DEBRE MARKOS UNIVERSITY BURIE CAMPUSE

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCE

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE

REVIEW ON THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT TILLAGE FREQUENCY

ON YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENT OF TEFF (Eragrostis teff)

BY:

DESSALEW YESHIWAS

ID NO AGR/ 1248/11
Advisor: Tesfaw fetene(MCs)

A SEMINAR PAPER
Submitted to Department of plant science, in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course
senior seminar (PLSC,3105)
FEBRUARY 2021
BURIE, ETHIOPIA
TABLE CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.................................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................................iv
ABBREVIATION........................................................................................................................................v
1.INTRODUCION..........................................................................................................................................1
1.1.Objective...........................................................................................................................................2
2. LITRETURE REVIEW..................................................................................................................................3
2.1 Origin, Diversity and Distribution.......................................................................................................3
2.1.1 Agro-Ecology and Production Environments of teff....................................................................3
2.1.2.Teff production Trend in Ethiopia..............................................................................................4
2.2 Constraints of teff production in Ethiopia..........................................................................................5
2.3 Effects of different tillage frequency on teff......................................................................................7
2.4 importance of teff..............................................................................................................................9
2.4.1. Nutritional status.....................................................................................................................10
3. Summary and Conclusion......................................................................................................................11
4. REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................................12

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iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First, I thank to my God a debt of praise for his presence with me in all ups and downs. Next I would like
to express my great thanks to Debre markos university Burie Campuse College of Agriculture and Natural
resources particularly Department of plant science for preparing such type of learning activity.

My special thank also go to my advisor Tesfaw Fetena for his unreserved advice and frequent supervision
in the entire work of my sinar seminar writing.

iii
ABSTRACT
In ethiopia teff is grown for grain and straw. Teff is a staple cereal crop in Ethiopia. . It is
adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions and its adaptability has resulted from its
cultivation as the main cereal crop. Tef is a better choice and provides some harvest when it
grows in moisture stress agro-ecology where other crops face potential starvation that leads to
total production loss. It is known for its nutrient quality and 99% high return quality after
It needs high tillage frequencies as compared to other
milling compared to 60-80% from wheat.
cereal crops in Ethiopia. Also, it requires firm, level seedbed, free from clods and stumps. With

respect to teff cultivation on loamy soil several tillage are necessary, occasionally as much as 4

times, relative to another soils

In Ethiopia, most of the farmers don’t understand the effects of various agronomic practices like

tillage frequency and another different input application on growth and development of teff. The

major constraints of teff production to the country incl

ude a biotic and biotic factor such as
drought, nutrient deficiency; weed, diseases and insect pest are the frequently deficient key crop
production problems. Therefore, this study will be conducted to review the effects of different
tillage frequency on teff growth and development.

Keywords: teff, tillage frequency….. .s,lllk

iv
 ABBREVIATION
Kg/ha kilogram per hectares

Kg kilogram

M.a.s.l meter above sea level

M meter

Ha hectare

Co dgree cent grade

LGB length of growing period

EARO Ethiopian agriculture research organization

FAO food and agriculture organization

CSA central statical agency

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vi
1.INTRODUCION

Teff (Eragrostic teff) is annual C4 grass that belongs to the family Poaceae (Kebede, et al., 2000).
The crop exhibits high variability within regions of cultivation and between plants of the same
accession (Tadesse, 2004). It is primarily self pollinated and provides naturally inbred lines,
though intermittent cross pollination introduces new genetic material to existing teff population
(Nicole, 2006). Teff is a staple cereal crop in Ethiopia. It is grown both for its grain and straw. In
Ethiopia, teff performs well in ‘Weina degas’ agro-ecological zones or medium altitude (1700-
2400 m above sea level) (Nicole2006; Decker’s et al., 2003). According to Decker’s et al. (2003),
the mean temperature and optimum rainfall during the growing season range from 10o C to 27
oC and 450 to 550mm, respectively. The length of growing period (LGP) or the number of days
to maturity of teff, considering rainfall and evapo-transpiration of 2-6 mm/day ranges from 60
to 180 days (depending on variety and altitude) with an optimum of 90 to 130 days (Deckers et
al., 2003).

