Technical Report No. 3: Measuring Stresses/Strain of Aircraft Wings at Joints With The Fuselage

Technical Report No.
3: Measuring Stresses/Strain of Aircraft Group 2

Wings at Joints with the Fuselage
Instructor: Engr. Jayson U. Baga Date: 28 April 2021 Page 1 of 1

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Grade: Maintenance Issue No.: 1
Checks
Technical Report No. 3:
Measuring Stresses/Strain of Aircraft Wings at Joints with the Fuselage
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
Group 2
Instructor: Engr. Jayson U. Baga

Technical Report No.3: Measuring Stresses/Strain of Aircraft Group 2

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HONESTY CLAUSE
As individuals of the academic community, students are expected to understand and uphold
requirements of intellectual and educational integrity. The college assumes as a simple and
minimal standard of conduct in academic matters, that students be truthful and that they
submit credit of their personal efforts.
Latrell Michaelo S. De Ocampo Mark Anthony R. Dimarucot


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Kevin Bryan P. Dupaya Joshua M. Lineses Jake Andrew M. Dichoso
Jackieleen R. Crisostomo

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Joaquin Robert P. Orrica Rika Manaysay
Gavry Villarosa
Arles Michael H. Goingo Kurt Allen M. Pabaira

Brendan Kyle DC. Alano Carl Darvin D. de Guzman James Charles A. Panganiban
Introduction
a. Physical Description of System to Be Tested
Wings are airfoils that produce lift as they are quickly moved through the air. They come
in a variety of shapes and sizes. Wing configuration may be altered to achieve specific flight
characteristics. As the shape of the wing is changed, control at different operating speeds, the
amount of lift produced, balance, and stability all change. The wing's leading and trailing edges
can be smooth or bent, or one edge can be straight and the other curved. Either or both sides
of the wing can be tapered, resulting in a wing that is narrower at the tip than at the base,
where it connects to the fuselage. The tip of the wing may be square, blunt, or pointed.
Most wings have spars and stringers running spanwise and ribs and formers or
bulkheads running chordwise as internal structures (leading edge to trailing edge). A wing's
primary structural members are the spars. Both dispersed loads, as well as consolidated
weights like the fuselage, landing gear, and engines, are supported by them. Based on the
construction requirements of a given aircraft, spars may be made of aluminum, wood, or
composite materials. Spruce is the most common wood used for wooden spars. Solid wood

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spars are often laminated to improve resilience. Box form spars are often made of laminated
wood. The wing spars on most assembled aircraft are currently constructed of rigid extruded
aluminum or aluminum extrusions riveted together.
Part of the loads applied during flight are carried by the skin, which is connected to the
wing frame. A plane's wing skin can be made of a number of materials, including leather,
wood, or aluminum. A single thin layer of paper, though, is not often used. Aluminum skin that
has been chemically milled can come in a variety of thicknesses. Honeycomb structured wing
panels are often used as skin on aircraft with stressed-skin wing designs. A honeycomb
arrangement is made up of a core material that is laminated or sandwiched between thin outer
skin sheets and resembles the honeycomb of a beehive. A honeycomb panel can be
constructed out of several different materials. Honeycomb with an aluminum core and an
aluminum outer skin is popular. However, honeycomb with an Arimid fiber core and Phenolic-
coated outer sheets is also common. In reality, a variety of other materials, such as fiberglass,
rubber, Nomex, Kevlar, and carbon fiber, are available. Based on the fabrics, proportions, and
manufacturing methods used, each honeycomb arrangement has its own distinct
characteristics.
The pressures are also transferred to the wing ribs. The loads are then transferred to
the wing spars by the ribs. Wing ribs are usually made of either wood or metal. Wooden wing
spars may have either wood or metal ribs, while metal spars usually have metal ribs. Spruce is
commonly used to make wood ribs. Since the ribs are not laterally strong enough, they are
reinforced in some wings with tapes woven above and below rib parts to avoid sideways
bending.

