Metals

JAN KENNEY D. GONZALES

(Chemistry Instructor)
Types of Metal Alloy
 FERROUS ALLOYS

• those in which iron is the prime constituent—are produced in larger quantities than any
other metal type. They are especially important as engineering construction materials.

• Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:

 Iron containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the Earth’s crust

 metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical extraction,
refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques

 ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored to have a wide range of
mechanical and physical properties.
Types of Metal Alloy

Classification scheme for the various ferrous alloy

Types of Metal Alloy

Distinct Limitation of Ferrous Alloy

Steel and other ferrous alloys are consumed in exceedingly large quantities
because they have such a wide range of mechanical properties, may be fabricated with
relative ease, and are economical to produce. However, they have some distinct
limitations, chiefly

• a relatively high density,

• a comparatively low electrical conductivity, and
• An inherent susceptibility to corrosion in some common environments.
Types of Metal Alloy
 NON FERROUS ALLOY

Alloy systems are classified either according to the base metal or according to some
specific characteristic that a group of alloys share. All non-ferrous alloys do not share a
common property; it varies according to the composition and the heat treatment method in
producing the alloy.

Some of the common features of different alloys are listed below.

• copper, aluminum, magnesium, and titanium alloys

• the refractory metals
• the superalloys
• the noble metals;
• miscellaneous alloys including those that have nickel, lead, tin, zirconium, and zinc as base metals.
Types of Metal Alloy

Classification scheme for the various non ferrous alloy

Ferrous Alloy

1. Steels

• Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other
alloying elements; there are thousands of alloys that have different compositions
and/or heat treatments.

• Types of Carbon Alloy (Steel)

 Low-Carbon Steels - a carbon content of less than 0.25%.
 Medium-Carbon Steels - a carbon steel with a carbon percentage content of 0.25% to
0.60%.
 High-Carbon Steels - normally having carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%, are the
hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels.
Ferrous Alloy
Applications of Steels
Types of Steels Application
• Low-Carbon Steels • Generally rolled into angle steel, channel steel, I-beam, steel pipe, steel
strip or steel plate for making various building components, containers,
boxes, furnace bodies and agricultural machinery.
• High-quality low-carbon steel is rolled into a thin plate to make deep-
drawn products such as automobile cabs and engine covers.
• Medium-Carbon Steels • The medium carbon steel is mainly used to manufacture high-strength
moving parts, such as air compressors, pump pistons, steam turbine
impellers, heavy machinery shafts, worms, gears, etc., surface wear
parts, crankshafts, machine tools spindles, rollers, bench tools, and
more.
• High-Carbon Steels • High carbon steel is mainly used in the manufacture of springs, wear
parts and high hardness tools.
Ferrous Alloy

2. Stainless Steels

• The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments,
especially the ambient atmosphere. Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a
concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is required. Corrosion resistance may also be
enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions.

• 3 Classes of Stainless steels

 Martensitic - are capable of being heat-treated.
 Ferritic austenitic and ferritic stainless steels are hardened and
strengthened by cold work because they are not heat-
 Austenitic treatable.
Ferrous Alloy

3. Cast Iron

• Generically, cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14 wt%;
in practice, however, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C and, in addition,
other alloying elements.
• For most cast irons, the carbon exists as graphite, and both microstructure and
mechanical behavior depend on composition and heat treatment.

• The most common cast iron types are

 Gray
 Nodular
 White
 Malleable
 Compacted graphite.
Ferrous Alloy

 Gray Iron

• The carbon and silicon contents of gray cast

irons vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0
and 3.0 wt%, respectively.

• Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak

and brittle in tension as a consequence of its
microstructure; the tips of the graphite flakes
are sharp and pointed and may serve as
points of stress concentration when an
external tensile stress is applied.
Ferrous Alloy

 Ductile (or Nodular) Iron

• Adding a small amount of magnesium and/or

cerium to the gray iron before casting produces
a distinctly different microstructure and set of
mechanical properties. Graphite still forms, but
as nodules or spherelike particles instead of
flakes. The resulting alloy is called ductile or
nodular iron.
Ferrous Alloy

 White Iron

• White cast irons are usually made by limiting the silicon

content to a maximum of 1.3 percent, so that no graphite
is present and all of the carbon exists as cementite (Fe3C).

• The name white refers to the bright appearance of the

fracture surfaces when a piece of the iron is broken in two.

