Engineering Materials

MEC-ENP-211

Ferrous and non-ferrous metals

Dr. S. Chalimba

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Expected outcomes
• Classification of steels and cast irons
• The steel production process
• Know the effects of alloying elements

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Make a list of all the different metals that you know about

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Groups of metals
Two main groups:
• Ferrous metals
• Pure ferrous
• Ferrous alloys
• Non-ferrous metals
• Pure non-ferrous
• Non-ferrous alloys

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Ferrous metals
• Ferrous materials/metals may be defined as those metals whose main
constituent is iron (i.e. iron base metals and ferrous means iron) such
as pig iron, wrought iron, cast iron, steel and their alloys
• The principal raw materials for most ferrous metals is pig iron
• Most common engineering materials are ferrous materials which are
alloys of iron.
• Iron is the name given to pure ferrite Fe, as well as to fused mixtures
of this ferrite with large amount of carbon (may be 1.8%), these
mixtures are known as pig iron and cast iron. Primarily pig iron is
produced from the iron ore in the blast furnace from which cast iron,
wrought iron and steel can be produced.
• Ferrous materials are usually stronger and harder and are used in
daily life products 5
Ferrous metals
• Ferrous material possess a special property that their characteristics
can be altered by heat treatment processes or by addition of small
quantity of alloying elements
• Ferrous metals possess different physical properties according to their
carbon content.
• Ferrous metals are prone to rusting if exposed to moisture. Ferrous
metals can also be picked up by a magnet
• The rusting and magnetic properties in ferrous metals are both down
due to the iron
• Typical ferrous metals include mild steel, cast iron and steel

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Ferrous alloys
• Ferrous alloys: Based on iron-carbon alloys – iron prime constituent,
include plain-carbon steels, alloy and tool steels, stainless steels, and cast
irons
• Ferrous alloys are produced in larger quantities than any other metal type.
• Steels typically are produced in two ways: refining iron ore or recycling
scrap steel (steel is one of the few materials that is nearly 100% recycled)
• In producing primary steel, iron ore (processed to contain 50 to 70% iron
oxide, Fe2O3 or Fe3O4) is heated in a blast furnace in the presence of coke (a
form of carbon) and oxygen
• The iron oxide is reduced into a crude molten iron known as hot metal or
pig iron
• At about 1600oC, this material contains about 95% iron; 4% carbon; 0.3 to
0.9% silicon; 0.5% Mn; and 0.025 to 0.05% of sulfur, phosphorus, and
titanium
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Ferrous alloys
• Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:
• iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the earth’s
crust;
• metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical
extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques; and
• ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored to have a
wide range of mechanical and physical properties.
• The principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their
susceptibility to corrosion

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Taxonomic classification of steels and cast
iron

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Cast Iron
• It is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon and it is hard and brittle.
• Carbon content may be within 1.7% to 3% and carbon may be present
as free carbon or iron carbide Fe3C
• In general the types of cast iron are (a) grey cast iron and (b) white
cast iron (c) malleable cast iron (d) spheroidal or nodular cast iron (e)
austenitic cast iron and (f) abrasion resistant cast iron

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11
Cast iron microstructures

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Grey cast iron
• Carbon here is mainly in the form of graphite
• This type of cast iron is inexpensive and has high compressive
strength
• Graphite is an excellent solid lubricant and this makes it easily
machinable but brittle
• Some examples of this type of cast iron are FG20, FG35 or FG35Si15
• The numbers indicate ultimate tensile strength in MPa and 15
indicates 0.15% silicon.

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White cast iron
• In these cast irons carbon is present in the form of iron carbide (Fe3C)
which is hard and brittle
• The presence of iron carbide increases hardness and makes it difficult
to machine
• Consequently these cast irons are abrasion resistant

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Malleable cast iron
• These are white cast irons rendered malleable by annealing
• These are tougher than grey cast iron and they can be twisted or bent
without fracture
• They have excellent machining properties and are inexpensive
• Malleable cast iron are used for making parts where forging is
expensive such as hubs for wagon wheels, brake supports
• Depending on the method of processing they may be designated as
black heart BM32, BM30 or white heart WM42, WM35 etc.

