Fluid and Particle Mechanics

ICET, UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB LAHORE
Fluid and Particle

Mechanics
MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07)
(mashraf.ce@gmail.com)
Fluid and Particle Mechanics is very important in every field of Chemical Process
Industries. I hope this short book will cover all the topics related to FPM.
Note: All the material is collected from different books, notes and slides.
MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 1

Contents
Fluid and Particle mechanics ........................................................................................................................ 3
Definitions and Terminologies .................................................................................................................. 3
Equations used in Fluid Mechanics ......................................................................................................... 13
Fluid Mechanics API’s Short Summary........................................................................................................ 18

Fluid and Particle mechanics
Definitions and Terminologies
Science
It is the study, to explore the world.
Engineering
It is the study to affect the world.
Technology
It is the road which connects the science and engineering.
Process
A process is one or a series of action, operation or treatment that results in an end product.
Chemical Engineer
A person who deals with unit operations and unit processes is called chemical engineer.
Unit Process
A unit process is a step in manufacturing in which chemical reactions take place.
e.g Nitration, alkylation etc.
Unit Operation
A unit operation is a basic step in process. Unit operation involves bringing a physical change.
e.g Separation, Crystallization, evaporation etc.
Continuous Process:
 A streamlined process that involves on going production of end products that is , the reactants
and products flow continuously throughout the duration of process.e.g Ammonia production
 Gives max. yield of product. Steady state process.
 Continuous process is better suited for large scale production.
Semi-Batch process
Any process that is neither batch nor continuous, It runs continuously with periodic startups and
shutdowns. It is unsteady state process.e.g distillation of butyl acrylate.
Batch Process
 The feed is fed into reactor at the beginning of the process & the reactor contents are removed
sometime latter. Air and dust filtration plant
 It gives high conversion per unit volume.
 It is commonly used to produce small quantities of product, unsteady state process.
Vacuum (Itself a force)
Place where pressure is less than atmospheric pressure.
Fan, Blower and compressor
Fan Blower Compressor
∆P low medium high
V high medium low

D = m/v (for liquids)
D = PM/RT (for solids)
Rupture
Deformation of a body due to vacuum is called rupture.
Concentration
Quantity of some solute per specified amount of solvent
Gas and Vapor
Gases Vapors
Non condensible Can be condensed by increasing pressure at
Exist above the critical point Constant Temperature
Compressible Vapor is a gas which exist below the Critical T
Clean fluid A fluid that is free from solid particles (e.g., water)
Dirty fluid A fluid containing solid particles (e.g., muddy water)
Slurry A liquid with a suspension of fine solids that can flow freely through a pipe (e.g., pulp and paper,
oatmeal)
Baffles
These are strips of metals or other material to change the flow mainly produces turbulence which
increases the rate of mixing. Size of baffle = D/4
Lowers
These are strips which control the flow and change the direction of flow.
Swirls
When flowing fluid strikes on walls it produces swirls.
Eddy
Eddy of swirling of fluid and reverse current created when fluid flows pass an obstacle.
Wake
The region of recirculating flow behind a moving or stationary blunt body caused by viscosity, which may
be accompanied by flow separation or turbulence.
Poiseuille Law
In Lminar, pressure driven through circular tube.
Vortex
These are the waves produce behind the fluid when it moves due to high turbulences.
Mass density
Mass per unit volume (kg/m3)
 If temperature remains constant, size and shape will not affect its density.
 Bad Egg float in surface of water, H2S gas formed which has less density.
 Ice float on surface of water.
Hydrometer
It measure liquid density.
Liquids Gases
T↑ = ρ↓ T↑ = ρ↓
T↓ = ρ↑ T ↓= ρ↑
P↑ = Negligible P↑ = ρ↑

P↓ = Negligible P↓ = ρ↓
Specific Weight
Weight per unit volume (N/m3)
Viscosity
Resistance to flow is called viscosity .
Factors affecting
 Size of molecule
 Shape of molecule
 Intermolecular force
 Temperature
Liquids gases
T↑ = µ↓ T↑ = µ↑
Dynamic Viscosity
Internal friction b/w two layers of fluids in relative motion (Kg/ms), (NS/m2) (1 poise)
Kinematic Viscosity
Dynamic viscosity to density of fluids is called kinematic viscosity. (m2/s)
Surface Tension
Tendency of the surface of the liquid that allows it to resist an external force (N/m)
Factors affecting
 Viscosity
 Force of attraction
Specific gravity
Density of liquid/density of water
Specific Volume
Reciprocal of density of fluid
Mole Fraction
Mole of A/Total moles
Mass Fraction
Mass of A/Total Mass
Surface Tension
It is tension of surface film of liquid caused by attraction of particles.
S.T= Adhesive forces – Cohesive forces
Adhesive Forces of attraction b/w liquid and solid surfaces
Cohesive Forces of attraction b/w liquid-liquid molecules.
Rheology
Study of fluid stress-strain relationship.
Pascal’s Law
It is a principal in fluid mechanics that states that a pressure change occurring anywhere in a confined
compressible is transmitted throughout the fluid such that same change occur everywhere.

