PSP LAB VIVA 1

Abdullah Khalid 2013-EE-63

M. Khalil Yusuf 2013-EE-65
M. Hassan Qureshi 2013-EE-67
M. Amir Nazar 2013-EE-78

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1 Current: 4
2 Voltage: 4
3 Apparent Power: 4
4 Real Power and Reactive Power: 4
5 Power Quality: 5
6 Utilization Factor: 5
7 Load Factor: 5
8 Power Factor: 5
9 Displacement Power Factor: 5
10 Demand Factor: 5
11 Earth fault factor: 6
12 Types of Insulators: 6
12.1 Pin type Insulators 6
12.2 Suspension Type 6
12.3 Strain Insulators 6
12.4 Shackle Insulators 6
13 Transformer’s Losses: 6
14 Transformer Saturation: 7
15 Why multicore CTs are used? 7
16 Induction Motor 7
16.1 Working principle: 7
16.2 Slip: 7
16.3 Power Factor: 8
17 Synchronous motor and generator: 8
17.1 Working principle of motor: 8
17.2 Working principle of synchronous generator: 8
17.3 Load angle (or Torque angle): 8
18 Phase Shifting Transformer: 8
18.1 Introduction: 8
18.2 Phase shifting transformers Definition: 9
18.3 Purposes of Phase shifting transformers: 9
18.4 Method of operation: 9
18.5 Extended Y and Delta transformer: 9
19 Bus Schemes: 10
19.1 Single Bus 10
19.2 Main Bus and Transfer Bus 11
19.3 Double Bus Double Breaker 12
19.4 Double Bus Single Breaker 12
19.5 Ring Bus 13
19.6 Breaker and Half 13
20 CTS and PTS 14
20.1 Current Transformer 14
20.2 Potential transformer 14
21 3-phase transformer: 15
22 Circuit Breaker 15
22.1 Air: 15
22.2 Oil: 16
22.3 Vacuum: 16

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 22.4 SF6: 16
23 Guard ring: 16
24 Surge arrester: 16
25 Isolator: 17
26 Shunt reactor: 18
Types of Relays 18
27 Overcurrent Relay: 18
27.1 Principle 18
27.2 Applications 18
27.2.1 Motor Protection: 18
27.2.2 Transformer Protection: 18
27.2.3 Line Protection: 18
27.2.4 Distribution Protection: 19
27.3 Price 19
28 Directional Overcurrent Relay 19
29 Overvoltage Relay 19
29.1.1 Voltage Surge 19
29.1.2 Switching Impulse or Switching Surge 20
29.2 Earthing Screen 20
29.3 Overhead Earth Wire 20
29.4 Lightning Arrester 20
30 Under voltage Relay 21
31 Buchholz Relay: 22
31.1 Principle: 22
31.2 Advantages: 22
31.3 Disadvantages: 22
31.4 Protection Range: 23
31.5 Rating: 23
32 Reverse Power Relay: 23
32.1 Principle: 23
32.2 Selection of Reverse Power Relay: 23
32.2.1 Sensitivity of the Reverse power relay 23
32.2.2 Time delay in reverse power relays 24
32.2.3 Number of Phases 24
32.2.4 Power supply for the reverse power relay 24
32.2.5 Nominal voltage and current 24
32.2.6 Frequency of operation 24
32.2.7 Operational environment 24
32.2.8 Standards 24
32.3 Advantages of reverse power relay 24
33 Frequency Relays 25
33.1 Principle 25
33.2 APPLICATIONS 25
Rating Of ABB Relay (RXFK 2H) 25
34 Voltage levels in Pakistan: 25
35 Vector groups in Pakistan: 25

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1 Current:
An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In electric circuits this charge is often carried by
moving electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons
such as in an ionized gas (plasma).

2 Voltage:
Electromotive force or potential difference, usually expressed in volts. A measure of the
difference in electric potential between two points in space, a material, or an electric circuit, expressed
in volts.

3 Apparent Power:
Apparent power is a measure of alternating current (AC) power that is computed by
multiplying the root-mean-square (rms) current by the root-mean-square voltage. In a direct current
(DC) circuit, or in an AC circuit whose impedance is a pure resistance, the voltage and current are in
phase, and the following formula holds:
P = ErmsIrms
Where P is the power in watts, Erms is the root-mean-square (rms) voltage in volts, and Irms is
the rms current in amperes. But in an AC circuit whose impedance consists of reactance as well as
resistance, the voltage and current are not in phase. This complicates the determination of power.
In an AC circuit, the product of the rms voltage and the rms current is called apparent power.
When the impedance is a pure resistance, the apparent power is the same as the true power. But
when reactance exists, the apparent power is greater than the true power. The vector difference
between the apparent and true power is called reactive power.
If Pa represents the apparent power in a complex AC circuit, Pt represents the true power,
and Pr represents the reactive power, then the following equation holds:
Pa2 = Pt2 + Pr2

4 Real Power and Reactive Power:

The portion of power that, averaged over a complete cycle of the AC waveform, results in net
transfer of energy in one direction is known as active power (sometimes also called real power). The
portion of power due to stored energy, which returns to the source in each cycle, is known as reactive
power.
In a simple alternating current (AC) circuit consisting of a source and a linear load, both the
current and voltage are sinusoidal. If the load is purely resistive, the two quantities reverse their
polarity at the same time. At every instant the product of voltage and current is positive or zero, the
result being that the direction of energy flow does not reverse. In this case, only active power is
transferred.
If the load is purely reactive, then the voltage and current are 90 degrees out of phase. For
two quarters of each cycle, the product of voltage and current is positive, but on the other two
quarters, the product is negative, indicating that on average, exactly as much energy flows toward the
load as flows back. There is no net energy flow over one half cycle. In this case, only reactive power
flows: There is no net transfer of energy to the load, however electrical power does flow down the
wire and return by flowing in reverse along the same wire. During its travels both from the power
source to the reactive load and back to the power source, the current flow loses power to line
resistance.
Practical loads have resistance, inductance, and capacitance, so both active and reactive
power will flow to real loads. Power engineers measure apparent power as the magnitude of the