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Spheroidal or nodular graphite cast iron
• In these cast irons graphite is present in the form of spheres or
nodules
• They have high tensile strength and good elongation properties. They
are designated as, for example, SG50/7, SG80/2 etc. where the first
number gives the tensile strength in MPa and the second number
indicates percentage elongation

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Austenitic cast iron
• Depending on the form of graphite present these cast iron can be
classified broadly under two headings: Austenitic flake graphite iron
designated, for example, AFGNi16Cu7Cr2
• Austenitic spheroidal or nodular graphite iron designated, for
example, ASGNi20Cr2
• These are alloy cast irons and they contain small percentages of
silicon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus etc
• They may be produced by adding alloying elements viz. nickel,
chromium, molybdenum, copper and manganese in sufficient
quantities. These elements give more strength and improved
properties
• They are used for making automobile parts such as cylinders, pistons,
piston rings, brake drums etc.
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Abrasion resistant cast iron-
• These are alloy cast iron and the alloying elements render abrasion
resistance
• A typical designation is ABR33 Ni4 Cr2 which indicates a tensile
strength in kg/mm2 with 4% nickel and 2% chromium.

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Wrought iron
• This is a very pure iron where the iron content is of the order of
99.5%. It is produced by re-melting pig iron and some small amount
of silicon, sulphur, or phosphorus may be present
• It is tough, malleable and ductile and can easily be forged or welded.
It cannot however take sudden shock
• Chains, crane hooks, railway couplings and such other components
may be made of this iron

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Iron and steel making process
• Slag is a by-product of the blast furnace process. It contains silica,
CaO, and other impurities in the form of a silicate melt.
• Liquid pig iron contains a large amount of carbon, oxygen is blown
into it in the basic oxygen furnace (BOF) to eliminate the excess
carbon and produce liquid steel
• Steel has a carbon content up to a maximum of approx. 2%
• In recycling scrap steel, steel scrap is often melted in an electric arc
furnace
• Many alloy and specialty steels, such as stainless steels, are produced
using electric melting

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Iron and steel making process Cont.
• Molten steels (including stainless steels) often undergo further
refining. The goal here is to reduce the levels of impurities such as
phosphorus, sulfur, etc., and to bring the carbon to a desired level.
• Molten steel made by either route is poured into moulds to produce
finished steel castings, or cast continuously into shapes that are later
processed through metal-forming techniques such as rolling or
forging. In the latter case, the steel is either poured into large ingot
moulds or continuously cast into regular shapes.

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The steel making process

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Classification of steel
• Common steels are classified according to carbon concentration—
namely, into low-, medium-, and high- carbon types
• Subclasses also exist within each group according to the
concentration of other alloying elements
• Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations of impurities
other than carbon and a little manganese

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Tool steels
• Tool steels are special alloyed steels designed for high strength,
impact toughness and wear resistance at room and elevated
temperatures
• Normally used in forming and machining of metals
• So the requirements in a tool steel are that it should be capable of
becoming very hard and further that it should be able to retain its
hardness at high temperatures normally developed during cutting of
materials. This property is known as “red hardness”
• Further, tool steel should not be brittle for smooth working.

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High Speed Steel (H.S.S.)
• It is the name given to the most common tool steel.
• As the name implies, it can cut steel at high cutting speeds. These
steels are high in alloy content, have excellent hardenability, maintain
their hardness at elevated temperatures around 650°C, are quite
resistant to wear and contain relatively large amounts of tungsten or
molybdenum, together with chromium, cobalt or vanadium.
• They are used to produce cutting tools to be operated for various
machining operations such as turning, drilling, milling, etc.
• A typical composition of H.S.S. is tungsten 18%, chromium 4% and
vanadium 1%, carbon 0.75 to 0.9% and rest iron.
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Molybdenum High Speed Steel
• This steel contains 6% tungsten, 6% molybdenum, 4% chromium and
2% vanadium and have excellent toughness and cutting ability
• The molybdenum high speed steel are better and cheaper than other
types of steel
• It is particularly utilized in drilling and tapping operations.

