Objectives

1. Compute the AC and DC parameters for a common emitter amplifier.

2. Build a common emitter amplifier circuit and measure the DC parameters, the AC input
resistance and the voltage gain. Observe the phase relationship between the input and
output signals.
3. Predict and test the effects of certain faults in a common emitter amplifier.

Abstract
This experiment involved the building of a common emitter amplifier. A signal generator was used to
provide an input waveform of 1kHz frequency and 300mV peak-to-peak voltage. A 12V DC signal was
also applied using an adjustable power supply. The circuit was built according to the following
specifications:

Figure H1-1

Procedure
1. The resistances of the 6 resistors used in the circuit shown in Figure H1-1 were measured
using a multimeter. Their listed and measured values are presented in Table H1-1.

Resisto Listed Value (kΩ) Measured Value (kΩ)

r

R1 10 9.8
R2 4.7 4.62
RE1 0.100 0.0997
RE2 0.330 0.3294
RC 1.0 0.99
RL 10 9.8
Table H1 – 1
 2. The theoretical values for the base, collector, emitter and collector-emitter voltages, along
with the emitter current were computed using the following steps:
The effective DC circuit used for analysis in this section is given:

Node 1

Figure H1-2

Calculations:
Note: the Actual, not Listed component values were used in calculations.

VTH = [R2 ÷ (R1 + R2)] * VCC = (4.62 k ÷ 14.42 k) * 12

= 3.8447 V

RTH = R1||R2 = R1R2 ÷ (R1 + R2) = 45.276 k ÷ 14.42 k

= 3.14 kΩ

IB = [(VTH – VBE) ÷ (RTH + (β + 1)RE)] = [(3.8447 – 0.7) ÷ (3.14 k + (101)*0.4291k)]

= 67.658 µA or 6.7658 x 10 -5 Amperes.

IC = βIB

= 6.7658mA or 6.7658 x 10-3 Amperes.

IE = (β + 1)IB = 6.8335 mA or 6.8335 x 10-3 Amperes.

Now, if we apply Kirchoff’s Current Law at Node 1 in the circuit above we get the following equation:

[(VB – VCC) ÷ R1] + [VB ÷ R2] + IB = 0

[(VB – 12) ÷ 9.8 k] + [VB ÷ 4.62 k] + 6.7658 x 10-5 = 0
[(1 ÷ 9.8 k) + (1 ÷ 4.62 k)]VB = 0.00116
  VB = 3.63 Volts

The emitter voltage VE is given by applying Ohm’s law at the emitter terminal:

VE = IE x (RE1 + RE2) = 0.00683 x (429.1)

= 2.93 Volts

The collector voltage can be calculated by applying Ohm’s law on the collector resistor:

IC = (VCC – VC) ÷ RC

 VC = VCC - ICRC = 12 –(6.7658 mA)(0.99 k)

VC = 5.301 Volts

Finally, the collector-emitter voltage is given by:

VCE = VC - VE = 5.301 – 2.93

= 2.371 Volts

3. The circuit in Figure H1 – 2 above (the DC voltage divider circuit) was constructed on the
breadboard. For simplicity, the AC components were not connected at this stage. The signal
generator was also left off. The DC power supply was set to 12V and measurements were
taken using a multimeter. An outline of how each measurement was taken is given:

VB: The base voltage was taken as the voltage across the 4.7kΩ resistor, R 2.
VE: The emitter voltage was taken as the voltage across both the emitter resistances. Hence,
one of the multimeter probes was connected to one end of the 100Ω resistor, while the
other was connected to the other end of the 330Ω resistor.
VC: The collector voltage was taken as 12V minus the voltage across the 1.0kΩ resistor, RC.
VCE: The collector-emitter voltage was taken by connecting the multimeter across the
collector and emitter pins on the BJT itself.