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vector sum of active and reactive power. Apparent power is the product of the root-mean-square of
voltage and current. Electrical engineers take apparent power into account when designing and
operating power systems, because though the current associated with reactive power does no work
at the load, it heats the conductors and wastes energy. Conductors, transformers and generators must
be sized to carry the total current, not just the current that does useful work. Failure to provide for
the supply of sufficient reactive power in electrical grids can lead to lowered voltage levels and under
certain operating conditions to the complete collapse of the network or blackout. Another
consequence is that adding the apparent power for two loads will not accurately give the total
apparent power unless they have the same displacement between current and voltage (the same
power factor).

5 Power Quality:
Power quality is often defined as the electrical network's or the grid's ability to supply a clean
and stable power supply. In other words, power quality ideally creates a perfect power supply that is
always available, has a pure noise-free sinusoidal wave shape, and is always within voltage and
frequency tolerances.

6 Utilization Factor:
The utilization factor or use factor is the ratio of the time that a piece of equipment is in use
to the total time that it could be in use. It is often averaged over time in the definition such that the
ratio becomes the amount of energy used divided by the maximum possible to be used.

7 Load Factor:
Electrical Load factor is a measure of the utilization rate, or efficiency of electrical energy
usage. It is the ratio of total energy (KWh) used in the billing period divided by the possible total energy
used within the period, if used at the peak demand (KW) during the entire period.

8 Power Factor:
In AC circuits, the power factor is the ratio of the real power that is used to do work and the
apparent power that is supplied to the circuit.
The power factor can get values in the range from 0 to 1.
When all the power is reactive power with no real power (usually inductive load) - the power
factor is 0.
When all the power is real power with no reactive power (resistive load) - the power factor is
1.

9 Displacement Power Factor:

Power factor is the ratio of the real power to the apparent power. There are two different
ways to compute the power factor displacement power factor and apparent power factor. Both give
identical results for sinusoidal (non-distorted) voltage and current waveforms. The displacement
power factor is based purely on the fundamental line frequency (50 or 60 Hz) content, while the
apparent power factor includes harmonics in the computation.

10 Demand Factor:
Demand factor is the ratio of the sum of the maximum demand of a system (or part of a
system) to the total connected load on the system (or part of the system) under consideration.
Demand factor is always less than one. Application of diversity factor.

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11 Earth fault factor:
at a given location of a three-phase system, and for a given system configuration, the ratio of
the highest root mean square (rms) phase-to-earth power frequency voltage on a healthy phase
during a fault to earth affecting one or more phases at any point on the system to the rms value of
the phase-to-earth power frequency voltage which would be obtained at the given location in the
absence of any such fault.

12 Types of Insulators:
12.1 Pin type Insulators
As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is secured to the cross-arm on the pole. There is
a groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the conductor. The conductor passes through
this groove and is bound by the annealed wire of the same material as the conductor.
Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power at voltages up
to 33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type insulators become too bulky and hence
uneconomical.
12.2 Suspension Type
For high voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators shown in
Figure. consist of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by metal links in the form of a string.
The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the other end of the string is secured
to the cross-arm of the tower. Each unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say 11 kV. The number of
discs in series would obviously depend upon the working voltage. For instance, if the working voltage
is 66 kV, then six discs in series will be provided on the string.
12.3 Strain Insulators
When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the line is subjected to
greater tension. In order to relieve the line of excessive tension, strain insulators are used. For low
voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However, for high voltage
transmission lines, strain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension insulators as shown in Figure.
The discs of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane. When the tension in lines is exceedingly
high, at long river spans, two or more strings are used in parallel.
12.4 Shackle Insulators
In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But now a days, they are
frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be used either in a horizontal
position or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm.

13 Transformer’s Losses:
There is, of course, power lost due to resistance of the wire windings. Because leakage
inductance is equivalent to an inductance connected in series with the transformer’s winding, it
manifests itself as a series impedance with the load.

Perhaps the most significant of these “core losses” is eddy-current loss, which is resistive
power dissipation due to the passage of induced currents through the iron of the core. Because iron
is a conductor of electricity as well as being an excellent “conductor” of magnetic flux, there will be
currents induced in the iron. In overcoming the resistance offered by the iron, they dissipate power in
the form of heat. Use of laminated core, reduces the eddy current losses.

Another “core loss” is that of magnetic hysteresis. All ferromagnetic materials tend to retain
some degree of magnetization after exposure to an external magnetic field. This tendency to stay

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magnetized is called “hysteresis,” and it takes a certain investment in energy to overcome this
opposition to change every time the magnetic field produced by the primary winding changes polarity
(twice per AC cycle). This type of loss can be mitigated through good core material selection (choosing
a core alloy with low hysteresis.

14 Transformer Saturation:
Remember that ferromagnetic materials cannot support infinite magnetic flux densities: they
tend to “saturate” at a certain level (dictated by the material and core dimensions), meaning that
further increases in magnetic field force (mmf) do not result in proportional increases in magnetic field
flux (Φ).

Since instantaneous winding voltage is proportional to the instantaneous magnetic flux’s rate
of change in a transformer, a voltage waveform reaching the same peak value, but taking a longer
amount of time to complete each half-cycle, demands that the flux maintain the same rate of change
as before, but for longer periods of time. Thus, if the flux has to climb at the same rate as before, but
for longer periods of time, it will climb to a greater peak value.