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b. Function of System to be Tested
The functions of the design an aircraft is definite with locating and measuring
proportionalities to amount at best the strength and fit of mass of vehicles and its payload for
restriction of exceptional circumstances during operation as well as durability. It means that
any part fails, it should not take effect the failure of the entire aircraft. The wing is an aircraft
component. Wings are initially the ones that make plane lift, turn, land, and control.
In terms of lift, the wings make most of that, lifting to hold the aircraft in the air. The
process of lift can be described as pushing the aircraft through the air for it to fly. Besides lift, it
also functions as a drag reducer. Motion resistance through the air is because of aerodynamic
drag, so modern airliners use winglets on the wing tips. For control and maneuver, smaller
wings are placed at the tail end of the plane.
c. Types of Loads and Causes Acting on the System
The loads on the wing are the sum of the aerodynamic lift and drag forces, as well as
concentrated and distributed weight of wing mounted engines, fuel stored and structural
elements. The resulting load factor will vary within the aeroplane’s flight envelope already
discussed.
There are four main load sources acting on an aeroplane – aerodynamic forces, inertia,
ground reactions and thrust.
The six types of stress in an aircraft are described as tension, compression, shear,
bearing, bending, and torsion (or twisting). The first four are commonly called basic stresses;
the last two, combination stresses. Stresses usually act in combinations rather than singly.

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An aircraft is basically required to support two types of basic loads:
 Ground Loads : Encountered by the aircraft during movement on the ground;
ie: taxying, landing, towing, etc
 Air Loads : Loads exerted onto the structure during flight by the manoeuvres
carried out by the aircraft or by wind gusts (such as wind shear).
The force on an aerodynamic surface (wing, vertical & horizontal tail) results from a
differential pressure distribution caused by incidence, camber or both.
For a typical wing, the chordwise pressure distribution is:
d. Desired Parameter of
System to be Tested

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Riveted joint is the most common method of connecting the various types of structural
joints due to it being higher in durability quality in comparison with wielded joints and glued
joints. In addition, uncomplicated visual inspection is applicable for riveted joints. However, all
splice joints experiences stress during flights. It is not feasible for stress to be measured
directly, hence, measurable parameters are utilized for computations such as in stress
analysis. The stress analysis takes into consideration the measured strains and other
properties of the material being tested in order to determine the stresses for a given loading
condition on the splice joint area of the materials.
Gauge length is a portion of calculation for strain, and is often confused with the actual
length of the material. The actual length refers to the materials length in its entirety, while the
gauge length is limited to the measurement of the cross-sectional area subjected to elongation
test or under tensile test. The gauge factor is the ratio of the change in resistance to the strain
or change in gauge length. Further explanations regarding the functions of the parameters
used are discussed on the latter parts of this paper.
Parameters used:
 R (Resistance)
 L (Gauge Length)
 A (Cross-Sectional Area)
 GF (Gauge Factor)
 ΔR (Change in resistance due to strain)
 RG (Resistance of the undeformed gauge)
 ε (Strain)

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e. Conventional Methods of Measuring These Parameters
Stress in a material can’t be measured directly. It must be computed from other
measurable parameters. Therefore, the stress analyst uses measured strains in conjunction
with other properties of the material to calculate the stresses for a given loading condition.
There are the conventional methods of measuring strain or deformation based on various
mechanical devices, optical methods and electrical devices. This section briefly describes
several of the more common methods and their relative merits.
Mechanical Devices
The earliest strain measurement devices were mechanical in nature. We have already
considered an example (using a micrometer to measure strain) and observed a problem with
that approach. Extensometers are a class of mechanical devices used for measuring strain
that employ a system of levers to amplify minute strains to a level that can be read. A minimum
gage length of 1 ⁄2 inch and a resolution of about
10 με is the best that can be achieved with purely
mechanical devices. The addition of a light beam
and mirror arrangements to extensometers
improves resolution and shortens gage length,
allowing 2 με resolution and gage lengths down to
1 ⁄4 inch.