The results obtained in this section were tabulated and are given here:

DC
Computed Value Measured Value
Parameter

VB 3.63 V 3.72 V
VE 2.93 V 3.058 V
IE 6.77 mA
VC 5.301 V 5.1V
VCE 2.37 V 2.05V
Table H1 - 2

4. The theoretical AC parameters were calculated for the amplifier. These included emitter AC
voltage Ve, small signal output resistance between base and emitter r e, voltage gain Av, the
output voltage Vout and the total input resistance R in(tot). The AC equivalent circuit for this
amplifier is given by:
 Figure H1 – 3

Calculations:
The small signal output resistance r eis given by:

re = 26mV ÷ IEQ

From the calculations done in step (2) we already know that I EQ = 6.8335 mA. Hence,

re = 3.805 Ω

The emitter AC voltage Ve is equal to the voltage drop across the combined emitter resistances r e +
RE1. Due to the nature of parallel resistors, the voltage drop across these resistors is equal to the
source voltage:

 Ve = Vin = 300 mVpp

Hence the AC signal emitter voltage is 300mV peak-to-peak.

The voltage gain AV is given by:

AV = - R’L ÷ (re + RE1)

Where, R’L = RC||RL = 0.99 k * 9.8 k ÷ (0.99 k + 9.8 k) = 899.17 Ω

 AV = -899.17 ÷ (3.805 + 99.7)

AV = -8.69

The theoretical output voltage is given by the multiplying the peak-to-peak value of the input signal
by the voltage gain:

VO = AVVin = -8.69 x 300mV = -2.61 V

Hence, the theoretical output voltage VO has a value of 2.61 volts peak-to-peak.

The total input resistance Rin(tot) is given by the parallel combination of the following resistors:

Rin(tot) = RB||β (re + RE1)

Where, RB = R1||R2 = 3.14 kΩ

 Rin(tot) = 3.14 kΩ||100*(103.505 Ω) = 2.409 kΩ

Hence, the total input resistance is 2.409 kΩ.

5. The signal generator was turned on and the required 1.0 kHz 300mV peak-to-peak signal was
applied to the circuit. This time, a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) was used to observe the
waveforms and to measure the AC parameters.

Once again, a brief explanation of how each measurement was determined is given. The
table of results is provided after:

Vin: The probe hook was connected to the positive terminal of the capacitor C 1. The alligator
clip was grounded.
Ve: The alligator clip was connected to ground, while the hook was connected to the emitter
terminal on the BJT
Vb: The alligator clip was connected to ground, while the hook was connected to the emitter
terminal on the BJT
Vout: The probe hook was connected to the collector terminal on the BJT while the alligator
clip was connected to ground.
AB: The peak-to-peak output signal voltage V out was divided by the peak-to-peak value
measured for the input signal V in.

The voltage gain AV is calculated from the input and output voltages.
AV = Vo / Vin = -2.24 V / 0.3 V = -7.47.
The negative sign indicates that the output signal is inverted when compared to the input
signal.

It is clear from the table above, that the peak-to-peak emitter voltage is actually less than
the peak-to-peak value of the input signal. WHY?

6. The total input resistance was measured using a rheostat – a variable resistor. The rheostat
was connected in series with the AC voltage source. The circuit diagram for the arrangement
is given:
 Figure H1 – 3

By treating the entire AC equivalent circuit as one resistance R in(tot), we could use the
rheostat to determine what this value was. Before inserting the rheostat, the oscilloscope
was used to measure the output signal and this value was noted down. Next, the rheostat
was inserted in series with the AC generator and its value is varied until the output signal
changes to half of its initial value. In this position, if only half of the applied signal is
appearing at the output terminals, then half of it must be appearing across the rheostat.
Since the current passing through resistors in series is the same, the resistance of the
rheostat must be the same as the total input resistance Rin(tot). Hence, the value of the
rheostat’s resistance is equal to Rin(tot) and was found to be 2.75 kΩ.

The results obtained in the previous three steps are tabulated in Table H1 – 3.

AC
Computed Value Measured Value
Parameter
Vin = Vb 300 mVpp 300 mVpp
Ve 290 mVpp
re 3.805
Av -8.69 -7.47
Vout = Vc -2.61 Vpp -2.24 Vpp
Rin(tot) 2.409 kΩ 2.75 kΩ

Table H1 – 3

7. The rheostat was removed from the circuit and the original amplifier configuration was
restored. A second probe was connected to Channel Two on the oscilloscope and this was
used to measure the output waveform. The first probe, connected to Channel One, was used
to measure the input waveform. When the signal generator and power supply were turned
on, the following was observed on the oscilloscope screen:
 Figure H1 – 4

The lower curve shows the input and the upper curve the output. The working of the
amplifier can be observed by the difference between the amplitudes of the two waves (the
output wave has a much larger peak-to-peak value). It can also be observed that for every
trough in the input wave, there is a peak in the output wave form. Hence, the phase
difference between the two waves is 180° or π radians.