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Stainless steel
• The only material known to engineers which possesses a combination
of various properties such as: wide range of strength and hardness,
high ductility and formability, high corrosion resistance, good creep
resistance, good thermal conductivity, good machinability, high hot &
cold workability and excellent surface finish is stainless steel.
• Known as stainless since they do not corrode or rust easily in most of
environment and media
• Stainless steels can be further divided into the following three
categories: ferrite stainless steel, austenitic stainless steel and
martensitic stainless steel

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Ferritic stainless steel
• It is that steel when properly heat treated and finished, resists
oxidation and corrosive attacks from corrosive media
• Ferritic stainless steels contain 12–18% chromium, 0.15 to 0.2%
carbon besides iron and usual amounts of manganese and silicon
• Are relatively cheap
• Magnetic in nature
• Iron-chromium alloys with a structure consisting of ferrite phase
which cannot be hardened by heat treatment
• Utilized in manufacture of dairy equipment food processing plants, etc

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Austenitic stainless steels
• These are the most costliest among all stainless steels
• In these steels besides chromium, nickel is also added. Nickel is a very
strong austenitic stabilizer and therefore the microstructure of these
steels is austenitic at room temperature
• These steels contain 12 to 21% chromium and 8 to 15% nickel and
carbon less than 0.2%
• The most familiar alloy of this group is known as 18:8 stainless steel
i.e. 18% chromium and 8% nickel plus other
• Other elements like carbon, manganese and silicon in very small
quantities.

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Martensitic stainless steel
• These steels contain 12–18% chromium and 0.1 to 1.8% carbon
• Can be hardened by heat treatment but their corrosion resistance is
decreased
• Steels with 12 to 14% chromium and 0.3% carbon are widely used for
table cutlery, tools and equipment
• Steel with little less carbon percentage and higher percentage of
chromium are used as springs, ball bearings and instruments under
high temperature and corrective conditions

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Effect of alloying elements
Amount in
Element HSLA steels Influence
wt%
C < 0.25 Strengthener
Low cost
Disadvantages
Poor impact properties and weldability with increase in carbon content
Mn 0.5 – 2 Delays austenite decomposition during accelerated cooling resulting in ferrite grain size
refinement
Mild solution strengthener
Decreases ductile to brittle transition temperature
When >1.7% undesirable microstructures form which impair strength and toughness
Si 0.1 – 0.5 Deoxidiser in molten steel
Solid solution strengthener
Al >0.02 Deoxidiser
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Limits grain growth (AlN)
 Amount in
Element steels Influence
wt%
Nb 0.02-0.06 Very strong ferrite strengthener, forms carbonitrides [Nb(C,N)];Grain size control; Delays γ to
α transformation; and Retards recrystallization due to the great solute drag effect

Ti 0 – 0.06 Forms nitrides, carbides, sulphides and oxides in low carbon steels
Advantages
Grain size control (TiN formation) – TiN particles have great stability, slow growth rates and
inhibit grain growth at very high reheat temperatures
Strong ferrite strengthener
Carbides contribute to precipitation strengthening in low carbon steels
Formation of sulphides (inclusion shape control)elevates the transverse shelf life
Disadvantages
High reactivity of Titanium causes control problems in steel production
Formation of Titanium oxide is undesirable since limits available Ti and produces dirty steels
Molten steel is deoxidized with aluminium prior to the addition of Ti to counter Ti high
affinity for oxygen
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V 0-0.1 Strong ferrite strengthener
 Amount
Element in steels Influence
wt%
N <0.012 Forms TiN, VN and AlN
Mo 0 – 0.13 Promotes bainite formation; Ferrite strengthener
Ni 0 – 0.5 Increases fracture toughness
Cu 0 – 0.55 Advantages
Improves atmospheric corrosion resistance; Ferrite strengthener (precipitation hardening)
A high solubility at high temperatures ≥ 800oC but low solubility at lower temperatures;
Low carbon equivalent in steel; Depression of the 𝛾 → 𝛼 + 𝛾 transformation which refines
the ferrite
Disadvantages
Production problems which include hot shortness and contamination with other alloying
elements
Cr 0 – 1.25 Improves atmospheric corrosion resistance (when Cu is also added)
B Enlarges the 𝛼-solid solution domain; Maximum solubility in ferrite is about 0.002%;
Increases hardenability due to B segregation to austenite grain boundaries; Formation of
embrittling intergranular borocarbides (Fe23(BC)6) when the content exceeds 0.0025%
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Non-ferrous metals
• Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not have any iron in them at all
• This means that Non-ferrous metals are not attracted to a magnet and they
also do not rust in the same way when exposed to moisture
• Typical Non-ferrous metals include copper, aluminium (coke cans), tin and
zinc.
• Examples:
• Aluminium
• Copper
• Zinc
• Tin
• Lead
• Silver
• Gold
• Magnesium

