FERROUS & NON FERROUS Material
FERROUS & NON FERROUS Material
FERROUS & NON FERROUS Material
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METALS
• Metals are… Solid at room temperature,
except mercury, which is liquid !
• Metals have… very high melting point.
• Metals are… shiny when they cut.
• Metals are… good conductors of heat and
electricity.
• Metals are… usually strong & malleable so
they can be hammered into shape.
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METALS
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FERROUS METAL
• Any alloy containing iron as its chief
constituent is called a ferrous metal.
• The most common ferrous metal in aircraft
structures is steel, an alloy of iron with a
controlled amount of carbon added
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IRON
• Iron is a chemical element which is fairly soft ,
malleable , and ductile in its pure form.
• It is silvery white in color and its quiet heavy
• Having a density of 7.9 grams per cubic
centimeter.
• Iron combined with carbon makes the metal
hard and gives a fine grained crystalline
structure.
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• Iron poured from a furnace into molds is
known as cast iron and normally contains
more than two percent carbon and some
silicon
• Cast iron has few aircraft applications because
of its low strength‐to‐weight ratio.
• It is used in engines for items such as valve
guides where its porosity and wear
characteristic allow it to hold a lubricant film.
• It is also used in piston ring.
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cast iron
Composition: Iron alloy with 2%-4% carbon
Properties: Brittle, snaps before it will bend. Strong in
compression
Uses: Vices, cylinder blocks for car engines, frames for most
machines.
Methods of Identification
Appearance: Grey with a granular surface
Dropping: gives out a dull note
Grinding: Gives off a few dull sparks
Effect of Heating: No change 8
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Low Carbon
‐ Contain between 0.10 to 0.30 percent carbon,
and are unresponsive to heat treatments
intended to form martensite; strengthening is
accomplished by cold work. The equivalent SAE
numbers range from 1010 to 1030.
‐ Primary used in safety wire , bushings
‐ easily welded and machined.
‐Typical applications include automobile body
components, structural shapes (I‐beams, channel
and angle iron), and sheets that are used in
pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans. 9
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• Medium Carbon
‐ Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from
0.30 to 0.50 percent is classed as medium‐carbon
steel.
–This steel is especially adaptable for machining or
forging, and where surface hardness is desirable.
–Certain rod ends and light forgings are made from
SAE 1035 steel.
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• High Carbon
‐ Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging
from 0.50 to 1.05 percent is classed as high‐
carbon steel.
‐ The addition of other elements in varying
quantities adds to the hardness of this steel. In
the fully heat‐treated condition it is very hard, will
withstand high shear and wear, and will have little
deformation.
‐ It has limited use in aircraft. SAE 1095 in sheet
form is used for making flat springs and in wire
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form for making coil springs.
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Mild Steel
Composition: Iron alloy with 0.3% carbon
Properties: Malleable and ductile, and therefore bends fairly
easily
Uses: nuts, bolts, screws, tubes etc.
Methods of Identification
Appearance: Bright drawn mild steel has a smooth, bright
surface; black mild steel is covered with a blue-
grey oxide
Dropping: Gives out a ringing note
Grinding: Gives off a shower of long white sparks
Effect of Heating: Slightly tougher but little change 12
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Methods of Identification
Appearance: Has a smooth skin of black oxide
Dropping: Gives out a high ringing note
Grinding: Moderate number of red sparks
Effect of Heating: Becomes hard and brittle
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SAE Classification of Steel
A numerical index, sponsored by the Society
of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), is
used to identify the chemical compositions of
the structural steels.
The SAE has classified steel alloys with a four
digit numerical index system. A four numeral
series is used to designate the plain carbon
and alloy steels; 14
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ALLOYING AGENT IN A STEEL
Carbon
‐ Most common alloying element found in steel.
‐ When mixed with iron , compounds of iron carbides
called cementite form. It allow the steel to be heat
treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness ,
strength and toughness.
‐ The greater carbon content , the more receptive steel
to heat treatment and therefore the higher its tensile
strength and hardness.
‐ But higher carbon content decrease the malleability
and weldability of steel.
