MATERIAL PROPERTIES,

METALS, HEAT TREATMENTS,

ALLOYS , ENGINEERING
MATERIALS, AND TESTING
ENGINEERING MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Physical Properties are the distinguishing qualities that a materials
normally possess while not acted upon by external forces. Among
these properties are:
A. Density
B. Specific heat
C. Thermal conductivity
D. Coefficient of expansion
E. Color
F. Refractory index
G. Electrical resistivity
ENGINEERING MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Mechanical Properties are those characteristics which describe
the behavior of materials when acted upon by forces. These
properties include:
A. Strength
B. Hardness
C. Machinability
D. Ductility
E. Elasticity
F. Plasticity
Stiffness versus Density
• The modulus of elasticity and
density are familiar properties in
selecting solid materials.

• The chart helps in common

problems of material selection
for applications in which weight
must be minimized.
Strength versus Density
• The weight of an object depends on its
volume and its density.
• Strength, on the other hand, means
different things for different classes of
solid material.
• For metals it is the yield strength, which is
the same in tension and compression.
• For brittle ceramics it is the crushing
strength in compression.
• For elastomers strength means the
fracture strength.
• For composites it is the tensile failure
strength.
• The chat is useful for determining
optimum materials based on strength
where deformation under loading is not an
issue.
Elastic modulus versus Strength
The design guidelines help with the
selection of materials for such machine
elements as springs, knife-edges,
diaphragms, and hinges.
ENGINEERING MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Chemical Properties are the characteristics of a given material in
relation to its behavior in chemical reaction:
A. Corrosion
B. Alloying
C. Compound Formation
FERROUS METALS
• Ferrous metals are metals that contain iron. Most ferrous metals
are magnetic.
• One way to remember ferrous is to think about the symbol for the
element iron, Fe, since fe is the beginning of the word ferrous.
• Iron ore is found naturally in the earth in combination with oxygen.
• The ore is heated to high temperatures and carbon is added to
remove the oxygen and produce iron in metal form.
FERROUS METALS
Wrought Iron
• The first refinement of iron ore
produces wrought iron.
• This very soft iron with only a small
amount of carbon is normally used
for decoration because it is easily
shaped and formed.
• It is not commonly used in the
machining industry.
FERROUS METALS
Plain Carbon Steels
• When molten iron is reheated and
more carbon is added, the resulting
metal is called plain carbon steel.
• Stronger steel is produced by higher
amounts of carbon.
• Steel is made by either hot-rolled or
cold-rolled (or cold-drawn) methods.
Classifications of Plain Carbon Steels
Plain Carbon Steel are steels containing only carbon as significant alloying
elements.
A. Low Carbon Steel (Less than 0.3% carbon)
• Relatively soft , low strength, and high ductility, making them excellent for machining
• They are used for wires, structural shapes, and screw machine parts.

B. Medium Carbon Steel (0.30-0.6% carbon)

• They are used for axels, gears, and similar parts requiring medium to high hardness
and high strength

C. High Carbon Steel (0.6-2% carbon)

• It has the highest hardness and the lowest ductility.
• They are used for drills, cutting tools, and Knives
Classifications of Alloy Steels
Alloy Steels is a type of steel that is alloyed with various elements in
total amounts to enhance its mechanical properties

Low Alloy Steels are steels containing less than 8% total alloying
elements and have higher strength of plain carbon.
High Alloy Steels Contains more than 8% total alloying elements