Yet another cause of transformer saturation is the presence of DC current in the primary
winding. Any amount of DC voltage dropped across the primary winding of a transformer will cause
additional magnetic flux in the core. This additional flux “bias” or “offset” will push the alternating flux
waveform closer to saturation in one half-cycle than the other. Anything which does not causes the V-
s balance such as half wave rectifier.

When a transformer’s primary winding is overloaded from excessive applied voltage, the core
flux may reach saturation levels during peak moments of the AC sinewave cycle. If this happens, the
voltage induced in the secondary winding will no longer match the wave-shape and causes harmonics
in secondary.

15 Why multicore CTs are used?

The number of cores refers to the number of the secondary windings. So, multi-core cts could
be used to send its signals to many other relays than just one and each core is used for different
function like one for distance protection, differential protection and for earth fault protection.

16 Induction Motor
16.1 Working principle:

The stator is made up of many slots and in slots are the three phase winding which produces
rotating magnetic field. This causes induced torque in the rotor and rotor rotates with it.

16.2 Slip:

Difference between the stator’s magnetic field speed and rotor’s mechanical field is called the slip.

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16.3 Power Factor:

The power factor of induction motors varies with load, typically from around 0.85 or 0.90 at
full load to as low as about 0.20 at no-load, due to stator and rotor leakage and magnetizing reactance.
Three components of current exist 1) magnetizing current 2) stator loss component of current 3) and
load component of current. At no load, there is no load component of current and stator loss
component is small so power factor due to magnetizing current is low. As the motor is loaded, the
load component of current increases and causes power factor improvement.

17 Synchronous motor and generator:

17.1 Working principle of motor:

It is not a self-starting motor. Some external force is required to rotate the rotor close to
synchronous speed. The rotor is provided with DC supply and produces constant poles. The stator is
provided with 3 phase supply. Once locked, it rotates with synchronous speed.

17.2 Working principle of synchronous generator:

No stator supply is provided. DC supply is provided to rotor and is made to revolve with the
help of external force. This induced emf on the stator produces electricity.

17.3 Load angle (or Torque angle):

For a synchronous generator, the magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed and the
rotating magnetic field is created in the stator. These two fields are not fully aligned. The stator field
lags the rotating field. This lagging expressed in angle is called load angle. The power developed by
the generator is directly proportional to sine of this angle. This angle plays an important role for the
stability of the generator. If the angle goes beyond 90º, the generator becomes unstable. This may
happen when sudden change of large load occurs or fault sustains longer time. The generator
instability is one of reason for massive blackout in case of major fault occurs in transmission line.
For the case of synchronous motor, the angle is called torque angle and the rotating field lags the
stator field in this case.
Power angle: For a generator, the power angle is the difference between the generator induced
voltage and the generator terminal voltage. The value of the power angle is same as the load angle.
So, in context of generator, power angle and load angle mean same thing. Related to the over
excitation and under excitation.

18 Phase Shifting Transformer:

18.1 Introduction:
Existing transmission systems are often operated and stressed to the limit of their
performance capability of their original design in order to maximize asset utilization. To ensure that
under these conditions the economical, reliable and secure operation of the grid is maintained, the
need for various aspects of power flow management within the power systems is becoming evident.
Phase-shifting transformers help control the real power flow in transmission lines and systems
interties. They allow for better utilization of existing networks concerning load growths.

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18.2 Phase shifting transformers Definition:
A phase shifting transformer is a special type of system intertie transformers which Control
the power flow through specific lines in a complex power transmission network by providing the
possibility to insert a voltage with an arbitrary phase angle in the power system.

Note: The application of phase shifting transformers is mainly in high voltage systems (up to
420 KV) and the throughput power rating is quite large (up to 1630 MVA)
18.3 Purposes of Phase shifting transformers:
• To control the power flow between two large independent power systems
• To change the effective phase displacement between the input voltage and the
output voltage of a transmission line, thus controlling the amount of active power that can flow in the
line.
• To balance the loading when power systems are connected together in more than one
point so that loops exist and the impedances in parallel paths results in undesired distribution of
power flow in the paths.
• To protect from thermal overload and to improve transmission system stability.
18.4 Method of operation:
To facilitate the method of operation explanation, I will give some examples for it in different
cases as follows:

Two power systems with designation as A & B will be connected by a transmission line with
impedance Z, the active power will be transmitted from system A to system B, if only the voltage in
the left of the transmission line (U) leads the voltage in the right of the transmission line (UB), this
done by using a phase shifting transformers which insert extra voltage (∆U) into the left side of the
transmission line. The (∆U) is used to balance the voltage drop in the transmission line as follows:

18.5 Extended Y and Delta transformer:

Extended Y connection is primarily used in HVDC converter transformers. As High AC and DC

voltages put additional voltage stresses the dielectric insulation in relation to that of normal Y

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connection transformers.
When HVDC transformers built as three-phase transformers, there is generally one unit with the valve
winding arranged for star connection and the other unit for delta connection. HVDC transformers
make it possible to transport electrical energy over long distances with comparatively low losses and
cost. HVDC transformers can easily combine two different AC networks together, even with different
frequencies. HVDC transformers act as galvanic separation between the AC and DC systems and this
prevents the direct current from entering the ac systems.

19 Bus Schemes:
There are mainly six bus schemes. These are:
• Single Bus
• Main Bus and Transfer Bus
• Double Bus Double Breaker
• Double Bus Single Breaker
• Ring Bus
• Breaker and Half
Before we proceed further I would like to discuss in brief about the Circuit Breaker and
Isolator. It will be helpful for novices. See the figure below where two buses are connected by circuit
breakers and isolators as shown. A circuit breaker is a device whose main purpose is to break the
circuit carrying load current or fault current. As the breaker is opened then current is interrupted in
the circuit. But it is not safe to work with opened breaker as one or both sides of the breaker terminals
may be still energised. The breaker is then isolated from the rest of the circuit by opening the isolators
on both sides of breaker. The isolators are used to isolate the breaker or circuit. It should be
remembered that the isolators are never opened or closed to interrupt or make the circuit. That
means when the circuit is to be made on, first the isolators on both sides of a breaker are closed then
breaker is closed to allow current flow. When the circuit is to be made off or interrupted, first the
breaker is opened (tripped), hence load current is interrupted. Then to isolate the breaker, isolators
are opened. Isolators are designed to interrupt small current. Breakers are designed to interrupt large
load current and heavy fault current. Both breaker and isolator carry load current in normal state.