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SULFUR
• Sulfur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or
forged and therefore it must be removed in
the refining process.
• If all the sulfur cannot be removed its effects
can be countered by adding manganese.
• Manganese improves a metals forging
characteristics by making it less brittle at
rolling and forging temperatures.
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SILICON
• When silicon is alloyed with steel it acts as a
hardener.
• It increase the strength and hardness of steel
without lowering its ductility.
• Silicon steels containing from 1 to 2% silicon and it
can withstand impact and fatigue even at elevated
temperature.
• These steels are principally used for generators.
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NICKEL
• Adds strength and hardness steel
• SAE 2330 steel contains 3 % nickel and 0.30 %
carbon used in producing bolts , nuts , and
pin.
CHROMIUM
• Alloyed with steel to increase strength ,
hardness , wear and corrosion resistance
• Used in balls and rollers of antifriction
bearings. 20
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NICKEL CHROMIUM STEEL
• Suitable to be used in high strength application , for
forged and machine parts
STAINLESS STEEL
• Corrosion‐resistance steel
• Contain large amount of chromium and nickel
• Strength and resistance to corrosion‐well suited for
firewalls and exhaust system components.
• Divided into three general groups on their chemical
structure
‐ Austenitic steel ‐
‐ Ferritic steel
‐ Martensitic
steel
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MOLYBDENUM
• One of the most widely used alloying elements
for aircraft structural steel.
• Reduce the grain size of steel and increase both
its impact strength and elastic limit.
• Extremely wear resistant and possess a great
deal of fatigue strength.
• Molybdenum in small percentages is used in
combination with chromium to form chrome‐
molybdenum steel, which has various uses in
aircraft. Molybdenum is a strong alloying
element.
• It raises the ultimate strength of steel without
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• Molybdenum steels are tough and wear
resistant, and they harden throughout when
heat treated.
• They are especially adaptable for welding and,
for this reason, are used principally for welded
structural parts and assemblies.
• This type steel has practically replaced carbon
steel in the fabrication of fuselage tubing,
engine mounts, landing gears, and other
structural parts.
• For example, a heat‐treated SAE 4130 tube is
approximately four times as strong as an SAE
1025 tube of the same weight and size. 23
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VANADIUM
• When combined with chromium , it produces a
strong , tough , ductile steel alloy.
• Used to make wrenches and ball bearings
TUNGSTEN
• Has extremely high melting point
• Typically used for breaker contacts in magnetos and
high speed cutting.
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HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treating is a series of operations involving the
heating and cooling of a metal in a solid state for the
purpose of obtaining certain desirable characteristics.
The rate of cooling determines the grain structure of
the material. In general, both the ferrous metals (which
have iron as a base) and non ferrous metals (which
contain little or no iron) as well as their alloys respond
to some form of heat treatment.
Successful heat‐treatment, therefore, depends largely
on knowledge of these temperatures, as well as the
time required to produce the desired change. 25
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HEAT TREATMEN T OF STEEL
The process of heat‐treatment consists of:
• Heating the metal to a specified temperature.
• Holding the metal at this temperature for a
specified period.
• Cooling the metal according to specified process:
•Water quench martensite
•Oil quench very fine pearlite
•Air cooled fine pearlite
•Furnace cooled coarse pearlite26
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The aim of heat treatment is to achieve one or
more of the following objects:
• To increase the hardness of metals.
• To relieve the internal stresses set up in the
material after hot or cold working.
• To improve machinability.
• To soften the metal.
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• To modify the internal structure of the
material to improve its electrical and magnetic
properties.
• To change grain size.
• To increase the qualities of a metal to provide
better resistance to heat, corrosion and wear.
• To improve mechanical properties like tensile
strength, ductility and shock resistance.
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HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
The various of Heat Treatment Processes
• Annealing
• Normalizing
• Hardening
• Tempering
• Case hardening
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HARDENING
The main purpose of hardening are:
• To increase the hardness of the metal so that
it can resist wear.
• To enable it to cut other metal i.e., to make it
suitable for cutting tools.
