LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Module No. 2
PRECIPITATION

I. Topic:

o Formation of Precipitation
o Different Types of Precipitation
o Rainfall characteristics (Depth, Duration, Intensity, Hyetograph)
o Point Rainfall Measurements
o Different Types of Rain gauges
o Estimation of Missing rainfall data
o Conversion of Point rainfall to areal rainfall
o Double Mass Analysis

II. Time Frame: 6 hours

III. Introduction:

This module will give you understanding of the processes of precipitation and
knowledge on how to analyze rainfall data like intensity, duration of a storm.

IV. Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Classify rainfall characteristics;
2. Appraise type of rain gauge; and
3. Apply the concepts of solving problems on precipitation.

V. Learning Activities:

Precipitation is an important input to hydrology. The release of water from the

atmosphere to reach the surface of the earth is defined as precipitation. It covers all forms
of water being released by the atmosphere, including snow, hail sleet and rainfall. Floods
and droughts are directly related to precipitation.
The factors that determine precipitation are climate, geography, source of moisture,
ocean surfaces and precipitation.

FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION

Precipitation occurs in many forms e.g. drizzle, rain, glaze, sleet, snow, hail, dew
and frost, depending upon the causes and temperature at the time of formation. Dew is
condensation on the ground or atmospheric vapor caused by traditional cooling of the
lower layers of atmosphere, usually at night. Frost is dew formed under freezing
conditions. Dew and frost are quantitatively unimportant are rarely measured.

o Drizzle: Drop size < 0.5 mm in dia. and intensity is usually < 1 mm/hr and generally
occurs in conjunction with warm frontal lifting.
o Rain: Drop size is between 0.5 to 6 mm in dia. Drops bigger than 6 mm tend to
break up as they fell. It is formed by condensation and coalescence of cloud
droplets at temperatures above the freezing point.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

o Glaze: It is the ice coating formed when drizzle or rain freezes as it comes in contact
with cold objects on the ground.
o Sleet: It is frozen raindrops cooled to ice stage while falling through air at sub-
freezing temperature.
o Snow: It is a precipitation in the form of ice crystals resulting from sublimation, i.e.,
directly from water vapor to ice.
o Snow Flake: It is made of a number of ice crystals fused to gather.
o Hail: It is precipitation in the form of balls or lumps of ice over 5 mm diameter formed
by alternate freezing and melting as they are carried up and down in highly turbulent
air currents.

Characteristics of Rainfall
o Amount or Quantity – the amount of rainfall is measured with the help of rain
gauges. The amount of rainfall is usually given as a depth over a specified area,
assuming that all rainfall accumulates over the surface and the unit for measuring
amount of rainfall is cm.
o Intensity- this is usually average of rainfall rate during the special periods of a
storm and is usually expressed as cm/hr.
o Duration of Storm
o Aerial Distribution

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PRECIPITATION

There are three major types of precipitation: cyclonic, convective, and orographic.
Each type represents a different method of lifting an air mass, resulting in cooling and
condensation of atmospheric water vapor.

Cyclonic Precipitation
Cyclonic Precipitation: It is caused by lifting associated with the horizontal
convergence of inflowing atmosphere into an area of low pressure. There are two kinds
of cyclonic precipitation. Non-frontal precipitation involves only this convergence and
lifting. Frontal precipitation results when one air mass is lifted over another. A front is
defined as the boundary between two air masses of different temperatures and densities.
A warm front is the result of a warm air mass overriding a cold air mass, causing
extensive areas of cloudiness and precipitation. As the warm front approaches a given
area, the precipitation becomes
more continuous and intense.
Warm fronts move at a speed of
15-50 km/h (10-30 mph).
A cold front results from a
strong push of a cold air mass
against and beneath a warm air
mass. At the front towering
clouds develop together with
intense short duration
precipitation. Cold fronts move at
a speed of 30-80 km/h (20-50
mph).

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

An occluded front occurs when a cold front overtakes a warm front. The
precipitation pattern is a combination of both warm and cold frontal distribution. Occluded
fronts move at a speed of from 8-50 km/h (5-30 mph).

Convective Precipitation
It results when air that is warmer than its surrounding rises and cools. The
precipitation is of a shower type, varying from light showers to cloudbursts. The typical
thunderstorms resulting from heating of the atmosphere in the afternoon hours is the best
example of convective rainfall. Thunderstorms occur throughout the world, especially in
the summer. They are the characteristic form of rain in the tropics, wherever cyclonic
circulation does not operate.

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Orographic Precipitation

It is caused when air masses are lifted as they move over mountain barriers. Such
orographic barriers tend to increase both cyclonic and orographic precipitation due to the
increased lifting involved. Precipitation is generally heavier on the windward slope than
on the leeward slope.

