Module-5

TYPICAL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Prepared by:

Srinidhi R Kulkarni
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
BIET, Davangere
CONTENTS
• Ferrous metals and Non ferrous metals and alloys - Aluminum and its
alloys, Copper and its alloys, Lead and its alloys, Tin, Zinc and its
alloys
• Alloys for high temperature service
• Ceramic materials - Structure of ceramics, Polymorphism,
Mechanical, electrical and thermal properties of ceramic phases,
Refractories, Glasses, abrasives, Plastics, fires and elastomers, Organic
protective coatings.
Can you remember the names of metals from periodic
table …?
Ferrous metals and Non ferrous metals and alloys

• Types of metals and alloys

• Metallic materials are broadly of two kinds – ferrous and non-ferrous
materials.
• This classification is primarily based on tonnage of materials used all
around the world. Ferrous materials are those in which iron (Fe) is the
principle constituent.
• All other materials are categorized as non-ferrous materials.
• Another classification is made based on their formability.
• If materials are hard to form, components with these materials are fabricated
by casting, thus they are called cast alloys.
• If material can be deformed, they are known as wrought alloys. Materials are
usually strengthened by two methods – cold work and heat treatment.
Strengthening by heat treatment involves either precipitation hardening or
martensitic transformation, both of which constitute specific heat treating
procedure. When a material can not be strengthened by heat treatment, it is
referred as non-heat-treatable alloys.
Ferrous materials
• Ferrous materials are produced in larger quantities than any other
metallic material.
• Three factors account for it:
• (a) availability of abundant raw materials combined with economical
extraction,
• (b) ease of forming and
• (c) their versatile mechanical and physical properties.
• One main drawback of ferrous alloys is their environmental
degradation i.e. poor corrosion resistance.
• Other disadvantages include:

• relatively high density and comparatively low electrical and thermal

conductivities. In ferrous materials the main alloying element is carbon
(C).
• Depending on the amount of carbon present, these alloys will have
different properties, especially when the carbon content is either
less/higher than 2.14%. This amount of carbon is specific as below this
amount of carbon, material undergoes eutectoid transformation, while
above that limit ferrous materials undergo eutectic transformation. Thus
the ferrous alloys with less than 2.14% C are termed as steels, and the
ferrous alloys with higher than 2.14% C are termed as cast irons.
 • Alloys of Iron:
1. Steels
• Steels:
• Steels are alloys of iron and carbon plus other alloying elements.
• In steels, carbon present in atomic form, and occupies interstitial sites of
Fe microstructure. Alloying additions are necessary for many reasons
including: improving properties, improving corrosion resistance, etc.
Arguably steels are well known and most used materials than any other
materials.
• Mechanical properties of steels are very sensitive to carbon content.
Hence, it is practical to classify steels based on their carbon content. Thus
steels are basically three kinds: low carbon steels (% wt of C < 0.3),
medium carbon steels (0.3 <% wt of C < 0.6) and high carbon steels (%
wt of C > 0.6).
• Low carbon steels:
• These are arguably produced in the greatest quantities than other alloys.
Carbon present in these alloys is limited, and is not enough to strengthen
these materials by heat treatment; hence these alloys are strengthened by
cold work.
• Their microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite, and these alloys are
thus relatively soft, ductile combined with high toughness. Hence these
materials are easily machinable and weldable.
• Typical applications of these alloys include: structural shapes, tin cans,
automobile body components, buildings, etc.
• A special group of ferrous alloys with noticeable amount of alloying
additions are known as HSLA (high-strength low-alloy) steels.
Common alloying elements are: Cu, V, Ni, W, Cr, Mo, etc. These
alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment, and yet the same time
they are ductile, formable. Typical applications of these HSLA steels
include: support columns, bridges, pressure vessels.
• Medium carbon steels:
• These are stronger than low carbon steels. However these are of less
ductile than low carbon steels. These alloys can be heat treated to improve
their strength. Usual heat treatment cycle consists of austenitizing,
quenching, and tempering at suitable conditions to acquire required
hardness.
• They are often used in tempered condition. As hardenability of these
alloys is low, only thin sections can be heat treated using very high quench
rates. Ni, Cr and Mo alloying additions improve their hardenability.
Typical applications include: railway tracks & wheels, gears, other
machine parts which may require good combination of strength and
toughness.
• High carbon steels:

• These are strongest and hardest of carbon steels, and of course their ductility
is very limited. These are heat treatable, and mostly used in hardened and
tempered conditions. They possess very high wear resistance, and capable
of holding sharp edges.
• Thus these are used for tool application such as knives, razors, hacksaw
blades, etc. With addition of alloying element like Cr, V, Mo, W which
forms hard carbides by reacting with carbon present, wear resistance of high
carbon steels can be improved considerably.
• Stainless steels:
• The name comes from their high resistance to corrosion i.e. they are
rustless (stain-less). Steels are made highly corrosion resistant by addition
of special alloying elements, especially a minimum of 12% Cr along with
Ni and Mo. Stainless steels are mainly three kinds: ferritic & hardenable Cr
steels, austenitic and precipitation hardenable (martensitic, semi-austenitic)
steels. This classification is based on prominent constituent of the
microstructure. Typical applications include cutlery, razor blades, surgical
knives, etc.
• Cast irons:
• Though ferrous alloys with more than 2.14 wt.% C are designated as cast
irons, commercially cast irons contain about 3.0-4.5% C along with some
alloying additions. Alloys with this carbon content melt at lower
temperatures than steels i.e. they are responsive to casting. Hence casting is
the most used fabrication technique for these alloys.
• Hard and brittle constituent presented in these alloys, cementite is a
meta-stable phase, and can readily decompose to form α-ferrite and graphite.
In this way disadvantages of brittle phase can easily be overcome. Tendency
of cast irons to form graphite is usually controlled by their composition and
cooling rate. Based on the form of carbon present, cast irons are categorized
as gray, white, nodular and malleable cast irons.
• Gray cast iron:
• These alloys consists carbon in form graphite flakes, which are surrounded by
either ferrite or pearlite. Because of presence of graphite, fractured surface of
these alloys look grayish, and so is the name for them. Alloying addition of Si
(1- 3wt.%) is responsible for decomposition of cementite, and also high
fluidity. Thus castings of intricate shapes can be easily made. Due to graphite
flakes, gray cast irons are weak and brittle. However they possess good
damping properties, and thus typical applications include: base structures,
bed for heavy machines, etc. they also show high resistance to wear.
• White cast iron:
• When Si content is low (< 1%) in combination with faster cooling rates,
there is no time left for cementite to get decomposed, thus most of the brittle
cementite retains. Because of presence of cementite, fractured surface
appear white, hence the name. They are very brittle and extremely difficult
to machine. Hence their use is limited to wear resistant applications such as
rollers in rolling mills. Usually white cast iron is heat treated to produce
malleable iron.
• Nodular (or ductile) cast iron:
• Alloying additions are of prime importance in producing these materials.
Small additions of Mg / Ce to the gray cast iron melt before casting can
result in graphite to form nodules or sphere-like particles. Matrix
surrounding these particles can be either ferrite or pearlite depending on the
heat treatment. These are stronger and ductile than gray cast irons. Typical
applications include: pump bodies, crank shafts, automotive components,
etc.
• Malleable cast iron:
• These formed after heat treating white cast iron. Heat treatments involve
heating the material up to 800-900 C, and keep it for long hours, before
cooling it to room temperature. High temperature incubation causes
cementite to decompose and form ferrite and graphite. Thus these materials
are stronger with appreciable amount of ductility. Typical applications
include: railroad, connecting rods, marine and other heavy-duty services.
Non-ferrous matels

Non-ferrous materials have specific advantages over ferrous materials.

They can be fabricated with ease, high relatively low density, and high
electrical and thermal conductivities. However different materials have
distinct characteristics, and are used for specific purposes. This section
introduces some typical non-ferrous metals and their alloys of
commercial importance.
Non-ferrous metals used in regular life
 Aluminium alloys:

• These are characterized by low density, high thermal & electrical conductivities,
and good corrosion resistant characteristics.

• As Al has FCC crystal structure, these alloys are ductile even at low temperatures
and can be formed easily. However, the great limitation of these alloys is their low
melting point (660 C), which restricts their use at elevated temperatures.

• Strength of these alloys can be increased by both cold and heat treatment – based
on these alloys are designated in to two groups, cast and wrought.
• Chief alloying elements include: Cu, Si, Mn, Mg, Zn. Recently, alloys of Al
and other low-density metals like Li, Mg, Ti gained much attention as there is
much concern about vehicle weight reduction. Al-Li alloys enjoy much more
attention especially as they are very useful in aircraft and aerospace
industries.

• Common applications of Al alloys include: beverage cans, automotive parts,

bus bodies, aircraft structures, etc. Some of the Al alloys are capable of
strengthening by precipitation, while others have to be strengthened by cold
work or solid solution methods.
List of Aluminum Alloys

This is a list of some important aluminum or aluminum alloys.

•A-8000: used for building wire per the National Electrical Code
•Alclad: aluminum sheet made by bonding high-purity aluminum to a high strength core
material
•Al-Li (lithium, sometimes mercury)
•Alnico (aluminum, nickel, copper)
•Birmabright (aluminum, magnesium)
•Duralumin (copper, aluminum)
•Hindalium (aluminum, magnesium, manganese, silicon)
•Magnalium (5% magnesium)
•Magnox (magnesium oxide, aluminum)
•Nambe (aluminum plus seven other unspecified metals)
•Silumin (aluminum, silicon)
•Titanal (aluminum, zinc, magnesium, copper, zirconium)
•Zamak (zinc, aluminum, magnesium, copper)
•Aluminum forms other complex alloys with magnesium, manganese, and platinum
applications of aluminum alloy