• White irons are too hard to be machined and must be

ground to shape. Brittleness limits their range of
applications, but they are sometimes used when wear
resistance is required, as in brake linings.
Ferrous Alloy

 Malleable Iron

• cast iron containing usually from 2 to 3 percent

carbon and 1.5 to 0.8 percent silicon and produced
by annealing white cast iron of this composition in
order to convert hard brittle cementite to graphite
in nodular form so that the material will have
greater ductility than white iron or ordinary gray
iron containing graphite in flake form.
Non Ferrous Alloy

1. Copper and Its Alloys

• The mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties of copper
may be improved by alloying.

• The most common copper alloys are the brasses for which zinc,
as a substitutional impurity, is the predominant alloying element.

• The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other elements,

including tin, aluminum, silicon, and nickel. These alloys are
somewhat stronger than the brasses, yet they still have a high
degree of corrosion resistance.

• The most common heat-treatable copper alloys are the

beryllium coppers.
Non Ferrous Alloy

2. Aluminum and Its Alloys

• Aluminum and its alloys are

characterized by a relatively low density
(2.7 g/cm3 as compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for
steel).

• Many of these alloys are easily formed by

virtue of high ductility.

• Generally, aluminum alloys are classified

as either cast or wrought.
Non Ferrous Alloy

3. Magnesium and Its Alloys

• Perhaps the most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, 1.7 g/cm3 , which is
the lowest of all the structural metals; therefore, its alloys are used where light weight is an
important consideration (e.g., in aircraft components)

• These alloys are also classified as either cast or wrought, and some of them are heat treatable.
Aluminum, zinc, manganese, and some of the rare earths are the major alloying elements

• Furthermore, in the last several years the demand for magnesium alloys has increased
dramatically in a host of different industries. For example, magnesium is now employed in a
variety of hand-held devices (e.g., chain saws, power tools, hedge clippers), in automobiles
(e.g., steering wheels and columns, seat frames, transmission cases), and in audio-video-
computer-communications equipment (e.g., laptop computers, camcorders, TV sets, cellular
telephones).
Non Ferrous Alloy

4. Titanium and Its Alloys

• Titanium and its alloys are relatively new engineering materials that possess an
extraordinary combination of properties.

• The major limitation of titanium is its chemical reactivity with other materials at
elevated temperatures. This property has necessitated the development of
nonconventional refining, melting, and casting techniques; consequently, titanium
alloys are quite expensive.

• They are commonly utilized in airplane structures, space vehicles, surgical implants, and
in the petroleum and chemical industries.
Non Ferrous Alloy

5. Refractory Metals

• Metals that have extremely high melting temperatures are classified as the refractory
metals.

• Included in this group are niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and tantalum
(Ta).

• The applications of these metals are varied. For example, tantalum and molybdenum
are alloyed with stainless steel to improve its corrosion resistance.

• Molybdenum alloys are utilized for extrusion dies and structural parts in space vehicles;
incandescent light filaments, x-ray tubes, and welding electrodes employ tungsten
alloys.
Non Ferrous Alloy

6. The Superalloys

• The superalloys have superlative combinations of properties. Most are used in aircraft
turbine components, which must withstand exposure to severely oxidizing
environments and high temperatures for reasonable time periods.

• These materials are classified according to the predominant metal in the alloy, which
may be cobalt, nickel, or iron. Other alloying elements include the refractory metals
(Nb, Mo, W, Ta), chromium, and titanium.

• In addition to turbine applications, these alloys are utilized in nuclear reactors and
petrochemical equipment.
Non Ferrous Alloy

6. The Noble Alloy

• They are expensive (precious) and are superior or notable (noble) in properties—that is,
characteristically soft, ductile, and oxidation resistant.

• The noble metals are silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium,
and osmium; the first three are most common and are used extensively in jewelry.

• Silver and gold may be strengthened by solid-solution alloying with copper; sterling
silver is a silver–copper alloy containing approximately 7.5 wt% Cu.

• Platinum is used for chemical laboratory equipment, as a catalyst (especially in the

manufacture of gasoline), and in thermocouples to measure elevated temperatures.
Non Ferrous Alloy

7. Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys

• Nickel and its alloys are highly resistant to corrosion in many environments, especially those
that are basic (alkaline).

• Nickel is often coated or plated on some metals that are susceptible to corrosion as a protective
measure. Monel, a nickel based alloy containing approximately 65 wt% Ni and 28 wt% Cu (the
balance iron).

• Lead, tin, and their alloys find some use as engineering materials. Both are mechanically soft
and weak, have low melting temperatures.

• Applications for lead and its alloys include x-ray shields and storage batteries. The primary use
of tin is as a very thin coating on the inside of plain carbon steel cans (tin cans) that are used for
food containers; this coating inhibits chemical reactions between the steel and the food
products.
Non Ferrous Alloy

7. Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys

• Galvanized steel is just plain carbon steel that has been coated with a thin zinc layer; the zinc preferentially
corrodes and protects the steel. Typical applications of galvanized steel are familiar (sheet metal, fences,
screen, screws, etc.).