RAINFALL CHARACTERISTICS (Depth, Duration, Intensity, Hyetograph)

The characteristics of rainfall are the amount, the intensity, the duration, the
frequency or return period and the seasonal distribution.
The amount is important to the overall hydrologic cycle and replenishment of the
soil water, and the amount is an accumulation or product of the intensity times the
duration. However, the intensity and duration can have a large influence on whether the
rainfall infiltrates or becomes surface runoff. Higher rainfall intensity produces large size
raindrops which have more impact energy, and thus higher intensity storms can damage
delicate vegetation and bare soil.
The duration refers to the length of time rainfall occurs. A high intensity rainfall for
a short duration may affect tender seedlings, but it will not likely have much effect on soil
erosion and runoff. Rainfall of longer duration can significantly affect infiltration, runoff
and soil erosion processes.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

The frequency or return period refers to how often rainfall occurs at a particular
amount or intensity and duration.
The seasonal distribution of rainfall refers to the time of year when various rainfall
amounts occur. Seasonal distribution determines when surface runoff or deep percolation
are most likely to occur or if irrigation is needed.
Intensity - cm/hour
Duration – minutes, hour or days
Frequency – once in 5 years or 10, 20, 40, 60 or 100 years
Areal extent – area over which it is distributed

POINT RAINFALL MEASUREMENT

There are three methods of rainfall data which have been found to be useful in
interpretation and analysis of hydrological studies:
1. Hyetograph method
2. Mass curve of rainfall method
3. Point rainfall method
Hyetograph Method
A hyetograph is a bar graph. It represent a plot of the intensity of rainfall against the
time interval. It can be prepared either from the mass curve of rainfall, or directly from the
data obtained from rain gauges. The area under a hyetograph represents the total rainfall
received in that period.
Mass Curve of Rainfall
The mass curve of rainfall is a plot of the cumulative depth of rainfall against time,
plotted in chronological order. The steepness of the curve indicates the intensity of rainfall.
The horizontal line of the curve indicates that there is no rainfall during that period. From
the mass curve, the total depth of rainfall and intensity of rainfall at any instant of time can
be found.
Point Rainfall Method
Point rainfall data is also known as station rainfall. The rainfall data of a particular
station is known as point rainfall. The rainfall data can be presented as daily, weekly,
monthly, seasonal or annual values for various periods. It is graphically presented as plots
of magnitude vs chronological time in the form of bar diagram.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RAIN GAUGES

The three major types of rain gauges are the standard gauge, tipping bucket gauge
and weighing gauge.
The simplest and most widely used rain gauge consist of a large cylinder, a funnel
and a plastic measuring tube. As rain falls to the ground, it is collected by the funnel and
travels to the plastic measuring tube. The amount of rain collected within a day can be
read off the measuring tube.
The tipping-bucket rain gauge consists of a funnel within a cylinder located above
a pair of buckets that are balanced about a horizontal axis. Rain enters the funnel, pours
into the cylinder and drains into the bucket. When a certain amount of water has been
collected, the bucket tips and causes the second bucket to quickly move into position to
collect rain. The buckets typically tip over after collecting 0.01 inches (0.03 centimeters)
of rain. Each time this occurs, an electronic signal is sent to a computer. Monitors can
count the number of electrical signals to estimate total precipitation within a given time.

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A weighing rain gauge consists of cylinder that is placed upon an electronic scale.
As water enters the cylinder, the weight increases and provides an indirect measure of
rainfall. The electronic scales are either connected to a chart that traces rainfall over time
or a computer that logs the data. The weight of water can be easily converted to inches of
rainfall by using the density of water and the dimensions of the measuring cylinder.
Recording (weighing bucket rain gauge, tipping bucket rain gauge, siphon or float
type and radar measurement) and non-recording type rain gauges (these rain gauge which
do not record the depth of rainfall but only collect rainfall. Symon’s rain gauge is the usual
non recording type of rain gauge. It gives the total rainfall that has occurred at a particular
period.

ESTIMATION OF MISSING RAINFALL DATA

Sometimes, it may not be possible to measure the rainfall at a particular
measuring station due to absence of the observer or instrument failure. To predict the
missing data, the following methods are used:
o Arithmetic Mean Method
o Normal Ratio Method
o Inverse Distance Method
Arithmetic mean method
If rainfall data of station X is missing then to find out the missing rainfall data Px

Conditions for arithmetic mean method:

rainfall data of at least three rain gauge is required,
Px should be within 10% of the normal annual rainfall of the index stations
and rain gauge stations should be evenly distributed around the missing
station & as close as possible.

Normal ratio method

This method is used when the average annual rainfall at any of the index stations
are more than 10% of the average annual rainfall of the station X.

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CONVERSION OF POINT RAINFALL TO AREAL RAINFALL

Isohyetal Method
Isohyets are imaginary line joining points of equal precipitation in an area similar
to contours in a given area.

Thiessen Polygon Method also known as weighted mean method.

The Thiessen polygon method is another graphical technique which calculates
station weights based on the relative areas of each measurement station in the Thiessen
polygon network. The individual weights are multiplied by the station observation and the
values are summed to obtain the areal average precipitation.

Inverse distance method

In this method, a set of rectangular co-ordinate axes are passed through the
missing station so that its co-ordinates are (0, 0). The co-ordinates (x, y) of each index
station surrounding the missing station are found. The weightage (Wi) of each index
station is represented by the inverse of the square of its distance from the missing station.