19.1 Single Bus

As the name indicate the substation with this configuration has a single bus (Fig-B). All the
circuits are connected to this bus. A fault on the bus or between the bus and a breaker results in the
outage of the entire bus or substation. Failure of any breaker also results in outage of the entire bus.
Maintenance of any circuit breaker requires shutdown of the corresponding circuit/line and
maintenance of bus requires complete shutdown of the bus. A bypass switch across the breaker
should be used for maintenance of the corresponding breaker. This case the protection system is
disabled.

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 Single Bus configuration is the simplest and least cost of all configurations. The system can be
easily expanded. This configuration requires less area. The reliability of this system being low, it is not
to be implemented in the substation where high reliability is expected. Large substations usually do
not utilize this scheme. By sectionalising of the bus the reliability and availability of the single bus
system can be improved.

19.2 Main Bus and Transfer Bus

In this scheme one more bus is added. See Figure-C how the equipments are arranged and
circuits are connected between main and transfer bus. In this arrangement one more breaker may be
used, known as tie circuit breaker. No circuit is associated with this tie breaker.

When the tie CB is not present, for maintenance of a circuit breaker, the transfer bus is
energized by closing the isolator switches to transfer bus. Then the breaker to undergo maintenance
is opened and isolated (opening isolators on both sides of CB) for maintenance. In this arrangement
there is no protection for the circuits. The circuits can be protected from outside the substation.
When the tie breaker is present, for maintenance of a breaker the transfer bus is energised
by closing the tie breaker. Then the isolator near the transfer bus of the breaker of circuit to be
maintained is closed. Now the breaker to be maintained is opened. Then corresponding isolators on
both sides of breaker are opened. The breaker is removed for maintenance. The circuit is transferred
to transfer bus. Remember that the isolator to the transfer bus corresponding to the breaker not to
be maintained remain open. Here the tie breaker protects the circuit in place of removed breaker. In
this scheme the relay setting is quite complex due to the requirement of the tie breaker to handle
each situation for maintenance of any of the other breakers. This scheme is somewhat more costly
than the single bus scheme but is more reliable. The scheme can be easily expanded. The switching
procedure is complicated for maintenance of any circuit breaker. Failure of a breaker or fault on the
bus results in outage of complete substation.

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19.3 Double Bus Double Breaker
In this scheme there are two buses and two circuit breakers per circuit are used (See Fig-D).
In normal state both the buses are energised. Any circuit breaker can be removed for maintenance
without interruption of the corresponding circuit. Also the failure of one of the two buses does not
interrupt any circuit as all the circuits can be fed from the remaining bus and isolating the failed bus.
By shifting circuit from one bus to other the loading on the buses can be balanced.
The substation with this configuration requires twice as much equipments as single bus
scheme. This scheme has high reliability. But due to more equipments this scheme is costly and
requires more space. This scheme is usually used at EHV transmission substation or generating station
where high reliability is required.

19.4 Double Bus Single Breaker

This scheme is shown in Fig-E. This scheme has two buses. Each circuit has one breaker and
connected to both buses by isolators as shown. There is one tie breaker between two buses. The tie
breaker is normally closed. For the tie breaker in closed position the circuit can be connected to either
of the buses by closing the corresponding switch. It is clear that fault on one bus requires isolation of
the bus and the circuits are fed from the other bus.

From the figure you can guess that the configuration has some improvement over the single
bus system. This arrangement has more flexibility in operation than the single bus scheme. This
scheme is costlier and requires more space than the single bus scheme. Many EHV transmission
substations use this scheme with an additional transfer bus.

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19.5 Ring Bus
The Ring Bus configuration is shown in Fig-F. The breakers are so connected and forms a ring.
There are isolators on both sides of each breaker. Circuits terminate between the breakers. The
number of breakers is same as the numbers of circuits. Each of the circuits in ring bus system is fed
from both sides. Any of the breaker can be opened and isolated for maintenance without interrupting
any of the circuits. A fault on any of the circuit is isolated by tripping of two breakers on both sides of
the circuit. By tripping the two breakers only the faulted circuit is isolated and all other circuits
continue to operate in open ring state. This scheme has good operational flexibility and high reliability.
The main disadvantage is that when a fault happens and the ring is split and may result into two
isolated sections. Each of these two sections may not have the proper combination of source and load
circuits. To avoid this as far as possible the source and load circuits should be connected side by side
(see figure). The ring bus scheme can be expanded to accommodate more circuits. The ring bus
scheme is not suitable for more than 6 circuits (although possible). When expansion of the substation
is required to accommodate more circuits, the ring bus scheme can be easily expanded to One and
Half Breaker(See below and compare) scheme. The scheme is required to be planned properly to avoid
difficulties in future expansion.