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Non-ferrous metals - Aluminium
• This is the white metal produced from Alumina
• It tends to be light in colour although it can be polished to a mirror
like appearance
• In its pure state it is weak and soft but addition of small amounts of
Cu, Mn, Si and Magnesium makes it hard and strong
• It is also corrosion resistant, low weight and non-toxic

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Non-ferrous metals - Aluminium
• It is very light in weight
• Used for saucepans, cooking foil, window frames, ladders, expensive
bicycles
• Has a melting temperature of 660oC

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Non-ferrous alloys: Aluminium alloys
Al alloys may be placed in either
of three groups according to
their use:
• those alloys that can be age
hardened,
• those that are suitable for
casting and
• those that that can not be age
hardened but only
strengthened through work
hardening.

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 Al alloys based on Al-Cu binary system
• Equilibrium phase diagram:
• The equilibrium phase diagram
becomes rather complex at high
%Cu but such alloys are generally
of little commercial interest and
practically all studies have been
done at the low %Cu end where a
solubility for about 5.7wt%Cu
exists at 548oC
• Ideal precipitation hardenable
alloy with the equilibrium second
phase consisting of the compound
θ with a compositional structure of
CuAl2

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Al alloys based on Al-Cu binary system
• Precipitation sequence generally accepted for this alloy:

• where the intermediate phases GP zones, θ’ and θ’’ are metastable

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Non-ferrous alloys: Aluminium alloys
• Duralumin- A famous alloy of aluminium containing 4% copper, 0.5%
manganese, 0.5% magnesium and a trace of iron with remainder as
aluminium is known as duralumnin. It is widely used in automobile and
aircraft components.
• It possesses high strength comparable with mild steel and low specific
gravity
• However, its corrosion resistance is much lower as compared with pure
aluminium
• The strength of this alloy increases significantly when heat treated and
allowed to age for 3 to 4 weeks it will be hardened. The phenomenon is
termed age hardening
• To improve upon the corrosion resistance of it, a thin film of aluminium is
rolled on the duralumin sheets. These sheets are known as Alclad by trade
name and are widely used in aircraft industry.
• It is widely utilized in wrought conditions for forging, stamping, bars, tubes
and rivets. It can be worked in hot condition at 500°C. However, after
forging and annealing it could also be cold worked. Due to light weight and
high strength this alloy may be used in automobile industry. 41
Non-ferrous alloys: Aluminium alloys
Y-alloy- It is also known as copper-aluminium alloy.
• This is an alloy of 4% Cu, 1.5% Mn, 2% Ni, 6% Si, Mg, Fe and the rest is Al
• It gives large strength at high temperature. It is used for aircraft engine
parts such as cylinder heads, piston etc.
• The addition of copper to pure aluminium improves its strength and
machinability. This alloy is heat treated as well as age hardened just like
duralumin. A heat treatment of Y-alloy castings, consisting of quenching in
boiling water from 510°C and then aging for 5 days develops very good
mechanical characteristics in them
• Since Y-alloy has better strength at elevated temperature than duralumin
therefore it is much used in aircraft cylinder heads and piston
• It is also used in strip and sheet form

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Non-ferrous alloys: Aluminium alloys
• Magnalium- This is an aluminium alloy with 2 to 10 % magnesium. It
also contains 1.75% Cu. Due to its light weight and good strength it is
used for aircraft and automobile components.
• Hindalium: It is an alloy of aluminium and magnesium with small
quantity of chromium. It is manufactured as rolled product in 16
gauge mainly used in manufacture of anodized utensils.