Torricelli’s Law
Theorem in which the speed of fluid flowing out from the opening is related to fluid height above the
opening.
Archimedes Law
This law states that a body totally or partially immersed in a fluid is subjected to an upward force equal
in magnitude to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
Critical Velocity
Velocity of the falling objects when weight of object becomes equal to frictional forces. Then it gains
constant velocity and acceleration becomes zero
Channel
The path upon which fluid flow is called channel.
Open channel
An open channel is one in which stream is not completely enclosed by solid boundaries and has free
surface subjected to atmospheric pressure. E.g natural stream, river, artificial canal.
Reynolds number for open channel
Re=v*R/viscosity
where R=Hydraulic radius and is defined as:“It is ratio b/w cross-section flow area and wetted
perimeter.”
Re<500= Laminar flow,
Re>2000 = Turbulent flow
Saturation Point
Saturation point is the point under a specific set of conditions at which a liquid turns to vapor.
Saturation pressure and temperature vary according to a well defined relationship called the vapor-
pressure curve. Water at its saturation point may be saturated liquid (all liquid), saturated steam (all
Vapor), or a mixture of liquid and vapor
Steam Quality
The ratio of the mass of gas to the total mass while the mixture is in the saturated state
Saturated steam is steam in the process pipe that is exactly at its saturation point.
Superheated steam
If the pressure drops or the temperature rises, superheated steam (steam at after a point beyond its
Saturation point) results.
For example, at 350 psia (pounds per square inch absolute), the saturation temperature for
Water is 432 °F (222 °C). Thus, steam at 350 psia and 532 °F (278 °C) includes 100 °F or 56 °C of
superheat. If the pressure rises or the temperature drops, the steam will start to condense and become
saturated (the steam won't condense until the superheat is removed at 432°F or 222°C)
Flow profile disturbances
Factors that cause the flow profile to change are called flow profile disturbances
Symmetrical Profile Disturbance
In a symmetrical flow profile disturbance, the velocity profile of the fluid remains symmetrical about the
process pipe axis, however, it is no longer uniform. Symmetrical profile with a
Higher core velocity may be caused by either a reducer (pipe section inserted to decrease the cross
sectional area) or an expander (pipe section inserted to increase the cross-sectional area. Reducers and

Expanders may also cause an asymmetrical profile velocity to become symmetrical.
Asymmetrical profile disturbance
Any object or factor that tends to push the flow to one side of the pipe causes asymmetrical profile
disturbance. Elbows, valves and tees
Swirl
Swirl occurs when the velocity profile of a fluid moves in a circular motion as it flows forward. Swirl can
be caused by pumps, compressors, or two pipe elbows in different planes.
 the best method to eliminate flow profile disturbances is to Insert a length of straight piping
Between disturbances
 A flow conditioner comprises disks with holes in them or bundled tubes inserted in the process
pipe to eliminate swirl.
Closed channel
Closed channel is one in which fluid is completely enclosed by solid surface. In closed channels fluid has
no connection with atmosphere. E.e venture meter, orifice meter etc.
Reynolds number for closed channel
Reynolds number is calculated by using simplest formula:
Re=p*u*d/viscosity
Re< 2000 = Laminar flow, Re>4000 = Turbulent flow
Weir and notch
A structure, which is used as a barrier across the river to alter its flow characteristics , is called a weir or
a notch. (measuring flow rate only for open channels ) V notch, rectangular, trapezoidal weir
 The only difference between a notch and a weir is that the notch of a small size and the weir is
of a bigger one.
 Moreover, a notch is usually made in a plate, whereas a weir is made of concrete.
The discharge can be summarized for all types of weirs as
Q=CLH^n
• Q is flow rate of fluid
• C is a constant for structure
• L is the width of the crest
• H is the height of head of water over the crest
• n varies with structure
(e.g. 3/2 for horizontal weir, 5/2 for v-notch weir)
Crest
The bottom edge, over which the liquid flows, is known as sill or crest of the notch
Nappe
The sheet of liquid flowing over a notch (or a weir) is known as nappe or vein.
Velocity of approach
The velocity with which the water approaches a weir or notch before it flows over it
Fluid and Particle Mechanics
It is the branch of engineering which deals with the study of the properties of fluids (liquids and gases)
and solid particles, which are suspended in those fluids.
i) Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics only deals with the study of the behavior of gases and liquids.
ii) Study of Stress solids
It means the particles (solids) in liquids. i.e behaving like a fluid e.g suspension.
Classification of fluid mechanics