19.6 Breaker and Half

The Breaker and Half scheme has two main buses (Fig G). Both the buses are normally
energised. Three breakers are connected between the buses. The circuits are terminated between the
breakers as shown. In this bus configuration for two circuits three numbers of breakers are required.
Hence it is called one and half scheme. It is something like, for controlling one circuit we require one
full and a half breakers. The middle breaker is shared by both the circuits. Like the ring bus scheme
here also each circuit is fed from both the buses.
Any of the breakers can be opened and removed for maintenance purposes without
interrupting supply to any of the circuits. Also one of the two buses can be removed for maintenance
without interruption of the service to any of the circuits. If fault happens on a bus it is isolated without
interruption of supply to any of the circuits. If the middle circuit breaker fails then the breakers
adjacent to the buses are tripped so interrupting both the circuits. But if a breaker adjacent to the bus
fails then the tripping of middle breaker does not interrupt power supply to circuit associated with
healthy breaker. Only the circuit associated with failed breaker is interrupted.
This configuration is very flexible and highly reliable. The relaying of the scheme is complicated
as the middle breaker is associated with both the circuits. This scheme is economical in comparison to
Double Bus Double Breaker scheme. This scheme also require more space in comparison to other
schemes to accommodate more equipments.
In one substation you can find two or more schemes implemented as per the requirement. I
most of the modern substations it is usual to add one transfer bus in most of the schemes
above. Which enhances the availability and maintainability of the system and operational flexibility

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20 CTS and PTS
20.1 Current Transformer

Current transformer (CT) is a transformer that is

used to produce an alternating current (AC) in its
secondary which is proportional to the AC current in its
primary. Current transformers are used in electronic
equipment and are widely used for metering and
protective relays in the electrical power industry. The
secondary of the CT is practically short circuited and should
not be made open. Connected in series with the supply
line.

Cost 220kv 3000-5000 dollars 500kv 5000-12000 dollars

1. The secondary of a C.T cannot be open circuited on any circumstance when it is under
service.
2. A CT may be considered as a series transformer.
3. The primary current in a C.T is independent of the secondary circuit conditions
(burden).
4. The primary winding of the CT is connected in series with the line carring the current
to be measured. Hence it carries of the full line current.
5. With the help of CT, a 5A ammeter can be used measure a high current like 200A.
20.2 Potential transformer

Potential transformer or voltage transformer gets used in electrical power system for
stepping down the system voltage to a safe value which can be fed to low ratings meters and
relays. The secondary of the PT is open-circuited and should not be short-circuited. Standard
secondary voltage ratings are 120volts and 70 volts.

Cost 220kv 1000 to 4000 dollars 500kv 2000 to 10,000 dollars

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 1. The secondary of a P.T can be open circuited without any damage being caused either
to the operator or the transformer.
2. P.T may be considered as a parallel transformer.
3. The primary current of a P.T depends upon the secondary circuit conditions (burden).
4. The primary winding P.T is connected across the line of voltage to be measured. Hence
the full line voltage is impressed across its terminal.
5. With the help of P.T, a 120V voltmeter can be used to measure very high voltages like
11KV.

21 3-phase transformer:
Cost: 20,000 to 100,000 dollars. 500KV transformer picture below

22 Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current, typically resulting from an overload
or short circuit.

22.1 Air:

This type of circuit breakers is that kind of circuit breaker which operates in air at
atmospheric pressure. After development of oil circuit breaker, the medium voltage air circuit
breaker (ACB) is replaced completely by oil circuit breaker in different countries. Operates
upto 15kV.

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22.2 Oil:

Mineral oil has better insulating property than air. In oil circuit breaker the fixed
contact and moving contact are immerged inside the insulating oil. Whenever there is a
separation of current carrying contacts in the oil, the arc in circuit breaker is initialized at the
moment of separation of contacts, and due to this arc the oil is vaporized and decomposed in
mostly hydrogen gas and ultimately creates a hydrogen bubble around the arc. This highly
compressed gas bubble around the arc prevents re-striking of the arc after current reaches
zero crossing of the cycle.

22.3 Vacuum:

The dielectric strength of vacuum is eight times greater than that of air and four times
greater than that of SF6 gas. The arc interruption takes place in a chamber with very low
pressure of around 10e-6. The vacuum circuit breaker is today recognized as most reliable
current interruption technology for medium voltage switchgear. It requires minimum
maintenance compared to other circuit breaker technologies. Uneconomical above 33kv Cost
of 11kV Vcb is around 1000-1200 dollars.

22.4 SF6:
The sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency to
absorb free electrons. The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high
pressure flow of sulphur arc. These circuit breakers have short arcing
time and dielectric strength of the gas hexafluoride (SF6) gas and an arc
is struck between them. The gas captures the conducting free electrons
in the arc to form relatively immobile negative ions. This loss of
conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation
strength to extinguish the is 2-3 times more than that of air and has
noiseless operation. The SF6 gas is identified as a greenhouse gas, safety
regulation are being introduced in many countries in order to prevent its
release into atmosphere. Cost of 220kv is from 15000-20000 dollars.

23 Guard ring:
Static Shielding is also termed as Guard Ring. This method uses a large metal ring surrounding
the bottom insulator unit and connected to the line. This ring is called a grading or guard ring which
gives additional capacitance which will cancel the charging current of ground capacitance. Guard ring
serves two purposes. Equalizing the voltage drop across each insulator unit and protects the insulator
against flash over.

24 Surge arrester:
A surge arrester is a device to protect electrical equipment from over-voltage transients
caused by external (lightning) or internal (switching) events. Lightning arrestor gives the protection

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against lightning only, as you can see these are installed on the top of the huge buildings. That lightning
arrestor is connected to a conductor which runs along the walls and goes into the earth. Whereas
Surge arrestor gives the protection against surge currents or voltages in a circuit. Surges can be
produced because of short circuit, lightning, sparking etc. Hence, a surge arrestor can also be used as
a lightning arrestor but a lightning arrestor can't be used as a surge arrestor in case of short circuits.
In short, lightning arrester is not supposed to conduct at power frequency. Whereas surge arrester is
supposed to conduct at power frequency.

25 Isolator:
Isolator is a mechanical switch which isolates a part of the circuit from the system when
required. An isolator switch is used to ensure that an electrical circuit is completely de-energized for
service or maintenance. Isolator is an off-load device while, circuit breaker is an on-load device. It is
operated manually.