Stainless Steels are defined as low-carbon high-alloy steels with at

least 10.5% chromium, and a maximum of 1.2% carbon. This makes
them highly resistant to corrosion or rust.
Alloy Steels
• Steels that have other elements added to them are called alloy
steels.
• The element or elements added to the steel are called the alloying
elements.
• Some common alloying elements are chromium, manganese,
molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, and vanadium.
• Alloys Steels are usually a little more difficult to machine than carbon
steels because the alloying elements make them harder.
• In some cases, alloying elements make steels softer instead of
harder.
• For example, lead can be added to steel to make it easier to machine
Alloying Elements
• Aluminum (Al) is an efficient deoxidizer, an alloy in nitriding steels
(nitralloys), and it promotes fine grain size.
• Boron (B) –in very small amounts (0.001% or less) is an economical
hardenability agent in low or medium carbon deoxidized steels.
• Chromium (Cr) – improves hardenability economically, resistance to
corrosion (with other alloys), Strength at high temperatures, and
wearing properties (high carbon).
• Cobalt (Co) – improves red hardness.
• Copper (Cu) – improves steels resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
• Lead (Pb) – improves machinability, but affects different alloys
differently.
Alloying Elements
• Manganese (Mn) – improves strength and increases hardenability
moderately, counteracts brittleness from sulfur.
• Molybdenum (Mo) – increases hardenability markedly and economically,
tends to counteract temper brittleness, improving creep strength and red
hardness; it improves wear by forming abrasion-resistant particles.
• Nickel (Ni) – Strengthens unquenched and annealed steels, toughens steel
(especially at low temperatures), and simplifies heat treatment by lessening
distortion. It is the most element for reducing the brittleness of steel at very
low temperature.
• Phosphorous (P) – increases hardenability, strengthens low carbon steels,
improves machinability of free cutting steels, and improves resistance to
corrosion.
Alloying Elements
• Selenium (Se) – improves machinability of stainless steel: also added
to leaded re-sulfurized carbon steels for the same temperature.
• Silicon (Si) – strengthens low alloy steels and improves resistance to
high temperature oxidations; it is a good general purpose deoxidizer
and promotes fine grain.
• Tantalum (Ta) – is a stabilizer.
• Titanium (Ti) – is used for deoxidation and for stabilizing austenitic
stainless steels; it increases the hardness and strength of low carbon
steel and improves creep strength.
• Tungsten (W) – increases hardenability markedly in a small amounts
and improves hardness and strength at high temperature.
Alloying Elements
• Vanadium (V) – promotes fine grain structure, improves the ratio of
endurance strength to ultimate strength of medium carbon steels,
increases hardenability strongly when dissolved, and results in
retention of strength and hardness at high temperature; it is the most
effective element in retarding softening during tempering.
AISI/SAE Designation of Plain Carbon and Alloy Steels