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Figure No. 1. Extensometers
Still another type of device, the photoelectric gage, uses a combination of mechanical,
optical, and electrical amplifications to measure strain. This is done by using a light beam, two
fine gratings and a photocell detector to generate an electrical current that is proportional to
strain. This device comes in gage lengths as short as 1 ⁄16 inch, but it is costly and delicate. All
of these mechanical devices tend to be bulky and cumbersome to use, and most are suitable
only for static strain measurements.
Optical Methods

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Several optical methods are used for strain measurement. One of these techniques
uses the interference fringes produced by optical flats to measure strain. This device is
sensitive and accurate, but the technique is so delicate that laboratory conditions are required
for its use. Optical sensors are commonly used for structural monitoring, where long-distance
transmissions are easily found, and for material testing, where high strain and high-fatigue
limits are present. A single optical fiber can hold various sensors (with different measurands) in
complex sensing networks. Available in configurable versions of ready-to-install sensor chains,
HBM optical strain sensors can be bonded, spot welded, attached, or directly cast in different
materials, structures and components. Fiber optic strain sensors are also a significant solution
offered by HBM. To meet the high standards of the company, optical sensors based on Fiber
Bragg Grating technology are available through HBM FiberSensing.
Figure No. 2. Optic Strain Sensor


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Electrical Devices
Another class of strain measuring devices depends on electrical characteristics which
vary in proportion to the strain in the body to which the device is attached. Capacitance and
inductance strain gages have been constructed, but sensitivity to vibration, mounting
difficulties, and complex circuit requirements keep them from being very practical for stress
analysis work. These devices are, however, often employed in transducers. Strain gauges are
usually used in Experimental Stress Analysis (ESA), durability testing, and transducer
manufacturing. HBM's range of conventional strain gauges comprises of an extensive
assortment for widely differing strain measurement applications. Over 2000 types of linear
strain gauges and rosettes are available. The most commonly used instruments to measure
strain are electrical strain gauges. These are known as conventional strain gauges or foil strain
gauges. HBM has been offering these sensors for more than six decades with proven quality
and proficiency.

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Figure No. 3. Electrical Strain Gauges
Strain Gauges
a. Principle of Operation of Strain Gages, Including How Strain readings are
Obtained
Strain Gauge or Strain Gage was invented in 1938 by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur
C. Ruge. It is one of the significant sensors used in the geotechnical field to measure the
amount of strain on any structure (Dams, Buildings, Nuclear Plants, Tunnels, etc.). The
resistance of a strain gauge varies with applied force and, it converts parameters such as
force, pressure, tension, weight, etc. into a change in resistance that can be measured later
on.
Whenever an external force is applied to an object, it tends to change its shape and size
thereby, altering its resistance. The stress is the internal resisting capacity of an object while a
strain is the amount of deformation experienced by it.
Any basic strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing that supports a
metallic foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the object under stress using an adhesive. The
deformation in the object causes the foil to get distorted which ultimately changes the electrical
resistivity of the foil. This change in resistivity is measured by a Wheatstone bridge which is
related to strain by a quantity called, Gauge Factor.


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Principle of operation of strain gages
A strain gauge works on the principle of electrical conductance and its dependence on
the conductor’s geometry. Whenever a conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity, it
doesn’t break but, gets narrower and longer. Similarly, when it is compressed, it gets shorter
and broader, ultimately changing its resistance.
We know, resistance is directly dependent on the length and the cross-sectional area of the
conductor given by:
R= L/A
Where,
R = Resistance
L = Length
A = Cross-Sectional Area
The change in the shape and size of the conductor also alters its length and the cross-
sectional area which eventually affects its resistance.
How do you measure strain with a Strain Gauge?
The gauge factor GF is given as
GF= (∆R⁄RG )/∈
Where,
‘ΔR’ is the change in resistance due to strain