• Pure iron , wrought iron , and extremely low‐
carbon steels cannot be hardened by heat
treatment since they contain no hardening
element. 30
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• The maximum hardness obtained by carbon steel
depends almost entirely on the amount of carbon
content.
• As the carbon content increase , the ability of steel to
be hardened increase.
• To harden steel , it is heated above its critical
temperature so carbon can disperse uniformly in the
iron matrix.
• The alloy is cooled rapidly by quenching it in water ,
oil or brine.
Oil provides the slowest quench , and brine the most
rapid.
• Marten site the hardest possible alloy.
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Purpose:
Annealing
• To soften the steel so that may be more easily
machined or cold worked.
• To refine the grain size and structure to improve
mechanical properties like strength and ductility.
• To relive internal stresses which may have been
caused by hot or cold working or by unequal
contraction in casting.
• To alter electrical, magnetic or other physical
properties.
• To remove gases trapped in the metal during
initial casting. 32
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NORMALIZING
• Relieve stresses in ferrous metals as a
resulting of welding or machining.
• To normalize steel it is heated to about 1000 F
above its upper critical temperature and held
there until the metal is uniformly heat soaked.
• The steel is then removed from the furnace
and allowed to cool in still air.
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The purpose of Normalizing:
• To refine the grain structure of the steel to improve
machineability, tensile strength and structure of
weld.
• To removed strains caused by cold working processes
like hammering, rolling, bending etc., which make
the metal brittle and unreliable.
• To remove dislocations caused in the internal
structure of the steel due to hot working.
• To improve certain mechanical and electrical
properties.
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TEMPERING
The steel hardened by rapid quenching is very hard and brittle. It
also contains internal stresses which are severe and unequally
distributed to cause cracks or even rupture of hardness steel.
The tempering is done for the following reasons:
1. To reduce brittleness of the hardened steel and thus to
increase ductility
2. To remove the internal stresses caused by rapid cooling of
steel.
3. to make steel tough to resist shock and fatigue.
The tempering process consists of reheating the hardened
steel to some temperature below the lower critical
temperature, followed by any desired rate of cooling. The
exact tempering temperature depends upon the purpose for
which the article or tool is to be used.
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CASE HARDENING
The purpose of surface hardening is to
produce a hard wearing resistant surface
on steel with a tough shock and impact
resistance.
CASE HARDENING
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CASE HARDENING
• Certain component in aircraft engines and
landing gear systems require metal with hard,
durable bearing surfaces and core material
that remains tough.
• This is accomplished through a process called
case hardening.
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CARBURIZING
• Carburizing is a process that induces carbon into a solid
ferrous alloy by heating the metal in contact with a
carbonaceous material to a temperature above the AC3 point
of the steel and holding at that temperature.(900‐950oC)
• There are composition may be used:
Hard charcoal 53‐55%
Sodium carbonate2‐3%
Calcium carbonate 3‐4%
Coke 30‐32%
Barium carbonate 10‐12%
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During heating, carbon mono oxide gas is
formed which react with the article to form
carbon and carbon dioxide gas. The surface of
articles absorbs the carbon and get rich in its
carbon content. The carbon thus absorbed
impregnates into the body of the article by the
diffusion process. The temperature, time and
carburizing compound composition used
depends upon the depth of case (carbon rich
surface) desired. 39
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For example, with a compound composition (as
a given above), a case depth of 1 to 1.25 mm
can be obtained at 925oC in an overall
carburizing time of nine hours. Out of these nine
hours, five hours are required for heating up the
work and four hours represent the time at
temperature. After heating, the article may be
quenched in oil directly or it may be slowly
cooled and then subjected to proper heat
treatment. 40
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NITRIDING
• This is a process of case hardening in which
nitrogen gas is employed in order to obtain
hard surface of the steel. This process is
commonly used for those steels which are
alloyed with chromium, molybdenum,
aluminum, manganese etc.
• Then it is placed in a furnace , heated to 450‐
550oC , and then surrounded with ammonia
gas is circulated.
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• The ammonia gas when comes in contact with
steel articles and form nitrides which is very
hard. This process can give surface hardness
up to a depth of 0.8 mm.