• Common applications of zinc alloys include padlocks, plumbing fixtures, automotive parts (door handles
and grilles), and office equipment.

• Although zirconium is relatively abundant in the earth’s crust, it was not until quite recent times that
commercial refining techniques were developed. Zirconium and its alloys are ductile and have other
mechanical characteristics that are comparable to those of titanium alloys.

• In terms of cost, these alloys are also often the materials of choice for heat exchangers, reactor vessels, and
piping systems for the chemical processing and nuclear industries. They are also used in incendiary
ordnance and in sealing devices for vacuum tubes.
Fabrication of Metals
• Metal fabrication techniques are normally preceded by refining, alloying, and often heat-
treating processes that produce alloys with the desired characteristics.

• The classifications of fabrication techniques include various metal-forming methods, casting,

powder metallurgy, welding, machining, and 3D printing; often two or more must be used
before a piece is finished
Fabrication Techniques
1. FORMING OPERATIONS

• Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is changed by plastic
deformation. The deformation must be induced by an external force or stress, the
magnitude of which must exceed the yield strength of the material.

• When deformation is achieved at a temperature above that at which recrystallization occurs,

the process is termed hot working, otherwise, it is cold working. For hot-working
operations, large deformations are possible, which may be successively repeated because
the metal remains soft and ductile.

• Cold working produces an increase in strength with the attendant decrease in ductility
because the metal strain hardens; advantages over hot working include a higher quality
surface finish
Fabrication Techniques
 FORMING OPERATIONS

1. Forging
• Forging is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a usually hot metal; this may
be accomplished by the application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing.

Image Retrieved from: mesinc.net

Fabrication Techniques
 FORMING OPERATIONS
2. Rolling
• Rolling, the most widely used deformation process, consists of passing a piece of metal
between two rolls; a reduction in thickness results from compressive stresses exerted by the
rolls. Cold rolling may be used in the production of sheet, strip, and foil with a high quality
surface finish. Circular shapes, as well as I-beams and railroad rails, are fabricated using
grooved rolls.

Image Retrieved from: youtube.com

Fabrication Techniques
 FORMING OPERATIONS

3. Extrusion
• For extrusion, a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a compressive force that is
applied to a ram; the extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape and a reduced
complicated cross-sectional geometry; seamless tubing may also be extruded.

Image Retrieved from: engineeringproductdesign.com

Fabrication Techniques
 FORMING OPERATIONS

4. Drawing
• Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece
through a die having a tapered bore by
means of a tensile force that is applied on
the exit side. A reduction in cross section
results, with a corresponding increase in
length. The total drawing operation may
consist of a number of dies in a series
sequence. Rod, wire, and tubing products
are commonly fabricated in this way.

Image Retrieved from: britaero.com

Image Retrieved from: youtube.com
Fabrication Techniques
2. CASTING

• Casting is a fabrication process whereby a totally molten metal is poured into a mold cavity
having the desired shape; upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold but
experiences some shrinkage.

• Casting techniques are employed when

 (1) the finished shape is so large or complicated that make any other method would be
impractical;
 (2) a particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by either hot or cold working would
be difficult; and
 (3) in comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is the most economical. The final
step in the refining of even ductile metals may involve a casting process.
Fabrication Techniques
 CASTING

1. Sand Casting

• With sand casting, probably the most common method,

ordinary sand is used as the mold material.

• A two-piece mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern

that has the shape of the intended casting.

• A gating system is usually incorporated into the mold to

expedite the flow of molten metal into the cavity and to
minimize internal casting defects. Sand-cast parts include
automotive cylinder blocks, fire hydrants, and large pipe
fittings.

Image Retrieved from: www.iqs.com

Fabrication Techniques
 CASTING

2. Die Casting

• In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a mold

under pressure and at a relatively high velocity and
allowed to solidify with the pressure maintained. A
two-piece permanent steel mold or die is
employed; when clamped together, the two pieces
form the desired shape. When complete
solidification has been achieved, the die pieces are
opened and the cast piece is ejected

• However, this technique lends itself only to

relatively small pieces and to alloys of zinc,
aluminum, and magnesium, which have low
melting temperatures. Image Retrieved from: rapiddirect.com
Fabrication Techniques
 CASTING

3. Investment Casting

• For investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, the pattern is made from a wax or plastic
that has a low melting temperature.