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Non-ferrous metals - Copper
• It is a ductile and malleable metal
• It is often red / brown in colour
• It is a very good conductor of heat and electricity
• Used for plumbing, electric components, cookware and roof
coverings
• Has a melting temperature of 1084oC

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Non-ferrous metals - Zinc
• It is very resistant to corrosion from moisture
• However zinc is a very weak metal and is used mainly for coating steel
• Used as a coating on screws, steel buckets etc.
• It is also used to galvanize steel
• Has a melting temperature of 419oC

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Non-ferrous metals - Tin
• It is a very ductile and very malleable metal
• It is resistant to corrosion from moisture
• It is bright silver in appearance
• Tinplate is steel with a tin coating
• Used as a coating on food cans, beer cans
• Used as whistles, tin foil and soldering
• Has a melting temperature of 231°C

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Non-ferrous metals - Lead
• It is a soft, malleable metal
• It is also counted as one of the heavy metals
• Lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon
tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air
• Used for: roof flashing, batteries, X-ray protection and Lead is also
used for its weight in many ways
• Melting temperature: 327°C

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Non-ferrous metals - Silver
• A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical
conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of
any metal
• The metal occurs naturally in its pure, free form
• Used for jewelry and high quality cutlery, currency coins, sports
trophies and also in mirrors as a reflective metal
• Melting point: 961°C

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Non-ferrous metals - Gold
• Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has
a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive,
which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water
• Gold resists attacks by individual acids and won't tarnish, discolor,
crumble, or be affected by most solvents
• Used mainly for jewelry, in computers as a conductor and for its
reflective powers to protect satellites
• Melting point: 1337°C

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Non-ferrous metals - Magnesium
• Magnesium is a fairly strong, silverywhite, light-weight metal (one
third lighter than aluminum) that slightly tarnishes when exposed to
air
• In a powder, this metal heats and ignites when exposed to moisture
and burns with a white flame
• Magnesium is used in pyrotechnic (i.e. fireworks). It is alloyed with
other metals to make them lighter and more easily welded.
• Melting temperature: 648°C

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Non-ferrous Metal Alloys
• Non-ferrous metal alloys are metals that are a mixture of two or more
metals
• The main ones in everyday use are:
• Brass
• Bronze
• Solder

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Non-ferrous Metal Alloys – Brass (Cu Alloys)
• Brass is a mixture of copper and zinc
• Copper is the main component, and brass is usually classified as a copper
alloy
• Copper alloys are among the best conductors of heat and electricity and
they have good corrosion resistance
• The color of brass varies from a dark reddish brown to a light silvery yellow
• Brass is stronger and harder than copper, but not as strong or hard as steel
• It is easy to form into various shapes, a good conductor of heat, and
generally resistant to corrosion from salt water
• It is fundamentally a binary alloy with Zn up to 50%
• As Zn percentage increases, ductility increases up to ~37% of Zn beyond
which the ductility falls – β- phase is less ductile than α-phase but it is
harder and stronger
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Non-ferrous Metal Alloys – Brass (Cu Alloys)
• Commercially there are two main varieties of brasses:
• Alfa brass: Contains up to 36% Zn and rest copper for cold working
• Alfa-Betabrass: Contains 36 to 45% Zn and remainder is copper for
hot working
• Various classes of brasses such as cartridge brass, Muntzmetal
leaded brass, Admirality brass, naval brass and nickel brass
depending upon the proportion of copper and zinc plus third
alloying metal are available for various uses
• Suitable type of brasses can undergo the processes of casting, hot
forging, cold forging, cold rolling into sheets, drawing into wires
and extrusion for obtaining requisite special cross-section bars