• The nitriding process is used in the production
of machine parts which require high wear
resistance at elevated temperatures such as
automobile and air plane valves valve parts,
piston, pins, bearing parts, parts to withstand
high pressure steam services. 42
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CYANIDING
• Cyaniding imparts a file‐hard and wear resistant case to steel
by immersing it in a molten cyanide salt bath for a time.
• A Cyanide case is seldom over 0.3 mm thick, however
cyaniding requires lower temperatures below 871oC and less
time 30‐60 minutes than carburizing.
A typical cyanide bath consist of:
30% sodium cyanide
40% sodium carbonate
30% sodium chloride melts
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Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
• Commercially pure aluminum is a white
lustrous metal which stands second in the
scale of malleability, sixth in ductility, and
ranks high in its resistance to corrosion.
• Aluminum combined with various percentages
of other metals forms alloys which are used in
aircraft construction.
• Aluminum is one of the most widely used
metals in modern aircraft construction. 45
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Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by:
• A relatively low density 2.7 g/cm3
• Aluminum is nonmagnetic and is an excellent
conductor. (Electrical and Thermal)
• A resistance to corrosion in some common
environment including the ambient temp.
• Many of these alloys are easily formed by
virtue of high ductility
• Its low melting temperature (660oC)
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• Aluminum alloys are classified by their major
alloying ingredient.
• The elements most commonly used for
aluminum alloying are: copper, magnesium,
manganese, silicon and zinc.
• Wrought aluminum and wrought aluminum
alloys are identified by a four‐digits index
system
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The most common alloying element used are
• 1XXX series – Pure Aluminum
• 2xxx series – Copper
• 3xxx series – Manganese
• 4xxx series – Silicon
• 5xxx series – Magnesium
• 6xxx series – Magnesium and silicon
• 7xxx series – Zinc
• 8xxx series – Other Elements
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• The first digit of a designation identifies the major
alloying element used in the formation of the alloy.
• The second number represents a specific alloy
modification.
• The last two numbers of the 1XXX group of alloys are
used to indicate the hundredths of 1 percent above
the original 99 percent pure aluminum. However , in
the 2XXX through 8XXX groups the last two digits
identify the different alloys in the group.
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Alclad Aluminum
1. The terms "Alclad and Pureclad" are used to
designate sheets that consist of an aluminum alloy
core coated with a layer of pure aluminum to a depth
of approximately 5 percent on each side.
2. The pure aluminum coating affords a dual protection
for the core,
A. Preventing contact with any corrosive agents, and
B. Protecting the core electrolytically by preventing
any attack caused by scratching or from other
abrasions. 50
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Thickness 5% of total Aluminum alloy
Pure aluminum
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Solution heat treatment
• The process of heating certain aluminum alloys to
allow the alloying element to mix with the base
metal
• Metal is heated in either a molten sodium/potassium
nitrate bath/hot air furnace to a temperature just
below its melting point
• The temperature is then held to within about +/‐
100o F of this temperature and the base metal is
soaked until the alloying element is uniform
throughout
• Once the metal has sufficiently soaked, it is removed
from the furnace and cooled (quenched). 52
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• It is extremely important that no more than
about 10 second elapse between removal of
an alloy from the furnace and the quench
• To help minimize the amount of alloying
element that precipitates out of a base metal,
a quenching medium is selected to ensure the
proper cooling rate
• After the quench, all metals must be rinsed
thoroughly since the salt residue can lead to
corrosion if left on the alloy
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PRECIPITATION HEAT-TREATMENT
• When an alloy is allowed to cool at room
temperature, it is referred to as natural aging
and can take several hours or several weeks
• However reheating a metal and allowing it to
soak for a specified period of time can
accelerate the aging process
• This type of aging is called as artificial age
hardening, precipitation‐hardening or
precipitation heat treatment 54
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• Commercial pure aluminum does not benefit
from heat treatment since there is no alloying
material in its structure
• Their use in aircraft is limited to nonstructural
component such as fairings and streamlined
enclosures that carry little or no load
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ANNEALING
• Annealing is a process that softens a metal
and degrease internal stress.