Examples:
1. A precipitation of station X was inoperative for some time during which a storm
occurred. The storm totals at three stations A, B, and C surrounding X were 6.6, 4.8
and 3.7cm respectively. The normal annual rainfall amounts at stations X, A, B and C
are respectively 65.6, 72.6, 51.8 and 38.2 cm. Estimate the storm precipitation for
station X.
Station P (cm) Annual Rainfall
A 6.6 72.6
B 4.8 51.8
C 3.7 38.2
X - 65.6

Px = 1/3 (6.6 + 4.8 + 3.7) = 5.033 cm

2. The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C and D in a basin are 80.97, 67.59, 76.28
and 92,01 cm respectively. In the year 1985, the station D was inoperative and the
station A, B and C recorded annual precipitation of 91.11, 72.23, and 79.89 cm
respectively. Estimate the rainfall at station D in that year.
Station P (cm) Year 1985
A 80.97 91.11
B 67.59 72.23
C 76.28 79.89
D 92.01 -
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Px = 92.01/3 (91.11/80.97 + 72.23/67.59 + 79.89/76.228) = 99.4078 cm

3. In a river basin, station A was in operative during a storm while stations B, C, D, and E
surrounding a were in operation, recording 74m, 88mm, 71 mm and 80mm of monthly
rainfall. The coordinates of the stations is given. Estimate the missing monthly rainfall
of station a by the inverse distance method.
Station Pi (mm) Coordinates Xi2 Yi2 Xi2 + Yi2 = Di Wi = 1/Di Wi x Pi
Xi Yi
A 0 0
B 74 9 6 81 36 117 0.008547 0.632479
C 88 12 -9 144 81 225 0.004444 0.391111
D 71 -11 -6 121 36 157 0.006369 0.452229
E 80 -7 7 49 49 98 0.010204 0.816327
Sum 0.029565 2.292146
Px 77.5291

4. Consider the following data shown in table below, determine the monthly precipitation
at gage X
Gage Annual Precipitation (mm) Monthly Precipitation (mm)
A 410 24
B 370 23
C 460 31
X 400 ?
At gage X the 10% of annual precipitation is 40
Add and subtract 40 to 400 to determine the range which is 360 to 440
Using normal ratio method to determine the missing data at X

400 24 23 31
Px = (410 + + 460)
3 370

DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS

Mass curve of rainfall is a plot of the accumulated precipitation against time,
plotted in chronological order. Records of float type and weighing bucket type gauge are
of this form. Mass curve of rainfall are very useful in extracting the information on the
duration and magnitude of a storm.

VI. Self-Evaluation Test:

Answer the following in your own words:

1. Describe the hydrologic water cycle.
2. What changes could occur in the hydrologic cycle if our climate were to warm up or
cool down significantly? Explain why?
3. W hic h p a rt of t h e w at e r c yc le is a p r i nc i p a l ag e nt o f er os i on ?
4 . Ex p l a in t h e r o l e of ev a p o r at io n i n t h e h yd ro l o g ic c yc l e.
5 . W hat i s t h e d if f er e n ce be t we e n h ydr o l o g y a n d h yd r a u l ic s?

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Solve the following problems. Show your solution clearly.

1. The normal annual precipitation at stations X, A, B and C are 700 mm, 1000 mm, 900
mm and 800 mm respectively. If the storm precipitation at three stations A, B and C
were 100 mm, 90mm and 80 mm respectively, Calculate the storm precipitation for
station X.
2. Precipitation station X was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm
occurred. The respective storm totals at three surrounding stations a, B, and C were
98, 80 and 110 mm. The normal annual precipitation amounts at station X, A, B, and
C are 800, 1008, 842 and 1080 mm respectively. Estimate the storm precipitation for
station X.

VII. Review of Concepts:

Precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that

falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, and
hail. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water
vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates.
Precipitation, largely in the form of rain and snow, is the source of moisture coming
to the earth. It is a key source parameter in the water balance equation. The ability to
accurately measure and compute precipitation determines to a considerable extent the
reliability of all water balance computations (Sokolov and Chapman, 1974). The rainfall
and snowfall at any location are measured by self-recording or manual observation gages.
These gages record the depth of rainfall or snowfall in inches or millimeters at any place
within a given time frame.
The measured precipitation data are subject to errors due to the amount of rain water
(1) displaced by the dipstick, (2) retained on wetting of gage surface, (3) evaporated in
between the time of rain and manual readings, (4) affected by the height of the gage above
the ground, and (5) swayed by the wind.
The density and arrangement of the network and the method of analysis influence
the estimate of areal distribution of rainfall from point data. Numerous papers have been
published on precipitation measurement errors.

VIII. References:

David Chin, Water Resources Engineering, 3rd Ed., Pearson , 2013

McCuen, R.H., Hydrologic Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1989
Linsley, R.K., M.A. Kohler and J.L.H. Paulhus, Hydrology for Engineers by; McGraw-Hill,
1988
Applied Hydrology by VenTe Chow, David Maidment and Larry Mays;McGRAW-HILL
International Editions; 1988
Handbook of Hydrology David Maidment, 1993

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