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Non-ferrous Metal Alloys – Brass
• Brass is used to make water fittings, screws, radiators, musical
instruments, cartridge casings for firearms, hydraulic fittings, pump
linings, utensils, bearings and bushes
• Melting point: 940°C

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Non-ferrous Metal Alloys – Bronze
• Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin
as the main additive
• It is a hard and brittle metal
• It has a very high resistance to corrosion
• Used for ship propellers and underwater fittings, statues and medals
• Melting point: 950°C

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General used bronze
Phosphor bronze: When bronze contains phosphorus, it is known as
phosphor bronze.
• Phosphorus present in such alloy increases the strength, ductility and
soundness of castings
• Various compositions of this alloy are available for different applications.
• The composition of the alloy varies according to whether it is to be forged,
wrought or cast
• A common type of phosphor bronze has the following composition Copper
= 93.6%, tin = 9%, and phosphorus = 0.1 to 0.3%.
• The alloy possesses good wearing qualities and high elasticity. The alloy is
resistant to salt water corrosion.
• Cast phosphor bronze is utilized for production of bearings and gears.
Bearings of bronze contain 10% tin and small addition of lead
• This is also used in making gears, nuts, for machine lead screws, springs,
pump parts, linings and many other such applications
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General used bronze
Gun metal: Gun metal contains 2% zinc, 10% tin and 88% copper. It is a very
famous composition
• Sometimes very small amount of lead is also added to improve castability
and machinability
• The presence of zinc improve its fluidity
• This bronze is used for bearing bushes, glands, pump valves and boiler
fittings, etc.
Silicon bronze: Silicon bronze has an average composition of 3 per cent
silicon, 1 per cent manganese and rest copper.
• It possesses good general corrosion resistance of copper with higher
strength and toughness
• It can be cast rolled, stamped, forged and pressed either hot or cold and
can be welded by all the usual methods.
• Silicon bronze is widely utilized for parts of boilers, tanks, stoves or where
high strength as well as corrosion resistance is required.
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General used bronze
Bell metal: This alloy contains 20 to 21% tin and rest copper
• It is hard and resistant to surface wear
• It can be readily cast, is generally utilized for casting bells, gongs and
utensils, etc.
Manganese Bronze: It is an alloy of copper, zinc and manganese. It contains
55 to 60% copper, 40% zinc, with 3.5% manganese
• This alloy is highly resistant to corrosion.
• It is stronger and harder than phosphor bronze. It has poor response to cold
working but can be easily hot worked.
• It is generally utilized for producing bushes, plungers, feed pumps and rods,
etc.
• Worm gears are frequently made of manganese bronze.
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General used bronze
Muntz Metal: The composition of this alloy is 60 per cent copper and 40
per cent zinc. Sometimes a small quantity of lead is also added.
• This alloy is stronger, harder and more ductile than normal brass
• While hot working between 700°C to 750, it responds excellently for
process but does not respond to cold working.

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Bearing Materials
A bearing material should possess the following characteristics:
• It should possess enough compressive strength to provide adequate load
carrying capacity.
• It should possess good plasticity to negate small variations in alignment
and fitting.
• Its wear resistance should be adequate to maintain a specified fit.
• The coefficient of friction of the bearing material should be low to avoid
excessive heating.
Bearing materials - Babbitt’s metal: It is utilized for production of heavy duty
bearings.
• It is white in colour containing 88% tin, 8% antimony and 4% copper
• It is a soft material with a low coefficient
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Non-ferrous Metal Alloys – Solder
• Solder is a fusible metal alloy used to join together metal work pieces
and having a melting point below that of the work pieces
• It is an alloy of Lead and Tin
• Solder is used for electronics, plumbing, jewelry making and repair
processes where metal parts cannot be effectively or safely welded
• Melting temperature: 200°C

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