Is the most widely used method for identifying plain carbon and alloy
steels.
• Most steels are identified by four-digit numbers.
• The first two numbers show that the steel contains certain alloying
elements.
• The last two digits stand for the amount of carbon in hundredths of a
percent.
• Some alloy steels are identified by five digits because the carbon
content is over 1 percent.
• An “L” in the middle means the steel contains lead and a “B” in the
middle means the steel contains boron.
USES OF ALLOY STEELS
AISI 2330: bolts, studs, tubing subjected to torsional stresses.
AISI 2340: quenched and tempered shafting, connecting rods, very
highly stressed bolts, forgings.
AISI 2350: high capacity gears, shafts, heavy duty machine parts.
AISI 3130: Shafts, bolts, steering knuckles
AISI 3140: aircraft and truck engine crankshafts, oil well tool joints,
splines shafts, axles, earth moving equipment’s.
AISI 3150: wear resisting parts in excavating and farm machinery, gears,
forgings.
AISI 3240: shafts, highly stressed pins and keys, gears.
USES OF ALLOY STEELS
AISI 3300 series: for heaving parts requiring deep penetration of the
heat treatment and high fatigue strength per unit weight.
AISI 4063: leaf and coil springs
AISI 4130, 4140: automotive connecting rods and axles, aircraft parts
and tubing.
AISI 4340: crankshafts, axles, gears, landing gear parts; perhaps the
best general purpose AISI steel.
AISI 4640: gears, splined shafts, hand tools, miscellaneous heavy duty
machine parts.
AISI 8630: connecting rods, bolts, shapes; air hardens after welding.
AISI 8640, 8740: gears, propeller shafts, knuckles, shapes.
FERROUS METALS
Tool Steels
• Tool steel refers to steels used to make tools
that will bend, cut, form, or somehow
“work” other metals.
• They contain alloying elements that make them
well suited for particular applications.
• Molds, punches, dies, and cutting tools such as
drills are made from tool steels.
• Tool steels are generally tougher to machine
than both plain carbon and alloy steels.
FERROUS METALS
Cast Iron
• When carbon content rises to 1.7– 4.5
percent, the material is then known as
Cast iron.
• Cast iron also contains silicon and is
recognized by its rough, scaly surface
finish. and then machined to finished sizes
as required.
• The outer scale of cast iron is somewhat
tough to penetrate but once it is removed,
cast iron is readily machinable.
FERROUS METALS
• The three basic types of cast iron are
gray iron, malleable iron, and ductile
iron.
• Gray cast iron is hard, stable, and
resistant to wear and heat, and breaks
without flexing.
• Engine blocks and machine tool bases
are often machined from gray cast iron.
• Malleable and ductile irons have the
ability to flex and stretch before breaking.
FERROUS METALS
Stainless steel
• Stainless steel refers to steels that have
minimum chromium content of 10
percent.
• This makes them highly resistant to
corrosion or rust.
• Stainless steels can contain other
alloying elements as well to give certain
qualities.
• They have a slightly brighter, silver color
than plain carbon and alloy steels.
Classifications of Stainless Steels
Austenitic Stainless Steel
• Contains 16 to 26 percent
chromium and up to 35 percent
nickel, usually having the highest
corrosion resistance.
• They are not hardenable by heat
treatment and are non-magnetic.
• Used for food and Chemical
Industries
Classifications of Stainless Steels

Ferritic Stainless Steel

• Contains 10.5 to 27 percent chromium
and are nickel-free and low carbon
content (less than 0.2 percent).
• Not hardenable by heat treatment.
• Less resistant to corrosion than
austenitic grades.
• Automobile exhaust components are
sometimes made from these c
stainless steels
Classifications of Stainless Steels
Martensitic Stainless Steel
• Contains 11.5 to 18 percent chromium and up to 1.2 percent
carbon with nickel sometimes added.
• They are hardenable by heat treatment, and most are magnetic.
• Surgical equipment and knife blades are machined from
martensitic stainless steels.
NON-FERROUS METALS

• Nonferrous metals are metals that contain no iron.

• Aluminum, copper, magnesium, and titanium are examples of
nonferrous metals.
NON-FERROUS METALS
Aluminum Alloys

• Aluminum is a lightweight, silver-gray colored

metal that is very common in the machining industry.
• Aluminum is widely used in the aerospace industry
because of its low weight.
• Aluminum alloys are mixtures of aluminum and
other elements to produce certain characteristics,
just like in alloy steels.
NON-FERROUS METALS
Aluminum Alloys
Common alloying elements in aluminum are zinc,
copper, and silicon.
• Aluminum alloys are either wrought or cast.
• Wrought aluminum is formed like CRS by pulling it
through progressively smaller rollers.
• Cast alloys are formed like cast iron by pouring
molten aluminum into a mold.
• Aluminum alloys are easily machined, but some
are very soft and gummy.
NON-FERROUS METALS
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium looks very much like aluminum, but it is
lighter and stronger. For that reason, magnesium alloys
are sometimes preferred over aluminum.
• The term “mag wheel” comes from the fact that those
first types of wheels were made from magnesium alloys.
• As with aluminum, there are cast and wrought
magnesium alloys.
• Gear box cases for small engines are often cast from
magnesium alloys and then finished by machining.
• Magnesium alloys are easily machined, like aluminum
alloys.
NON-FERROUS METALS
Copper Alloys
• Pure copper is very soft and is an excellent
conductor of heat and electricity.
• Machined copper components are sometimes
used in the heat and electricity industries.
• Copper can be either wrought or cast like
aluminum.
• Copper alloys are more commonly used than pure
copper in the machining industry. They are mixtures
of copper and other metals.
NON-FERROUS METALS
• Brass is primarily an alloy of copper and zinc and is stronger than pure
copper and more corrosion resistant than pure copper.
• Plumbing fittings are often machined from brass.
• Bronze is primarily an alloy of copper and tin.
• Gears and bushings are frequently machined from bronze because it
is tougher than brass and very wear resistant.
NON-FERROUS METALS
Titanium Alloys
• Titanium is a lustrous transition metal with a silver
color, low density, and high strength.
• are a type of metal alloy that primarily consists of
titanium mixed with other chemical elements.
• These alloys are known for their high tensile
strength, toughness, light weight, and
extraordinary corrosion resistance.
• Titanium alloys are used in aerospace, maritime
and medical applications.
Heat treatment of metals