• Around the pattern is poured a fluid slurry, which sets up to form a solid mold or investment;
plaster of paris is usually used. The mold is then heated, such that the pattern melts and is
burned out, leaving behind a mold cavity having the desired shape.

• This technique is employed when high dimensional accuracy, reproduction of fine detail, and an
excellent finish are required—for example, in jewelry and dental crowns and inlays. Also, blades
for gas turbines and jet engine impellers are investment cast.
Fabrication Techniques
3. Investment Casting

Image Retrieved from: exportersindia.com

Fabrication Techniques
 CASTING

4. Lost-Foam Casting

• A variation of investment casting is lost-foam (or expendable pattern) casting. Here, the expendable pattern
is a foam that can be formed by compressing polystyrene beads into the desired shape and then bonding
them together by heating.

• With lost foam casting, complex geometries and tight tolerances are possible. Furthermore, in comparison
to sand casting, lost foam is a simpler, quicker, and less expensive process, and there are fewer
environmental wastes. Metal alloys that most commonly use this technique are cast irons and aluminum
alloys;

• furthermore, applications include automobile engine blocks, cylinder heads, crankshafts, marine engine
blocks, and electric motor frames.
Fabrication Techniques

4. Lost-Foam Casting

Image Retrieved from: researchgate.net

Fabrication Techniques
 CASTING

5. Continuous Casting

• These casting and rolling steps may be

combined by a continuous casting
(sometimes termed strand casting)
process. Using this technique, the refined
and molten metal is cast directly into a
continuous strand that may have either a
rectangular or circular cross section;
solidification occurs in a water-cooled die
having the desired cross-sectional
geometry.

Image Retrieved from: www.tec-science.com

Fabrication Techniques
3. MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES

1. Powder Metallurgy

• Yet another fabrication technique involves the compaction of powdered metal followed by a heat
treatment to produce a denser piece. The process is appropriately called powder metallurgy.

• This method is especially suitable for metals having low ductilities, because only small plastic
deformation of the powder particles needs occur. Metals with high melting temperatures are difficult to
melt and cast, and fabrication is expedited using P/M.

• Furthermore, parts that require very close dimensional tolerances (e.g., bushings and gears) may be
economically produced using this technique.
Fabrication Techniques
1. Powder Metallurgy

Image Retrieved from: www.researchgate.com

Fabrication Techniques
3. MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES

2. Welding

• In a sense, welding may be considered to be a fabrication

technique. In welding, two or more metal parts are joined to
form a single piece when one-part fabrication is expensive or
inconvenient. Both similar and dissimilar metals may be
welded. The joining bond is metallurgical (involving some
diffusion) rather than just mechanical, as with riveting and
bolting.

• A variety of welding methods exist, including arc and gas

welding, as well as brazing and soldering.

Image Retrieved from: welderslab.com

Fabrication Techniques
4. 3D PRINTING

• Over the past several years the manufacturing of materials industry has experienced a revolution with the
introduction of what is termed three-dimensional or (3D) printing,also called additive manufacturing (AM).1
The “additive” adjective denotes that a functional object is created by the addition of raw material
incrementally, often in a layerlike fashion, one layer at a time, from computer-aided design (CAD) data.

Image Retrieved from: www.chisel.io

Thermal Processing of Metals
 ANNEALING PROCESS

3. Annealing of Ferrous Alloy

• Normalizing - An annealing heat treatment called normalizing is used to refine the grains (i.e., to
decrease the average grain size) and produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution; fine-
grained pearlitic steels are tougher than coarse-grained ones. Normalizing is accomplished by heating
at least 55°C (100°F) above the upper critical temperature.

• Full Anneal - A heat treatment known as full annealing is often used in low- and medium-carbon steels
that will be machined or will experience extensive plastic deformation during a forming operation.

• Spheroidizing - Medium- and high-carbon steels having a microstructure containing even coarse
pearlite may still be too hard to machine or plastically deform conveniently. These steels, and in fact
any steel, may be heat-treated or annealed to develop the spheroidite structure. Spheroidized steels
have a maximum softness and ductility and are easily machined or deformed.
Thermal Processing of Metals
 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

• Conventional heat treatment procedures for producing martensitic steels typically

involve continuous and rapid cooling of an austenitized specimen in some type of
quenching medium, such as water, oil, or air.

• The successful heat treating of steels to produce a predominantly martensitic

microstructure throughout the cross section depends mainly on three factors:
 (1) the composition of the alloy,
 (2) the type and character of the quenching medium,
 (3) the size and shape of the specimen. The influence of each of these factors is
now addressed.
Reference

• Callister Jr, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (2020). Callister's Materials Science and
Engineering. John Wiley & Sons.