.
The French School is better described as a multi-disciplinary tradition that
accepted sociological determinants, bio-psychological propositions, and
even a degree of free will.
French School of Thought

 Gabriel Tarde was one of the major thinkers of the French School.
He was a French sociologist and psychologist who introduced the
theory of imitation which proposes the process by which people
become criminals.
 According to theory of imitation individuals imitate the behaviour
of other individuals based on the degree of their association with
these other individuals and it is the inferior or the weak that tend to
imitate the superior or the strong.
 So, if a person associated himself with people who are engaged in
illegal activities, he is very likely to be influenced by these people
and can become a criminal as well.
Socialist School of Thought

 This school was based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
which emphasized economic determinism.
 Marx discussed very little about crime and criminology but advocates of
socialist schools applied Marxist theories to explain the causes of crime. In
the same line they recommended the way out.
 Marxist recognized that for a society to function efficiently, social order is
necessary. However, apart from communist societies, they consider that in all
societies’ one class, the ruling class gain far more than other classes.
 Marxist agrees with the functionalist that socialization plays a crucial role
in promoting infirmity and order. Unlike the latter, they are highly critical of the
ideas, values and norms of capitalist society, which they termed as capitalist
ideology. Modern Marxists point to education and media as socializing
agencies (https://www.academia.edu).
Cartographic School of Thought

 This school of thought views crime as a necessary expression of

environment.
 This means that crime is the expression of environmental
influences as there exist functional relationship between
criminality and environment.
Cartographic School of Thought

 Major thinkers of the Cartographic school of thought are Lambert Adolphe

Quetelet and Andre Michael Guerry.
 Quetelet was an influential figure in criminology. Along with Andre-Michel
Guerry, he helped to establish the cartographic school and positivist
schools of criminology which made extensive use of statistical techniques.
 Through statistical analysis, Quetelet gained insight into the relationships
between crime and other social factors. Among his findings were strong
relationships between age and crime, as well as gender and crime.
 Other influential factors he found included climate, poverty, education,
and alcohol consumption, with his research findings published in “Of the
Development of the Propensity to Crime.”
Cartographic School of Thought

 On the other hand, Guerry is best known for his Essay on moral statistics of
France, presented to the French Academy of Sciences on July 2, 1832, and
published in 1833 after it was awarded the Prix Montyon in statistics.
 His presentation, in tables and thematic maps, showed that rates of crime and
suicide remained remarkably stable over time, when broken down by age, sex,
region of France and even season of the year. Yet, these numbers also varied
systematically across departments of France.
 This regularity of social numbers created the possibility to conceive that human
actions could be described by social laws, just as inanimate actions were
governed by physical laws. Throughout his career, Guerry was particularly
interested in uncovering the relation between social and moral variables.
 How are personal crime and property related to each other, and to suicide,
donations to the poor, illegitimate births, wealth, and so forth? How do different
types of crimes vary with age of the accused? Statistical methods
(correlation and regression) were still in their infancy, so Guerry relied on graphic
comparisons of maps and semi-graphic tables (https://en.wikipedia.org/).