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‘RG’ is the resistance of the undeformed gauge
‘ε’ is the strain
b. Configuration of Strain Gages
The three types of strain gage configurations, quarter-, half-, and full-bridge, are
determined by the number of active elements in the Wheatstone bridge, the orientation of the
strain gages, and the type of strain being measured.
Quarter-Bridge Strain Gage
Configuration Type I
 Measures axial or bending strain
 Requires a passive quarter-bridge completion resistor known as a dummy resistor
 Requires half-bridge completion resistors to complete the Wheatstone bridge
 R4 is an active strain gage measuring the tensile strain (+ε)
Figure 1. Quarter-Bridge Strain Gage Configurations


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Configuration Type II
Ideally, the resistance of the strain gage should change only in response to applied strain.
However, strain gage material, as well as the specimen material to which the gage is applied,
also responds to changes in temperature. The quarter-bridge strain gage configuration type II
helps further minimize the effect of temperature by using two strain gages in the bridge. As
shown in Figure 2, typically one strain gage (R4) is active and a second strain gage(R3) is
mounted in close thermal contact, but not bonded to the specimen and placed transverse to
the principal axis of strain. Therefore, the strain has little effect on this dummy gage, but any
temperature changes affect both gages in the same way. Because the temperature changes
are identical in the two strain gages, the ratio of their resistance does not change, the output
voltage (Vo) does not change, and the effects of temperature are minimized
Figure 2. Dummy strain gages eliminate effects of temperature on the strain measurement.
Half-Bridge Strain Gage
You can double the bridge’s sensitivity to strain by making both strain gages active in a half-
bridge configuration.

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Figure 3. Half-bridge strain gages are two times more sensitive than quarter-bridge strain
gages.
 Measures axial or bending strain
 R3 is an active strain gage compensating for Poisson’s effect (-νε)
This configuration is commonly confused with the quarter-bridge type II configuration, but type
I has an active R3 element that is bonded to the strain specimen.
 Measures bending strain only


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 R3 is an active strain gage measuring the compressive strain (-ε)
Full-Bridge Strain Gage
A full-bridge strain gage configuration has four active strain gages and is available in three
different types. Types 1 and 2 measure bending strain and type 3 measures axial strain. Only
types 2 and 3 compensate for the Poisson effect, but all three types minimize the effects of
temperature.
Figure 4. Full-Bridge Strain Gage Configurations
 Highly sensitive to bending strain only


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 R1 and R3 are active strain gages measuring compressive strain (–e)
 R2 and R4 are active strain gages measuring tensile strain (+e)
 Sensitive to bending strain only
 R1 is an active strain gage measuring the compressive Poisson effect (–νe)
 R2 is an active strain gage measuring the tensile Poisson effect (+νe)
 R3 is an active strain gage measuring the compressive strain (–e)
 R4 is an active strain gage measuring the tensile strain (+e)
Configuration Type III
 Measures axial strain
 R1 and R3 are active strain gages measuring the compressive Poisson effect (–νe)
 R2 and R4 are active strain gages measuring the tensile strain (+e)
C. Application of Strain Gages
i. General
Strain gauges are generally used in field testing. It can be used to test vehicles, ship
hulls, dams, and oil drilling platforms. A simple civil engineering application using strain gauge
technology is to install strain gauges on structural components in a bridge or building to