i) Fluid Statics
Fluid static is nothing but the mechanics of fluids at rest
Application of fluid static
Fluid static is almost use in every flow problem.
 The working of manometer can be studied.
 The performance of continuous and gravity decanter can be analyzed.
 Calculation of the pressure variation in the atmosphere or in the ocean
 Force due to pressure on hydraulic structure can be analyzed.
 Stability of the floating body can be analyzed.
ii) Fluid Kinematic
It concerns with the motion of the fluids without reference to forces which cause the motion. It
deals with the velocities and streamlines without considering force and energy.
iii) Fluid dynamics
It deals with the study when portion of fluid are in motion relative to the other parts. It deals the
fluids have some shear stress or in simple the mechanics of fluids in motion
Fluid
Any material or a substance that changes its shape or direction uniformly on applying an external force
to it.
Or anything which can flow is called as fluid.
Ideal (Imaginary Fluid) Real Fluids
Non-viscous Having some value of viscosity
Zero viscosity Compressible (gases)
No surface tension Non-Compressible (liquids)
Not vaporize
Real Fluids
Compressible Non-Compressible
Volume of an element of fluid changed with T & P Volume of an element of fluid independent of T , P
Have variable density Have constant density
Bulk Modulus = K = Bulk Stress/Bulk Strain

Newton’s Law of Viscosity
When one layer moves, its motion is retarded by the slow moving (near to the wall) layer in a stream of
fluid.
F/A = µ (dv/dx)
Shear Stress α Shear rate

Newtonian Fluids
Fluids which obey Newton’s law of viscosity e.g pure liquids, solutions
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Fluids which do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity e.g paints, tar, printing ink etc
Rhyology
To study the non-newtonian fluids and their grah.
Renold Number
NR is a dimensionless number which is of great significance because it can be used to determine the
type of flow, either streamline or turbulent, which will occur in any pipeline.
NRe = dvρ/µ = inertial force/viscous force
NRe < 2100 (Laminar Flow)
NRe > 4000 (Turbulent Flow)
NRe 2100-4000 (transition flow)
Eddies
Circular movements of the fluid cause vortex.
Types of Flow
a)
Steady Flow
Flow is steady w.r.t time
Un-steady Flow
Flow is changed with time
B)
Subsonic
Mach # = V/c , C= √(K/ρ)
Mach # <1
Supersonic
Mach # >1

Sonic
Mach # = 1
Hypersonic
Mach # >>1
C)
Laminar Flow
At relatively low velocity, fluid particles move in definite and observable path.
Viscous force has more influence than the inertial force.
Viscous force is the force between a body and a fluid (liquid or gas) moving
An inertial force is a force that resists a change in velocity of an object. It is equal to and in the opposite
direction of an applied force, as well as a resistive force.
Turbulent Flow
In turbulent flow, there is an irregular random motion of fluid particles in directions transverse to the
direction of main flow. At higher velocity, laminar flow vanish and turbulent appear. Inertial force has
more influence.
Transition flow
Such a flow where the velocity and pressure changes over time. Usually occurs during the starting or
stopping of a pump. It is in b/w laminar and turbulent flow.
Potential flow
The region where the influence of wall (no skin friction) is small. The fluid behavior may approach to an
ideal fluid. Potential flow has neither circulation, nor eddies (no form friction) thus called irrational flow.
Thus layer outside the boundary layer is called the region of potential flow. Thus if someone ask you
that is potential flow exist in the flowing fluid in a pipe. You can answer yes where the effect of
boundary layer end, potential flow region may start.
Isentropic Flow
Flow that is both adiabatic and reversible and no heat transfer occurs due to friction and dissipative
effects.
Stream Line
It is a curve that is everywhere tangents to the instantaneous local velocity vector.
Stream Tube
Group of stream lines can be taken together to form a stream tube.
Path line
It is the path traversed by a single particle over an interval of time.
Streak line
Stream passed through a foxed point in the flow field.