Vertical isolators are used in high voltages and horizontal isolators for relatively low voltages.
Vertical isolators require less phase to phase separation as compare to horizontal isolators. Horizontal
isolators could be used in confined spaces where vertical spacing is less.

Cost: 1500-2500 dollars (220kv) 3000-5000 dollars (500kv)

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26 Shunt reactor:
The shunt reactor is the most cost efficient equipment for maintaining voltage stability on the
transmission lines. It does this by compensating for the capacitive charging of the high voltage AC-
lines and cables, which are the primary generators of reactive power. The reactor can be seen as the
voltage control device which is often connected directly to the high voltage lines. In series, they act as
limiting the short circuit current often installed in substations. Cost is around 10,000 to 15000 dollars.

Types of Relays

27 Overcurrent Relay:
A relay that operates or picks up when its current exceeds a predetermined value (setting
value) is called Overcurrent Relay.
For feeder protection, there would be more than one overcurrent relay to protect different sections
of the feeder. These overcurrent relays need to coordinate with each other such that the relay
nearest fault operates first. Use time, current and a combination of both time and current are three
ways to discriminate adjacent overcurrent relays.

The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible overcurrent, and current
surges. To achieve this, the time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays).
27.1 Principle
In an over current relay, there would be essentially a current coil. When normal current flows
through this coil, the magnetic effect generated by the coil is not sufficient to move the moving
element of the relay, as in this condition the restraining force is greater than deflecting force. But
when the current through the coil increased, the magnetic effect increases, and after certain level of
current, the deflecting force generated by the magnetic effect of the coil, crosses the restraining force,
as a result, the moving element starts moving to change the contact position in the relay.
27.2 Applications
27.2.1 Motor Protection:

 Used against overloads and short-circuits in stator windings of motor.

 Inverse time and instantaneous overcurrent phase and ground
 Overcurrent relays used for motors above 1000 kW.

27.2.2 Transformer Protection:

 Used only when the cost of overcurrent relays are not justified.
 Extensively also at power-transformer locations for external-fault back-up protection.

27.2.3 Line Protection:

 On some sub transmission lines where the cost of distance relaying cannot be
justified.
 Primary ground-fault protection on most transmission lines where distance relays are
used for phase faults.
 For ground back-up protection on most lines having pilot relaying for primary
protection.

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27.2.4 Distribution Protection:

 Overcurrent relaying is very well suited to distribution system protection for the
following reasons:
 It is basically simple and inexpensive.
 Very often the relays do not need to be directional and hence no PT supply is required.
 It is possible to use a set of two O/C relays for protection against inter-phase faults
and a separate Overcurrent relay for ground faults.

27.3 Price

1-12 Amp 275$ + shipment

1-10 Amp 11000PKR+ shipment

28 Directional Overcurrent Relay

Directional overcurrent relaying refers to relaying that can use the phase relationship of
voltage and current to determine direction to a fault. There are a variety of concepts by which this
task is done.

29 Overvoltage Relay
There are always a chance of suffering an electrical power system from abnormal over
voltages. These abnormal over voltages may be caused due to various reason such as, sudden
interruption of heavy load, lightening impulses, switching impulses etc. These over voltage stresses
may damage insulation of various equipment and insulators of the power system. Although, all the
over voltage stresses are not strong enough to damage insulation of system, but still these over
voltages also to be avoided to ensure the smooth operation of electrical power system. These all types
of destructive and non-destructive abnormal over voltages are eliminated from the system by means
of overvoltage protection.

29.1.1 Voltage Surge

The over voltage stresses applied upon the power system, are generally transient in nature.
Transient voltage or voltage surge is defined as sudden sizing of voltage to a high peak in very short
duration. The voltage surges are transient in nature, that means they exist for very short duration. The
main cause of these voltage surges in power system are due to lightning impulses and switching
impulses of the system. But over voltage in the power system may also be caused by, insulation failure,
arcing ground and resonance etc.

The voltage surges appear in the electrical power system due to switching surge, insulation
failure, arcing ground and resonance are not very large in magnitude. These over voltages hardly cross
the twice of the normal voltage level. Generally, proper insulation to the different equipment of power
system is sufficient to prevent any damage due to these over voltages. But over voltages occur in the
power system due to lightning is very high. If over voltage protection is not provided to the power
system, there may be high chance of severe damage. Hence all over voltage protection devices used
in power system mainly due to lightning surges.

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 Let us discuss different causes of over voltages one by one.

29.1.2 Switching Impulse or Switching Surge

When a no load transmission line is suddenly switched on, the voltage on the line becomes
twice of normal system voltage. This voltage is transient in nature. When a loaded line is suddenly
switched off or interrupted, voltage across the line also becomes high enough current chopping in
the system mainly during opening operation of air blast circuit breaker, causes over voltage in the
system. During insulation failure, a live conductor is suddenly earthed. This may also cause sudden
over voltage in the system. If emf wave produced by alternator is distorted, the trouble of resonance
may occur due to 5th or higher harmonics. Actually for frequencies of 5th or higher harmonics, a
critical situation in the system so appears, that inductive reactance of the system becomes just equal
to capacitive reactance of the system. As these both reactance cancel each other the system becomes
purely resistive. This phenomenon is called resonance and at resonance the system voltage may be
increased enough.

But all these above mentioned reasons create over voltages in the system which are not very
high in magnitude. But over voltage surges appear in the system due to lightning impulses are very
high in amplitude and highly destructive. The effect of lightning impulse hence must be avoided for
over voltage protection of power system.

29.2 Earthing Screen

Earthing screen is generally used over electrical sub-station. In this arrangement a net of GI
wire is mounted over the sub-station. The GI wires, used for earthing screen are properly grounded
through different sub-station structures. This network of grounded GI wire over electrical sub-station,
provides very low resistance path to the ground for lightning strokes.