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measure stress and compare them to analytical models and stress calculations. Due to the
complexity when it comes to shapes, geometry, access and environment, field testing is a
much requirement aside from laboratory testing.
Strain gauges are widely used for aerospace applications, monitoring bridge cables, rail
monitoring, and torque and power measurement in rotating equipment. The value of strain
gauge across testing industries have been important all throughout the years. In addition, the
characteristics of strain gauges brought their advantage when it comes to field testing. Strain
gauges are resistant to temperature changes, easier to maintain, long operation life, simple
operating principles, and water resistant.
ii. As applied to the system tested
Strain gauges are bonded to load-bearing components within air crafts to measure any
strain and stress which takes place within various areas during flight. Strain gauges can
monitor the wing deflection or deformation during flight to ensure it is safe. They also monitor
various on-board units and power supplies.
Aircrafts parts are calibrated by means of applying the known loads. Using strain
gauges output is recorded at numerous locations throughout the aircraft structure. The load
equations for, say, wing bending moment, are derived after ground calibration testing based
on strain gauge measurements.
Set-up of Strain Gage System to Measure Desired Parameters of Assigned System
a. Description of Each Component of the Test Set-up


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 Gauge Backing – Is a mechanical system, normally attached to a brake press. Its main
function is to interface with the brake press computer numerical control, moving along
several different axes in order to precisely position a piece of metal for forming.
 Resistive Foil - The foil resistor is the high accurate and stable component used to
restrict the electric current flow to certain level. An alloy of nickel, chromium, and
additives are used to construct the foil because these materials provide high resistance
to electric current and protect the foil resistor from damage. Hence, the foil is used as
the primary resistance element to block the electric current.
 Solder Pads - A solder pad is the part of a printed circuit board that supports the pins of
components like transistors and chips. Typically, when devices break or components
are removed from PCBs, it can result in damaged and missing solder pads.
 Electrical Wires - In electronics, a lead is an electrical connection consisting of a length
of wire or a metal pad (surface-mount technology) that is designed to connect two
locations electrically. Leads are used for many purposes, including: transfer of power;
testing of an electrical circuit to see if it is working, using a test light or a multimeter;
transmitting information, as when the leads from an electrocardiograph are attached to
a person's body to transmit information about their heart rhythm; and sometimes to act
as a heatsink. The tiny leads coming off through-hole electronic components are also
often called "pins"; in ball grid array packages, they are in form of small spheres, and
are therefore called "balls".
b. Schematic Diagram of the set-up, showing links between parts


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Aircraft component testing is one area of strain gauge application, tiny strain-gauge
strips glued to structural members, linkages, and any other critical component of an airframe to
measure stress. To assess stresses along load paths for wing deflection, strain gauges are
bonded directly to structural load bearing components. Most strain gauges are smaller than a
postage stamp, and they look something like this:
Fig. 1 Bonded Strain Gauge
 The name “bonded gauge” is given to strain gauges that are glued to a larger structure
under stress (called the test specimen).

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Fig. 2 Full Bridge Strain Gauge Circuit

 In applications where such complementary pairs of strain gauges can be bonded to the
test specimen, it may be advantageous to make all four elements of the bridge “active”
for even greater sensitivity. This is called as Full-bridge circuit.
Fig. 3 Half-Bridge Strain Gauge Circuit
 By positioning the upper strain gauge in the opposite direction of the lower gauge, both
gauges will respond to strain, and the bridge will be more receptive or responsive to
applied force. This utilization is known as a half-bridge circuit since when the upper
gauge is compressed, the lower gauge will be stretched, and vice versa.

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Fig. 4 Quarter-Bridge Strain Gauge Circuit
Fig. 4.1 2-Wire Quarter-Bridge Strain Gauge Circuit


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Fig. 4.2 3-Wire Quarter-Bridge Strain Gauge Circuit
 A single element of the bridge is changing resistance in response to the measured
variable (mechanical force), is known as a quarter-bridge circuit. Half-bridge and full-
bridge circuits have higher sensitivity than quarter-bridge circuits, but complementary
pairs of strain gauges are not always possible to bind to the test specimen. As a result,
strain measurement systems often use the quarter-bridge circuit.
 Adding a third wire, connecting the right side of the voltmeter directly to the upper wire
of the strain gauge, can minimize the falsely interpreted resistance by the meter as
physical strain on the gauge