The first tillage for teff production in most part of the country is done as soon as the previous

crop is harvested. In less weed prone areas, it is done after the onset of the small (belg) or main

(kiremt) rainy seasons (Fufa et al., 2001). Teff needs high tillage frequencies as compared to

other cereal crops in Ethiopia. Also, it requires firm, level seedbed, free from clods and stumps

(Decker’s et al., 2003). With respect to teff cultivation on loamy soil several tillage are

necessary, occasionally as much as 4 times, relative to another soils (Deckers et al., 2003).

Generally, the tillage frequency is not consistent from region to region, from soil type to soil type

and from farmer to farmer. This suggests further research on tillage frequency for teff. It sowing

by broadcasting on them during sowing needs moderate soil compaction to enhance their

attachment with the soil.

1
In Ethiopia government attention for increase agricultural productivity by giving different
supplies to the farmers such as fertilizers,selected variety seeds and chemical.,

Lower tef grain yield is mainly attributed to low soil fertility, especially, nitrogen (N) and
phosphorus (P) deficiencies and inappropriate tillage and weed control practices. Other studies
also added that weed is one of the key limiting factors for attaining higher tef yield (Melese,
2007).

1.1.Objective

To review the different tillage frequency on the yield and yield components of teff.

2
2. LITRETURE REVIEW
2.1 Origin, Diversity and Distribution
Teff is mainly cultivated in Ethiopia and Eritrea ,where it originates. It is one of the most
important staple crops in these two countries,where it is used to make injera or Tayta. In 2016,
Ethiopia grew more than 90 percent of the world's teff. It is now also marginally cultivated in
India , Australia , Germany , the Netherlands , Spain , and the US , particularly in Idaho ,
California, Texas , and Nevada. Because of its very small seeds, a handful is enough to sow a
large area. This property makes teff particularly suited to a seminomadic lifestyle.

2.1.1 Agro-Ecology and Production Environments of teff

Tef is a C4, self pollinated, chasmogamous annual grass whose plants range from
30 to 120 cm in height (Andersen R&Winge T, 2012). It is adapted to a wide range
of environmental conditions and its adaptability has resulted from its cultivation as
the main cereal crop in 10 of the 18 broad agro-ecologies found in Ethiopia, Forum
for environment (2010). It is widely cultivated both in high potential production
areas receiving adequate rain sufficient for growth and marginal production areas
receives inadequate rain difficult to complete life cycle of most other staple
crops(Ketema , 1999). Most of these production areas are located in vertisols that
possess much water on surface during main growing season and brought
physiological drought to non-vertisol area that has limitations with water holding
capacity for long period. These characteristics of tef has resulted from its
reasonable tolerance for excess and shortage moisture in growing season compared
to maize, wheat and sorghum, making it a preferred crop for growers(Tefera
&Ketema ,2001) . It is often considered as a rescue crop in seasons when early

3
planted crops such as maize fail as a result of moisture deficit (Admas & Belay,
2011).

The adaptability of tef to wide ranges of environmental conditions enables its

adaptability to a varied range of altitudes reaching up to 3000 meters above sea
level under various climatic and soil regimes but performs better in between
1800 and 2100 m.a.s.l (Tesfaye, 2001). Tef usually grows from heavy black to
light red soils and chemically adapted from acidic to alkaline soils but better agronomic
performance is obtain when grown under light sandy to heavy clay soils, and under moderate acidic
to low alkaline conditions(Takelel ,2001) . According to (Ketema, 1999),tef performs very well
with an annual rain-fall of 750-850 mm and growing season rain-fall of 450-550 mm.

The first plowing for tef production in most part of the country starts immediately after the
previous crop is harvested. In less weed prone areas, it is done either after the onset of the small
(belg) or main (kiremt) rainy seasons (Hundera et al, 2001). The small seed size nature of tef
requires more repetitive disking and harrowing plot to meet the proper fine, firm, level seed bed
demand of tef relative to other crop cultivated in Ethiopia for germination and vigorous vegetative
growth (Deckers et al, 2001). It requires more frequent plowing on Vertisols reaching up to 12
times due to larger clod formation during plowing compared to Nitosols ( Deckers et al, 2001).