8. The 47µF bypass capacitor was removed from the circuit. The AC voltage at the base, emitter
and collector was measured. The voltage gain was calculated and these results are tabulated
below:
Componen Value
t

VB 300 mVpp
VE 284 mVpp
VC 600 mVpp
Gain AV -2
Table H1 – 4

From these results it is clear that removing the bypass capacitor significantly reduces the
voltage gain. This will be further investigated in the review questions – see Evaluation and
Review Question 1 – Part 1.
9. The bypass capacitor was refitted and the load resistance was changed from 10kΩ to 1kΩ.
Once again, the AC signal at the transistor’s base, emitter and collector was measured. The
voltage gain of the amplifier was also calculated. These results are given:

Componen Value
t

VB 300 mVpp
VE 278 mVpp
VC 1.36 Vpp
Gain AV -4.53
Table H1 – 5

From this we can draw the conclusion that a decrease in load resistance results in a decrease
in voltage gain. This can be proved by observing the formula:

A = - R’L ÷ RC

Where, R’L = RC||RL

Hence when the load resistance RL is decreased, the parallel combination of it and R C has a
reduced value. Hence, a lower R’L and thus a lower voltage gain can be observed.

10. RL was changed back from 1kΩ to its original 10kΩ value. This time, the 100Ω emitter
resistance was left open. Instead of measuring AC signals, the DC voltages at the base,
emitter and collector were taken. The table of results is given:

Componen Value
t

VB 3.89 V
VE 3.452 V
VC 10.55 V
Table H1 – 6

The collector voltage was taken by subtracting the voltage across the collector resistance
from the DC voltage input of 12V. We can see that the transistor is in cut-off because the
base-emitter junction is reverse-biased.

11. RE1 was replaced and the 4.7k resistor R2 was removed. Once again, the dc voltages at the
emitter, base and collector were taken. The values are:

Componen Value
t

VB 4.6 V
VE 3.25 V
VC 3.95 V
 In this case, both the base-collector and base-emitter junctions are forward biased. Hence,
the transistor is in saturation mode.

Evaluation and Review Questions

1. From lab handout:

1. The purpose of a bypass capacitor in of an amplifier circuit is to improve the overall gain by
acting as a short circuit to AC voltages.

In our case, the partially bypassed emitter resistance, we already see that the emitter
resistance comes up when calculating the theoretical gain:
AV = - R’L ÷ (re + RE1)

Essentially, this illustrates that there is not only a voltage drop across the small signal output
resistance re but also a drop across the first emitter resistance R E1.

Hence if the capacitor is currently bypassing the second emitter resistance R E2 is taken out,
then the equation would be,
AV = - R’L ÷ (re + RE1 + RE2)

If we substitute values, we find that AV = -2.076 which is fairly close to the measured gain
that we obtained in procedure 8.

2. The output voltage is a voltage that has been stabilized by the emitter resistance. If we took
the signal across the base terminal then the effects of the emitter resistance would not have
been included. Therefore, it is a better procedure to take the signal at the load.

3. If the amplifier shown in figure 8-2 had +1.8V dc measured at the base and 1.1V measured at
the emitter, then the base-emitter junction would still be forward biased. However the base
collector junction would not be reverse biased as the voltage V BC = +0.7V. This indicates that
the transistor is in saturation mode.

A likely cause is that there is a large voltage drop happening across the collector resistance.
Effectively, this leaves a small voltage at the collector (~1.1V) hence forward biasing the
base-collector junction.

4. If C2 was shorted, the DC equivalent circuit would look like:

 Figure H1 – 5

The base voltage will reduce from 3.63 V to 3.09 V and the collector voltage will become
negative due to the large value of I C. Hence, the amplifier will cease to work correctly.

5. To see whether the transistor is in saturation or cut-off we would simply measure the
currents at the base and at the collector. If there was current present at the collector then
cut-off can be ruled out. If the value for IC over IB was less than the theoretical gain AV for the
transistor, then we say it is in saturation.

Another way would be to check the voltage at the collector-emitter junction. If this value
was equal to the input DC voltage VCC then the transistor is in cut-off. If this value is
approximately 0, then the transistor is in saturation.

2.