Boundary Layer
The part of the moving fluid in which the fluid motion is influenced, shear and shear forces exist, by the
presence of solid boundary is called boundary layer or prandtle boundary layer.
Separation Boundary Layer

Flow separation occurs when the boundary layer travels far enough against an adverse pressure
gradient that the speed of the boundary layer relative to the object falls almost to zero. The fluid flow
becomes detached from the surface of the object, and instead takes the forms of eddies and vortices.
Profile
It is the line which show the quantity variation within the material
Velocity profiles
One of the most important fluid characteristics affecting flow measurement is the shape of the velocity
profile in the direction of flow.
Ideal profile
In a friction less pipe, a flat “ideal” velocity profile would result in which all the fluid particles move at
the same velocity
Linear
Transmitter output is directly proportional to the flow input.

Square Root
Flow is proportional to the square root of the measured differential pressure.
Beta Ratio (d/D)
Ratio of a differential pressure flow device bore (d) divided by internal Diameter of pipe (D).
A higher Beta ratio means a larger orifice size. A larger orifice plate bore size means greater flow
capacity and a lower permanent pressure loss.
Disturbed flow profiles
Obstructions in a pipe, such as bends, reducers, expanders, strainers, control valves, can all affect
the flow profile in a manner that can severely affect flow measurement accuracy. Such disturbances
should Not be confused with turbulent flow and gives rise to a number of effects that include:
Swirl fluid rotation about the pipe axis
Vortices areas of swirling motion with high local velocity which are often caused by a sudden
enlargement in pipe area
Volumetric flow rate
The volumetric flow rate, Q, represents the total volume of fluid flowing through a pipe per unit of
time and is usually expressed in liters per second (l/s) or cubic meters per hour (m3/HR). The
measurement of volumetric flow rate is most frequently achieved by measuring the
mean velocity of a fluid as it travels through a pipe of known cross sectional area A. Thus:
Q=V·A
Velocity
The term velocity is often used to describe the speed at which the fluid passes a point along the
pipe.
Point velocity
The point velocity is the flow velocity in a localized region or point in the fluid.
Mean flow velocity
The mean velocity can be determined using standard averaging techniques in which the velocities
of each band are summed and then divided by the number of bands
Mass flow rate
Most chemical reactions are largely based on their mass relationship and, consequently, to control
the process more accurately, it is often desirable to measure the mass flow of the product. The
mass flow rate, W, gives the total mass of fluid flowing at any given time. A knowledge of volume
flow rate, Q and the fluid density, p, determines the mass flow rate from:
W = Q.· p (kg/s)
asymmetrical profile due to disturbed flow in pipe
symmetrical profile with high core velocity- caused by a sudden reduction in pipe area
Pressure Head
The pressure at a given point in a liquid, measured in terms of the Vertical height of a column of the
liquid needed to produce the same pressure
Decant
Decant means to pour off from one container to another without disturbing the sediment.

Decanter
It is a device which is used to separate two constituent.
There are two type of decanter
Gravity decanter (when density difference is large, gravity force is sufficient for separation)
Centrifugal decanter (when density difference in small, centrifugal force is used)
Skin Friction
Friction b/w liquid surface and solid surface is called skin friction
Form Friction
Friction b/w the layers due to eddies, swirls. (When flow is turbulent)
Pipe fitting
Pipe fittings have different shapes which allow rigid straight pipe to change both direction and diameter
Elbows
Used to change the angle or direction of the pipe run. E.g street elbow, T-fitting, couplings, reducers,
bushings, unions, caps, plugs, nipples, valves, flow meters.
Energy losses in pipe fittings
H= K(v2/2g)
K=(Le/D)ft
Le/D= equivalent ratio
F= friction factor
Determine E/D of the pipe then use the moody chart to find out the value of friction factor.
Equations used in Fluid Mechanics
1. Predicting Pressure Loses in Liquid Pipelines

Two empirical formulas are used more often than any others for predicting pressure loss in single-phase
systems. These are the Hazen and Williams formula and the Darcy or Fanning equation.
2.Darcy or Fanning Equation

A more accurate method for determining the pressure drop in liquid pipelines is to use the Darcy or
Fanning equation.
The loss of head can be measured by the following equations
hf =4f L V2 / (2gD)
Where hf = Loss of head due to friction
f = Co-efficient of friction which is a function of Reynolds number

f = 64/Re (for Re <2000) (laminar flow)
L = Length of pipe
V = mean velocity of flow
D = Diameter of pipe
3.Expressed in oil industry units, the liquid head loss equation becomes:
4. Predicting Pressure Losses in Gas Lines

For estimating pressure drop in short runs of gas piping, Assuming pressure drop through the line is not
a significant fraction of the total pressure (i.e. more than 10%).