2.1.2.Teff production Trend in Ethiopia

Crop production is composed of the largest share in cultivated area, production and consumption as well
as in contribution of gross domestic product of the country. Boosting productivity is the major means to
produce and provide adequate raw material to booming domestic industries and supports the effort to
ensure food security in Ethiopia (Tefera &Tefera, 2014). Among the total grain products, 98% of
cereals are harvested with the help of small holder growers whereas the remaining 2% is produced by
state and commercial farms primarily for seed purpose. Thus production of cereals contributes half of the
caloric intake by standard households (Tefera&Tefera, 2014). In addition, cereal crop production plays
crucial roles in employment opportunity for 60% of the rural poor and coverage of 80% of total arable
land in Ethiopia.

4
According to the survey data of Central Statistical Agency ( CSA, 2008-2013), tef production has
expanded by 124.5 percent in between 2003/2004 and 2012/2013 cropping years. This growth was
achieved mainly due to 37 percent expansion in area under cultivation and 64 percent increase in yield
levels per hectare. Annual tef production has been increasing year after year on average by about 10%.
Annual increased in productivity is supposed to contribute about 6% of the 10% growth with 4%
attributed to increase in net cropped area allotted to tef. This situation is continuing in the farming
community without deliberate promotion of tef culture. According to CSA (2013), tef is among
economically important cereals being cultivated in Ethiopia and it was estimated that 3.5 million tons was
produced from 2.73 million hectares of arable land. This is comparable to 22.14% of the total area and
15.28% of the total grain production of the staples cultivated in the country, making tef the leading crop
among cereals and other annual crops by area.

2.2 Constraints of teff production in Ethiopia

Currently, tef research in Ethiopia has mostly focused on breeding and improvement of backward
agronomic practices with little emphasis on the mechanization and processing of the crop. Lack research
in many critical areas like, reducing lodging, water-logging, drought resistance, and improved blended
fertilizers limits the quantity of production Fufa B et al (2011). The adoption rate of improved seed by
growers is very limited in the country emanating from shortage of supply, accessibility, suitability of
available varieties to all agro-ecological conditions and unaffordable price. The employment of
ineffective agronomic practices limits production in diversified ways which comprises poor land
preparation and inefficient method of sowing. The accumulation of much water in the growth media at
early vegetative state restricts good field stand and vigorous growth resulting from withdrawal of oxygen
in the soil root system which causes to anaerobic condition to prevail (Tefera, 2001). Additionally,
repetitive tillage, removal of crop residues, and failure to apply manure lead to degradation of nutrient
store house organic matter and removal of top fertile soil through erosion. The row sowing method and
minimum seed rate are not properly exploited. The current traditional method of broadcasting causes
unevenly scattering of seeds in the field and brought abnormal stand establishment which causes
difficulty in agronomic practices. The high losses occurs during post-harvest operations additionally
limits the volume of production and aggravates the marketable price. These losses are resulted from poor
threshing practices and constraints in use of mechanical harvesters. The existing value chain of tef is very
fluctuated that leads to seasonal variation in consumers’ price (Ishaq, 2001).

5
Farmers are forced to sell crops at harvest time, when price is low, because of a need for immediate
income to compensate for fertilizer, seed, and stationary fee for their school children and lack of storage
options. Currently, there is very limited value addition processes of grains in to flour and flour in to injera
by small number of urban dwellers. The nutrient packed small grains of tef have not gotten the
opportunity to be exploited as an industrial crop. A comprehensive effort to plant higher quality tef has
been reduced by partial value addition and export restrictions on the crop Nysen et al, (2000).

6
2.3 Effects of different tillage frequency on teff

Plowing frequency did not show any significant effect on tillering potential, and stand cover of teff.
However, compaction has significant effect on these yield attributes. This may be due to its influence on
absorption of nutrients and moisture by the crop. Relatively, higher stand cover were found from
compacted plots but higher average number of tiller per plant was found from on compacted plots. The
higher stand cover from the compacted plots is due to the good attachment of teff seeds with the soil
which might have resulted in efficient use of nutrients and moisture as well as improved germination.
Except in stand cover, the three N-fertilizer rates did not show significant difference from the control in
number of tillers per plant. Highest stand cover (95%) was obtained from application of 69 kg N/ha. In
Tillage have several advantage, such as loosening soil, regulating the circulation of water and air within
the soil, increasing the release of nutrient elements from the soil for crop growth, and controlling weeds
by burying weed seeds and emerged seedlings (Reicosky and Allmaras, 2003 ).In ethiopia soil
compaction can have an impact on yield by influencing soil nutrient and moisture availability
(Gebretsadik, 2009)Weed competition can result in a significant yield loss, thus another advantage of
multiple plowings prior to sowing is weed control(Habtegebrial et al., 2007).Excessive and repeated
tillage when practiced for a long period can alter soil properties and agricultural production (Rashidi &
Keshavarzpour, 2007 ).