• To anneal an aluminum alloy, the metals
temperature is raised to an annealing
temperature and held there until the metal
becomes thoroughly heat soaked. It is then
cooled at a rate about 500C per hour.
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i. T – Solution heat‐treated
ii. T2 – Annealed (cast product only)
iii. T3 – Solution heat‐treated followed by strain
hardening
iv. T4 – Solution heat‐treated, followed by
natural aging at temperature to a stable
condition
v. T5 – Artificially aged after being rapidly
cooled during a fabrication process such as
extrusion or casting 57
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vi. T6 Solution heat treated, followed by artificial
aging (precipitation heat treat).
Vii. T7 Solution heat treated and then stabilized
to control its growth and distortion
viii. T8 Solution heat treated, strain hardened,
and then artificially aged
ix. T9. Solution heat treated, artificially aged,
and then strain hardened.
x. T10. Artificially aged and then cold worked.
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REHEAT TREATMENT
• Previously heat‐treated material can generally
be reheat treated any number of times
• Rivets 2017 or 2024 are extremely hard and
typically receive several heat treatment to
make them soft enough to drive
• Clad material is generally limited to no more
than 3 reheat treatment
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HARDNESS DESIGNATIONS
• F – As fabricated
• O – Annealed, re crystallized (wrought
material)
• H – Strain hardened
• H1 – Strain hardened
• H2 – Strain hardened and partially annealed
• H3 – strain hardened and stabilized
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• Hx2 – Quarter‐hard
• Hx4 – Half hard
• Hx6 – Three‐quarter hard
• Hx8 – Full hard
• Hx9 – Extra‐hard
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• Magnesium, the world's lightest structural
metal, is a silvery‐white material weighing
only two‐thirds as much as aluminum.
Magnesium does not possess sufficient
strength in its pure state for structural uses,
but when alloyed with zinc, aluminum, and
manganese it produces an alloy having the
highest strength‐to‐weight ratio of any of the
commonly used metals.
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Titanium Designations
Titanium and titanium alloys possess three basic types of crystals:
1. A (alpha),
2. B (beta), and
3. C (combined alpha and beta).
Titanium characteristics are:
1. A (alpha)—All‐around performance; good weld ability; tough and strong
both cold and hot, and resistant to oxidation.
2. B (beta)—Bend ability; excellent bend ductility; strong both cold and
hot, but vulnerable to contamination.
3. C (combined alpha and beta for compromise performances)
1. Strong when cold and warm, but weak when hot;
2. good bend ability;
3. moderate contamination resistance;
4. excellent forge ability.
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Alpha Titanium Alloys
Commercially pure titanium and alpha alloys of titanium are
non‐heat treatable and are genarally very weldable . They have:
Low to medium strength
Good notch toughness
Reasonably good ductility
Excellent mechanical properties at cryogenic temperatures
Pure titanium and alpha alloys possess the highest corrosion
resistance.
More highly alloyed near‐alpha alloys offer optimum high
temperature creep strength and oxidation resistance.
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NICKEL and IT’S ALLOY
Characteristic:
1. White to silvery
2. Corrosion resistance
3. Melting point 1726 K / 1453o C
4. Boiling point 3005 K / 2732o C
5. Non magnetic
6. Non ferrous Metal
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Inconel
• Inconel is a nickel‐chromium‐iron alloy closely
resembling stainless steel (corrosion resistant
steel, CRESS) in appearance. 80% Nickel and
14% chromium
• Frequent use in turbine engines (ability to
maintain strength and corrosion resistance at
high temperature)
• Inconel is highly resistant to salt water and is
able to withstand temperatures as high as
1600oF. 70
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MUNTZ METAL
Muntz metal is a brass composed of 60 percent copper
and 40 percent zinc.
Characteristic
Has excellent corrosion‐resistant qualities in salt water.
Strength can be increased by heat treatment. As cast,
this metal has an ultimate tensile strength of 50,000
p.s.i., and it can be elongated 18 percent.
Application
Used in making bolts and nuts, as well as parts that come
in contact with salt water. 72
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2P
D (D 2
2
D d )
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