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Fig. 5.1 A pair of strain gauges bonded to a test specimen
Fig. 5.2 Test specimen with Force applied bonded to a test specimen
 With no force applied to the test specimen, both strain gauges have equal resistance
and the bridge circuit is balanced. However, when a downward force is applied to the
free end of the specimen, it will bend downward, stretching gauge #1 and compressing
gauge #2 at the same time.
c. Procedure for Operation of Test Set-up
1. The strain gauge must be connected to an electrical circuit that is capable of accurately
responding to the minute changes in resistance associated with strain.
2. Clean the surface of the object where you want to attach it


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3. Glue on the strain gauge. This can be done by the following steps:
a. Put the strain gauge face down on a piece of tape
b. If your bonding agent requires a catalyst, brush it on the exposed side of
the strain gauge
c. Apply a single drop of superglue/bonding agent to the clean surface of the
object
d. Tape the gauge to the object so that the superglue touches the gauge
e. Apply pressure with your finger for at least one minute
f. Peal the tape off
4. Solder the wires to the terminals on the strain gauge
References:
Aircraft structures 1-Chapter1. (n.d.). Aerospace, Mechanical & Mechatronic Engineering.
https://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/structures/acs1-p1.html

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Kuphaldt, T. R. (2015, February 12). Strain Gauges. Retrieved April 16, 2021, from
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-9/strain-
gauges/
Lecture notes on Analysis of Aircraft Structures (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2021, from
https://www.iare.ac.in/sites/default/files/lecture_notes/IARE_AAS_LECTURE_NOITES.pd
Measuring strain with strain gages. (2020, July 15). Retrieved April 15, 2021, from
https://www.ni.com/en-ph/innovations/white-papers/07/measuring-strain-with-strain-
gages.html?
fbclid=IwAR186E_nlPEPP8cvQV5AFQr2G4_EdYb_gPOF0ZYBXxVH2eK9pNtlq3KI5Rs
*, N. (2020, March 06). Strain gauge : Working principle, characteristics & applications.
Retrieved April 15, 2021, from https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-strain-gauge-working-
and-its-applications/
NASA (n.d.). Airplane Parts and Function. Retrieved April 16, 2021 from
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/airplane.html#:~:text=The%20wings
%20generate%20most%20of,the%20wings%20to%20reduce%20drag.
(PDF) Structural analysis of aircraft fuselage splice joint. (n.d.). ResearchGate.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309004767_Structural_analysis_of_Aircraft_fu
selage_splice_joint

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Practical Strain Gage Measurements (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2021, from
https://www.omega.co.uk/techref/pdf/StrainGage_Measurement.pdf
Praveenkumara, B. M. et al. (2020, March). Stress Analysis of Fuselage Segment with Wing
Attachment Bracket. Retrieved April 16, 2021 from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343054165_Stress_Analysis_of_Fuselage_Se
gment_with_Wing_Attachment_Bracket
Rite, E. (2019, July 04). Strain gauge: Principle, types, features and applications. Retrieved
April 15, 2021, fromhttps://encardio.medium.com/strain-gauge-principle-types-features-
and-applications357f6fed86a5#:~:text=A%20strain%20gauge%20works%20on,but%2C
%20gets%20narrower%20and%20longer.
Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (2015, Nov. 2). Why are Wings Important?
Retrieved April 16, 2021 from https://howthingsfly.si.edu/ask-an-explainer/why-are-
wings-important
Strain measurement Basics. (2020, December 16). Retrieved April 16, 2021, from
https://www.hbm.com/en/6896/strain-measurement
Wings - Aircraft Structures. (n.d.). Retrieved April 16, 2021, from
https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/p/wings-wing-configurations-wings-
are.html#:~:text=Spars%20are%20the%20principal%20structural,plain%20beams%2C
%20or%20a%20truss.

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Technical Report No.

3: Measuring Stresses/Strain of Aircraft Group 2

Instructor: Engr. Jayson U. Baga Date: 28 April 2021 Page 1 of 1