In a study conducted by Habtegebrial et al.(2007), both minimum (one plowing) and conventional (four
plowings) till methods gave similar dry matter and grain yields of teff after weeds were controlled in the
minimum tillage treatment. Weeds were controlled by hand, first at early tillering (four weeks after
emergence) and again at the stem elongation stage(Habtegebrial et al., 2007). This indicates that repeated
plowings are notnecessary in order to maintain a proper seedbed but mainly affects the degree of weed
infestation (Habtegebrial et al., 2007). In Ethiopia, farmers plow the fields during the short rainy season
of February through March, leaving the fields bare for two to three months, and then planting begins in
the middle of the rainy season between July and August (Habtegebrial et al., 2007). Excessive and
repeated tillage when

The Research recommendation by Kenea et al. (2003) on the number of tillage required in Nazareth and
western Wellega was about 3 times and 12 times respectively. Many tillage trials were conducted in
Ethiopia in different locations and indicated that the grain yield of tef is increased with increasing of
number of tillage IAR (1998). Melesse (2007) reported that 3-5 times of tillage is advisable to enhance
yield of tef whereas Tarekegne et al,(1998) recommended more frequency of 5-9 times particularly

7
important to adequate rain fall areas and( Nyssen et al, 2000) argued that 4-times of tillage could
produce adequate yield. The soil phyico-chemical and biological difference, inerratic rain distribution and
farmers economic problem causes the tillage frequency not to be consistence from region to region in
Ethiopia kenea et al, (2001).

8
2.4 importance of teff
Teff is a multipurpose crop which has a high importance for the Ethiopian diet and culture. In
Ethiopia, teff provides two-thirds of the daily protein intake. It is not only important for human
nutrition, but also as fodder for livestock, or as building material. Teff is the main ingredient to
prepare injera, a sourdough -risen flatbread. During meals, it is often eaten with meat or
ground pulses. Sometimes it is also eaten as porridge . Moreover, teff can be used to prepare
alcoholic drinks, called arak'e or katikalla or beer, called t'ella or fersso . Finally, due to its high
mineral content, teff is also mixed with soybeans , chickpeas or other grains to manufacture
baby foods.

In Ethiopia, tef is principally cultivated to harvest the economic part of the grain for own consumption.
The grains are used to bake injera after milled, a type of Ethiopian bread which are the most beloved
national dish (Ketema , 2002)he grains can also be ground into flour which is used to make porridge and
alcoholic beverages such as tela and katikala. Cooked tef can be mixed with herbs, seeds, beans or tofu,
garlic, and onions to make grain burgers. The grains can also be sprouted and the sprouts used in salads
and on sandwiched (Senayit , 2005).The study during 2008 crop seasondemonstrated that as tillage
frequency increases, there is a possibility of increasingtef yield. This is consistent with the finding inFufa
et al. who reported that increasing tillage frequency increased tef yield andincreasing fertilizer level to
certain point canincrease yield and yield component of tef crop. The report by Hati et al. showed
thatfrequent plowiNutrient enrichedtefinjerahasusedwith variety of stews placed on it prepared from
pulses and meat. Injera is consumed with taking a piece of it torn to grasp the stew and salad for eating.
Fermentation of cereals or their blend with legumes is a potentially important processing method that can
be expected to improve the nutritive value such as availability of proteins and amino acid profiles. It
could also decrease certain anti nutritional factors like phytates, protease inhibitors and flatulence factors.
New alternative dishes are started to appear in the western world in the form of breakfast like tef waffles,
tef banana bread (Tesfaye, 2001).

The straw which remains after separation of grains is equally important nationally in keep ruminants
during off seasons. Teklu et al, (200) reported that straw quality of tef is ranked first nationally compared
to other cereal crop residues and better performance of animals was obtained on growth and fattening
those treated with tef residue contrast to native grass hay. Understanding of this value growers are usually
feeding the straw to most productive animals like draught ox and milking caw. In addition to cherished
livestock food, the straw is used to reinforce mud used for plastering of local houses and grain containers.