• Heat treatment of metals is a fundamental process in material science,

involving the controlled heating and cooling of metals or alloys to alter
their physical and mechanical properties.

• It can be used to make the material harder, tougher, softer, more stable,
or more easily machined.

• Most heat-treatment processes are performed on ferrous metals, but

some are also performed on nonferrous metals.
Purposes of Heat treatment
• Remove Strains after Cold working
• Remove internal stresses such as those produced by drawing, bending, or
welding.
• Increase the hardness of the material.
• Improved machinability.
• Improve the cutting properties of the tools
• Increase wear-resisting properties
• Soften the material as in annealing
• Improve of change the physical properties of a material such as corrosion
resistance, heat resistance, magnetic properties or others as required.
Heat treatment
• Annealing is the process of heating the metal to a temperature slightly above the
critical temperature and then cooling slowly, usually in the furnace, to produce an
even grain structure. Decreases the hardness and increases the ductility, usually at
a reduction of strength.

• Normalizing is a form of annealing (cooling in air) used to remove the effects of any
previous heat treatment and to produce uniform grain structure before other heat
treatments are applied to develop particular properties in the metal.

• Quenching or Rapid Cooling is the form of hardening where the metal is heated to
a temperature above the critical point then quickly immersing in into a cold water
or other cooling medium. The degree of hardness depends on the amount of
carbon present and the rate of cooling medium as ice water, cool water, oil, hot oil,
molten lead, etc.
Heat treatment
• Tempering or Drawing is the process of reheating the quenched metal below critical
temperature to restore some of the ductility and reduce the brittleness

• Case Hardening or Carburizing is the process of hardening the outer portion of the
metal by prolonged heating free from contact with air while metal is packed in carbon
in the form of bone char, leather scraps, or charcoal. The outer metal absorbs carbon
and then hot metal is quenched this high-carbon steel of the core remains soft and
ductile.

• Cyaniding is case hardening with powdered potassium cyanide or potassium

ferrocyanide mixed with potassium bicarbonate substituted for the carbon.
• Nitriding is a surface hardening accomplished by heating certain steel alloys
immersed in ammonia fumes.
Definition of Terms
• Machinability is a term that defines the ease with which a
material, mainly metal, can be cut or shaped while providing a
satisfactory surface finish.
• Malleability is a property of a material that allows it to be shaped
or deformed under compression without breaking or cracking.
This property is often associated with metals, which can be
hammered or rolled into thin sheets.
• Stiffness is the extent to which an object resists deformation in
response to an applied force. It is a measure of the resistance
offered by an elastic body to deformation.
• Strength refers to the quality or state of being physically strong. It
is the capacity of an object or substance to withstand great force
or stress.
PLEASE WATCH THE FOLLOWING VIDEO LECTURES

METALS COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Material Testing
Material Testing