• Aerospace and automotive

• Building and constructions

• Electrical and electronic engineering

Aerospace and automotive
You’ll often find aluminum alloys within the context of engineering, as well as
the construction of light-weight components and corrosion-resistant metal
parts. One of the industries that highly relies on aluminum alloys in aerospace, as
well as the automotive industry. In this particular context, aluminum alloy is
becoming an increasingly important material. This is because it can reduce the
weight of a vehicle, thus maximizing its efficiency and fuel sustainability in the
long run. In addition to that, the durability of the aluminum alloy makes it a
safety-conscious option as well, since it performs really well on crash tests and
exceeds the requirements of most safety regulations all around the world.
Aluminum is much lighter than steel (about one-third its weight) and it enables
manufacturers to build strong metal parts, without adding unnecessary weight to
put a damper on the performance of their vehicles.
Building and constructions

High-Strength aluminum alloy is also a very popular implement in building

construction. Steel still remains one of the most fundamental materials in
construction, but aluminum alloys are definitely a very close second. When building
modern skyscrapers and structures, it is quite important to account for strength and
safety. The added benefits of high corrosion resistance and low flammability, as well
as aluminum’s natural insulation property, make this a perfect choice. In recent years,
aluminum has been highly rated internationally for use in structures where the
outbreak of fire might be a possibility. It takes roughly two times as much heat to
raise the temperature of aluminum by one single degree when compared to a similar
mass of steel. Moreover, Aluminum doesn’t burn in air, nor does it cause smoke and
other toxic fumes.
Electrical and electronic engineering
You’ll often find aluminum in electrical and electronic engineering
applications, due to the fact that it doesn’t cause any magnetic
interference. Aluminum, unlike other metal, is actually non-ferromagnetic,
making it very valuable and important for electronic manufacturing, electrical
shielding, and other applications.

and moreover...

In addition to being extremely sturdy, aluminum alloy, especially when magnesium

is involved, is less flammable when compared to other alloys, and less susceptible
to corrosion. It is very important to choose the best aluminum alloy for each given
application, accounting for factors such as malleability, density, ductility, and
tensile strength, among other things.
Alloys for High Temperature service

• Almost all metals that are able to withstand temperatures of 500℃ and
above are high-temperature alloys. These materials are a combination
of metals and additional elements that are selected for specific
property traits, which in this case is heat resistance. High-temperature
alloys are frequently used in the aerospace industry, military
applications, and electronics applications, as well as applications in
other extreme heat environments.
• High-temperature resistance metals are also known as refractory
metals. These metals are much harder at room temperature and
typically have a higher melting point. The term ‘refractory’ is used in
specific fields, most notably in materials science.
• Metals are engineered for their service environment of which heat is just one of
many factors. Heat in an oxygen atmosphere is far different than heat in a
hydrogen atmosphere. So, heat resistance parameters depend strongly on the
environment in which the materials are used.

• Many jet engine parts are made from a nickel-based alloy with tantalum, titanium
and niobium. These alloys are added to enhance the strength and resistance in the
type of hot oxygen-rich atmosphere that exists inside a jet engine. The surface of
the metal builds up a protective oxide layer with these alloying elements that
shields the metal at high temperatures. In refineries and nuclear reactors,
zirconium-based alloys are better suited for the types of high-temperature
environments that these megaliths create.
Some Superalloy Characteristics and Facts

• When temperatures go above about 1000 F (540 C), ordinary steels and
titanium alloys are no longer strong enough for application. Steels also may
suffer from enhanced corrosion attack.

• When the highest temperatures (below the melting temperatures, which are
about 2200 to 2500 F (1204 to 1371 C) for most alloys) must be achieved and
strength is the consideration, then nickel-base superalloys are the materials of
choice.

• Nickel-base superalloys can be used to a higher fraction of their melting points

than just about any other commercially available materials. Refractory metals
have higher melting points than superalloys but do not have the same desirable
characteristics as superalloys and are much less widely used.
• At lower temperatures, and dependent on the type of strength needs for an
application, iron-nickel-base superalloys find more use than cobalt- or
nickel-base superalloys.

• Superalloy strength properties are directly related not only to the

chemistry of the alloy but also to melting procedures, forging and working
processes, casting techniques, and, above all, to heat treatment following
forming, forging or casting.

• Iron-nickel-base (sometimes designated nickel-iron-base) superalloys such

as IN718 are less expensive than nickel-base or cobalt-base superalloys.
Applications

• The high-temperature applications of super alloys are extensive, including

components for aircraft, chemical plant equipment, and petrochemical equipment.
Figure 1.2 shows the F119 engine, which is the latest in a series of military
engines to power high-performance aircraft. The gas temperatures in these engines
in the hot sections (rear areas of the engine) may rise to levels far above 2000 F
(1093 C). Cooling techniques reduce the actual component metal temperatures to
lower levels, and super alloys that can operate at these temperatures are the major
components of the hot sections of such engines.
Some Applications of Superalloys
Ceramic Materials:

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