PV + mgh +mv^2/2 = constant

Bernoulli equation without friction. It is a special form of mechanical energy balance.
It can be written in tern of head by dividing all the energy terms with weight. We get pressure head,
potential head and velocity head and the sum of all these head is constant and is known as total head.
The above equation is derived for ideal case. However in real case some friction losses and velocity
change also occur. So we add correction factor.
Kinetic energy correction factor:
When velocity varies across the cross section then there is a need of kinetic energy correction factor
alpha. Then m*v^2/2 become m*v^2/2*alpha
The value of alpha for laminar flow in 0.5 and for turbulent flow it is approximately equal to 1.
Correction for friction
When fluid move, some amount of heat generated which is equivalent to the loss of mechanical work.
Thus for incompressible fluid the equation is corrected by adding a term hf (all friction generated per
unit mass)
Pump work correction
If a pump is installed in the system to increase the mechanical energy than a term etha*Wp is added to
the left of the equation and is known as net work done.
6.Pressure Drop Equation along a Pipe
Due to friction there is a change in pressure drop known as pressure drop. And the mathematical
form of this pressure drop equation in pipe is. Here R is shear stress, measure φ from moody chart.
l R
 Pf  4 U 2   frictionfactor 
d U 2
If velocity is not given, we don’t find Re. So use this Eq and find Re in graph
Head Lost =
It is equal to energy per unit weight. i.e divide the pressure drop by ρ*g

Energy Lost = divide pressure drop by ρ
Friction factor is the resistance to flow per unit area of pipe surface. It is found from the chart.
A single curve is given for a pipe surface for all kind of fluid, pipes diameter and velocities on a
log-log graph paper.
Roughness
e/d is called relative roughness. e is the magnitude of the roughness.
On moody chart there is a single curve instead of a series of curve which is independent of surface
roughness. In fully developed region, the curve are straight and parallel to the horizontal axis and
are independent of Reynolds number.
7.Equation of continuity
The mass rate through any cross section is a constant quantity. i.e.
Rate of mass in = rate of mass out
G = p*u*A = constant

The equation is equally valid for compressible and incompressible fluid. However for incompressible
fluid,
P1= p2 = p
So for incompressible fluid,
G = u*A
Volumetric flow rate is Q = G/p
8.Sudden Enlargement of pipe
The head loss due to sudden expansion equation is he = (V1 -V2)2 /2g
Where V1 is the velocity at section 1
V2 is the velocity at section 2
9.Sudden Contraction
The head loss due to sudden contraction equation is hc =k (V22 /2g)

Where k = ((1/Cc)-1)2
V2 is the velocity at section 2
10.Bending in pipe:
The head loss due to bending equation is hb=k (V2 /2g)
Where V is the velocity of the flow.
k is the co-efficient of the bend ,which depends on the angle of the bend, radius of curvature of bend
and diameter of the pipe
Fluid Mechanics API’s Short Summary

 Molecules and their motion are not visible and without molecular motion there will be no heat
 Cooling slows down molecular motion
 Molecules of gas are attracted to each other but they slide pass each other.
 Gas handling equipment may be built smaller because gases are compressible. Gases assume
the volume of container


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ICET, UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB LAHORE

Fluid and Particle

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 1

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 2

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 3

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 4

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 5

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 6

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 7

Classification of fluid mechanics

Bulk Modulus = K = Bulk Stress/Bulk Strain

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 8

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 9

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 10

Separation Boundary Layer

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 11

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 12

Equations used in Fluid Mechanics

1. Predicting Pressure Loses in Liquid Pipelines

2.Darcy or Fanning Equation

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 13

4. Predicting Pressure Losses in Gas Lines

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 14

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 15

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 16

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 17

The head loss due to sudden contraction equation is hc =k (V22 /2g)

Fluid Mechanics API’s Short Summary

MaLik Ashraf (M12-PG-07) Page 18

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