• Material testing is a critical aspect of material science and

engineering that involves evaluating the properties and behavior of
materials under various conditions.
• This process ensures that materials meet the required standards
for their intended applications.
• Material testing can be divided into two main categories:
mechanical testing and non-destructive testing.
Significance of Material Testing

Material testing is vital for several reasons:

• Quality Assurance: Ensures materials meet specifications and standards.
• Safety: Identifies potential failures before they occur, preventing accidents.
• Research and Development: Helps in developing new materials with
desired properties.
• Performance Evaluation: Assesses how materials perform under real-
world conditions.
• Compliance: Ensures materials comply with industry regulations and
standards.
Mechanical Testing

Mechanical testing involves applying forces to a material to

determine its mechanical properties, such as strength, ductility,
hardness, and toughness. Common mechanical tests include:

1. Tensile Testing
2. Compression Testing
3. Hardness Testing
4. Impact Testing
5. Fatigue Testing
Tensile Testing

Purpose: Measures the

material's response to uniaxial
tensile stress.
Procedure: A specimen is
pulled apart until it fractures.
Parameters: Yield strength,
ultimate tensile strength,
elongation, and Young's
modulus.
Compression Testing

Purpose: Assesses the

material's behavior under
compressive loads.
Procedure: A specimen is
compressed until it deforms or
fails.
Parameters: Compressive
strength and modulus of
elasticity.
Hardness Testing

Purpose: Determines the

material’s resistance to
indentation.
Methods: Brinell,
Rockwell, and Vickers
hardness tests.
Parameters: Hardness
values which correlate
with tensile strength and
wear resistance
Impact Testing

Purpose: Evaluates the

material's toughness and ability
to absorb energy during
fracture.
Tests: Charpy and Izod impact
tests.
Parameters: Impact energy
and fracture behavior.
Charpy Impact Test
The Charpy Impact Test, also known as
the Charpy V-notch test, is a standardized
high strain-rate test.
• A Charpy V-notch specimen is placed
across parallel jaws in the impact-
testing machine.
• The pointer is set up to its maximum
value (300 J).
• The hammer is released from the initial
height downward towards the sample.
• Observations and the energy absorbed
is recorded and tabulated
Fatigue Testing

Purpose: Examines the material's

behavior under cyclic loading.
Procedure: Subjecting a specimen to
repeated stress cycles.
Parameters: Fatigue limit and number
of cycles to failure.
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

NDT methods evaluate material properties without causing damage.

These tests are crucial for assessing the integrity and reliability of
materials and structures. Common NDT methods include:

1. Ultrasonic Testing
2. Radiographic Testing
3. Magnetic Particle Testing
4. Liquid Penetrant Testing
5. Eddy Current Testing
Ultrasonic Testing

Purpose: Detects internal flaws using high-

frequency sound waves.
Procedure: Sound waves are transmitted
into the material, and reflections from
flaws are detected.
Applications: Inspecting welds, detecting
cracks, and measuring thickness
Radiographic Testing

Purpose: Uses X-rays or gamma

rays to visualize internal structures.
Procedure: Radiographs (images)
are taken to reveal internal defects.
Applications: Examining castings,
welds, and assemblies.
Magnetic Particle Testing

Purpose: Identifies surface and near-

surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic
materials.
Procedure: Magnetic particles are applied
to a magnetized specimen, highlighting
defects.
Applications: Detecting cracks and
inclusions in steel and iron.
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Purpose: Reveals surface-breaking defects.
Procedure: A penetrant fluid is applied to the surface, and excess is
removed before applying a developer to draw out the penetrant from
defects.
Applications: Inspecting non-porous materials like metals,
ceramics, and plastics.
Eddy Current Testing

Purpose: Detects surface

and near-surface flaws in
conductive materials.
Procedure:
Electromagnetic induction
generates eddy currents,
and changes in these
currents indicate defects.
Applications: Inspecting
tubing, aircraft fuselages,
and pipelines.