9
2.4.1. Nutritional status

Compared to common cereals crops growing in the globe, much research was not conducted to
understand the chemical composition of Ethiopian orphan tef and its associated health and nutritional
benefits. These further limit the development of production and post harvest processing technologies in
value adding the product (Baye , 2014). Because of this the crop has long been restricted only in Ethiopia
where it was originated in terms of cultivation and consumption. Although tef is one of the preferred crop
for wider health consumption but due to lack of familiarity by consumers and limited interests in tef
causes Ethiopian to think for centuries their crop is lesser in quality (Senayit, 2005). On the other hand,
for the last ten years the discovery of the gluten-free of tef has encouraged researchers in agronomy,
breeder, nutrition, and food science to exert more endeavors to improve the historically neglected crop.
Consequently, numerous researches have been done on the composition of tef nutrition and its post
harvest values. Currently, the development of new tef-based products has accelerated out of its center of
origin initially in Denmark CSA (2008-2013).

The nutritive value of tef grain compares well with some of the major staple crops and in fact, it is better
than some of these crops in mineral content specially zinc, copper, and manganese ( Ketema , 1993) The
nutritional profile of tef indicated highest quantity of protein compared to usually consumed staples in
Ethiopia and its calorie content is solely exceed by maize. The grain has a high concentration of different
nutrients with very high calcium content, and significant levels of the minerals phosphorus, magnesium,
aluminum, iron, copper, zinc, boron, barium, and thiamin. It is considered to have an excellent amino acid
contents, and it also said to have higher lysine levels than wheat and barley and a little lower than rice and
oats (Stallknecht, 2003)

The tiny size of the grain is the major contributor and secret behind the nutritional value of tef due to the
flour contain both the bran and the germ. Difficult in hg of the bran and germs during milling from the
grain are rationales in high nutrient value of tef flour because the bran and germs are main nourishing part
of any grains. The difficulty of isolating the bran and germs enables the whole grains to be milled and
entirely consumed latter. The gluten freeness of tef is an alternative compatible grain to address people
allergic to the gluten in wheat and considered saves to for patients with celiac diseases and healthiest food
for those not suffering from celiac. Furthermore, with addition of other ingredients it is possible to enrich
tef flour artificially during milling. This practice will help to produce value added products having
diversified nutrient augmented with injera, cookies and cakes Costanza et al (2003).

10
3. Summary and Conclusion

Teff is a C4, self pollinated, annual grass whose plants range from 30 to 120 cm in height. It is
grown both for its grain and straw. It is adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions and
its adaptability has resulted from its cultivation as the main cereal crop in 10 of the 18 broad
agro-ecologies found in Ethiopia. Tillage frequency affects most of the yield and yield attributes
of teff. It affected the teff of, plant height, spike length, fresh weight and tilleringpotential. In
Ethiopia; most of the farmers don’t understand the effects of various agronomic practices like
tillage frequency and another different input application on growth and development of teff. The
major constraints of teff production to the country include a biotic and biotic factor such as
drought, nutrient deficiency like; nitrogen fertilizer and weed, diseases and insect pest are the
frequently deficient key crop production

Crop production is composed of the largest share in cultivated area, production and consumption
as well as in contribution of gross domestic product of the country. Boosting productivity is the
major means to produce and provide adequate raw material to booming domestic industries and
supports the effort to ensure food security in Ethiopia. Among the total grain products, 98% of
cereals are harvested with the help of small holder growers whereas the remaining 2% is
produced by state and commercial farms primarily for seed purpose.

Plowing frequency did not affect most of the yield and yield attributes of teff. However, it
affected tillering of teff when combined with compaction. Incidentally, this factor alone did not
increase the number of tillers per plant. Generally, frequent plowing is not a major factor to
increase teff productivity on Vertisols, but it is important to control weeds. Compaction resulted
in low tillering but high ground cover. This means compaction did not favor tillering of teff but it
encourages ground cover. Interaction between compaction and N also influenced tillering and

11
ground cover of teff. Optimum returns were found from biomass and grain yields on compacted
plots. The overall outcome of compaction is that it affects teff productivity on vertisols.

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