This method of high voltage protection is very simple and economic but the main drawback
is, it cannot protect the system from travelling wave which may reach to the sub-station via different
feeders.

29.3 Overhead Earth Wire

This method of over voltage protection is similar as earthing screen. The only difference is, an
earthing screen is placed over an electrical sub-station, whereas, overhead earth wire is placed over
electrical transmission network. One or two stranded GI wires of suitable cross-section are placed over
the transmission conductors. These GI wires are properly grounded at each transmission tower. These
overhead ground wires or earth wire divert all the lightning strokes to the ground instead of allowing
them to strike directly on the transmission conductors.

29.4 Lightning Arrester

The previously discussed two methods, i.e. earthing screen and over-head earth wire are very
suitable for protecting an electrical power system from directed lightning strokes but system from
directed lightning strokes but these methods cannot provide any protection against high voltage
travelling wave which may propagate through the line to the equipment of the sub-station.

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 The lightning arrester is a devices which provides very low impedance path to the ground for
high voltage travelling waves.

The concept of a lightning arrester is very simple. This device behaves like a nonlinear
electrical resistance. The resistance decreases as voltage increases and vice-versa, after a certain level
of voltage.

The functions of a lightning arrester or surge dividers can be listed as below.

 Under normal voltage level, these devices withstand easily the system voltage as
electrical insulator and provide no conducting path to the system current.
 On occurrence of voltage surge in the system, these devices provide very low
impedance path for the excess charge of the surge to the ground.
 After conducting the charges of surge, to the ground, the voltage becomes to its
normal level. Then lightning arrester regains its insulation properly and prevents
regains its insulation property and prevents further conduction of current, to the
ground.

There are different types of lightning arresters used in power system, such as rod gap arrester,
horn gap arrester, multi-gap arrester, expulsion type LA, value type LA. In addition to these the most
commonly used lightning arrester for over voltage protection now-a-days gapless ZnO lightning
arrester is also used.

Provides protection to equipment that cannot handle excess voltages. Uses a normally closed
contact (N.C.). As long as the monitored voltage remains below the maximum voltage the equipment can
withstand (Pick-Up Setting), the relay remains de-energized and the N.C. contact remains closed, keeping
the load energized. If the operating voltage increases beyond the maximum rating of the equipment, the
relay energizes and the N.C. contact opens, turning off the load. When the voltage falls below the Drop-Out
Setting (hysteresis), the relay de-energizes and the N.C. contact re-closes, turning on the load.

30 Under voltage Relay

Provides protection to equipment that is required to operate above a certain minimum voltage. Uses
a normally open contact (N.O.). As long as the monitored voltage is above the minimum value required
(Pick-Up Setting), the relay will energize and the N.O. contact closes, turning on the load. If the voltage
drops below the Drop-out setting (the minimum voltage required minus the hysteresis), the relay will de-
energize and the N.O. contact will re-open, turning off the load.

An undervoltage relay is calibrated on decreasing voltage to close a set of contacts at

a specified voltage. The typical uses for this relay function include.
 Bus undervoltage protection. The undervoltage relay may either alarm or trip
voltage-sensitive loads, such as induction motors, whenever the line voltage drops
below the calibrated setting. A time-delay relay is normally used to enable it to ride
through momentary sags and thus prevent nuisance operation. For electromechanical
relays, to prevent the inertia (or over travel) of the time-delay relay from tripping the
circuit, an instantaneous undervoltage relay with its contacts connected in series with
the time undervoltage relay contacts may also be used to provide a fast reset time.
 Source transfer scheme. The undervoltage relay is used to initiate the transfer and,
when desired, retransfer of a load from its normal source to a standby or emergency

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 power source. Due to the possibility of a motor load, this relay has a time delay in
order to preclude out-of-synchronism closures.
 Permissive functions. An instantaneous undervoltage relay is used as a permissive
device to initiate or block certain action when the voltage falls below the dropout
setting.
 Backup functions. A time-undervoltage relay may be used as a backup device
following the failure of other devices to operate properly. For example, a long time-
delay relay may be used to trip an isolated generator and its auxiliaries if the primary
protective devices fail to do so.
 Timing applications. A time-undervoltage relay can be used to insert a precise amount
of time delay in an operating sequence. Certain protective functions, such as a
negative-sequence overvoltage relay, may require a time delay to prevent nuisance
tripping.

31 Buchholz Relay:
in the field of electric power distribution and transmission, a Buchholz relay is a
safety device mounted on some oil-filled power transformers and reactors, equipped with an external
overhead oil reservoir called a "conservator". The Buchholz relay is used as a protective device
sensitive to the effects of dielectric failure inside the equipment.

31.1 Principle:
The Buchholz relay working principle of is very simple. Buchholz relay function is based on
very simple mechanical phenomenon. It is mechanically actuated. Whenever there will be a minor
internal fault in the transformer such as an insulation faults between turns, break down of core of
transformer, core heating, the transformer insulating oil will be decomposed in different hydrocarbon
gases, CO2 and CO. The gases produced due to decomposition of transformer insulating oil will
accumulate in the upper part the Buchholz container which causes fall of oil level in it .Fall of oil level
means lowering the position of float and thereby tilting the mercury switch. The contacts of this
mercury switch are closed and an alarm circuit energized. Sometime due to oil leakage on the main
tank air bubbles may be accumulated in the upper part the Buchholz container which may also cause
fall of oil level in it and alarm circuit will be energized. By collecting the accumulated gases from the
gas release pockets on the top of the relay and by analyzing them one can predict the type of fault in
the transformer.
More severe types of faults, such as short circuit between phases or to earth and faults in the
tap changing equipment, are accompanied by a surge of oil which strikes the baffle plate and causes
the mercury switch of the lower element to close. This switch energized the trip circuit of the circuit
breakers associated with the transformer and immediately isolate the faulty transformer from the rest
of the electrical power system by inter tripping the circuit breakers associated with both LV and HV
sides of the transformer. This is how Buchholz relay functions.
31.2 Advantages:
 It is the simplest form of transformer protection.
 It detects the incipient faults at a stage much earlier than is possible with other forms of
protection.
31.3 Disadvantages:
 It can only be used with oil immersed transformers equipped withconservator tanks.
 The device can detect only faults below oil level in the transformer. Therefore,
separate protection is needed for connecting cables

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31.4 Protection Range:
 Falling oil level owing to leaks
 Short circuited core laminations
 Short – circuits between phases
 Broken-down core bolt insulation
 Earth faults
 Bad contacts
 Puncture of bushing insulators inside tank
 Overheating of some part of the windings

31.5 Rating:

Buchholz relay is a safety device which is generally used in large oil immersed
transformers (rated more than 500 kVA). It is a type of oil and gas actuated protection relay.

32 Reverse Power Relay:

A reverse power relay is a directional power relay that is used to monitor the power from a
generator running in parallel with another generator or the utility. The function of the reverse power
relay is to prevent a reverse power condition in which power flows from the bus bar into the
generator.

32.1 Principle:
Under normal condition when power is flowing as expected, the trip contacts of the relay are open,
and the disc is against a stop. If a reverse power starts to flow, the disc rotates in the opposite
direction, moves away from the stop and towards the trip contacts that activates the trip circuit. Most
of the reverse power relays have adjustable settings to allow the customer do the settings according
to the installed equipment. The trip point is usually adjustable to between 2 and 20 percent of the
input current while the time delay is adjustable from 0 to 20 seconds. A 5 second time delay is often
used to avoid tripping the circuit during synchronization. In most practical applications, the reverse
power settings are between 8 to 15 percent for diesel engines and between 2 and 6 percent for turbine
power movers.
32.2 Selection of Reverse Power Relay:

Selection of reverse power relay depends on following factors

32.2.1 Sensitivity of the Reverse power relay

This specifies the power setting at which the tripping mechanism should activate. When
selecting the relay, it is important to consider the type of system being protected and ensure the relay
covers this range. The sensitivity varies from one application to the other and diesel engines require a
setting of between 8 and 15 percent, while the turbine power movers require a lower setting of
between 2 and 6 percent.

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 32.2.2 Time delay in reverse power relays

This is the time it takes the relay to disconnect the power once the preset condition is met.
This should be adjustable to allow the selection of the optimum point and prevent false tripping. Some
relays are instantaneous whiles others have inbuilt time delay mechanisms. However, the time delay
option can be incorporated into the instantaneous device.

32.2.3 Number of Phases

This depends on the type of the generator, and power system. There are both single phase
and three phase reverse power relays to suit any type of an installation. The three phase relay are
available either as 3 phase 4 wire relays, or a 3 phase 3 wire relays.

32.2.4 Power supply for the reverse power relay

The relay operates to activate a protection system such as a circuit breaker. For this to happen,
it makes or breaks the contacts depending on whether they are normally open or closed. The relays
can operate in either de-energize or energize mode. Either way, it requires power to supply the coils.
The self powered relays have the advantage of being simpler and requiring no auxiliary power supply
which can lead to malfunction when unavailable or low in the case of batteries.

32.2.5 Nominal voltage and current

The relay should be able to operate with the system voltage and current. Some of the typical
nominal voltage ratings are; 110, 230, 277, 380, 415 and 480 volts, and 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 A or 5 A
nominal current.

32.2.6 Frequency of operation

Determine the frequency of the system to be protected. Typical frequencies are 50, 60 and
400Hz.

32.2.7 Operational environment

The device should be able to operate in a wide variety of temperatures typically between 0
and 60 degrees Celsius. In addition, the relay should be able to withstand storage temperatures of
between 10 and 70 degrees Celsius.

32.2.8 Standards

Must conform to international standards such as- IEC 144 / BS 5420 / VDE/VDI 0435 / IEC 947 / EN60947

32.3 Advantages of reverse power relay

 Prevents power from flowing in the reverse direction and damaging the generator stator
 Prevents damage to the prime mover
 Prevents fire or explosions that may be caused by unburned fuel in the generator.

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 33 Frequency Relays

Relay which functions at a predetermined value of frequency; may be an over-

frequency relay, an under-frequency relay,or a combination of both.
33.1 Principle
It actuates when the frequency decreases from a certain defined limit e.g. to 55 hertz for 60-
hertz operation and 46 hertz for 50-hertz operation. Upon actuation, contacts within the relay close
to signal the annunciators and open to de-energize the generator breaker (contactor), resulting in a
display of the fault condition and removal of the load from the generator.

33.2 APPLICATIONS
1) Protection for generators & captive power plants.
2) Over frequency relay applied as back-up protection to mechanical over-speed devices to avoid
damages to primemover.
3) Under frequency relay applied to protect field windings from excessive current or voltage regulator
from over load.
4) Servo controlled and invertors.
5) Used in monitoring generator or network frequency.

Rating Of ABB Relay (RXFK 2H)

Rated voltage Ur 100/200 V

Set voltage Us (0,1-0,8) x Ur (in steps of 0,1)
Setting range Us Ur = 100 V 10-80 V in step of 10 V
Setting range Us Ur = 200 V 20-160 V in step of 20 V
Effective voltage range U (1-4) x Us
 Voltage block U < Us
 Rated frequency fr
 Operate frequency range 50/60 Hz 40-70 Hz
 Power consumption at Ur = 100 V U = lowest Us U = highest Us 2 mVA 210 mVA
 Overload capacity continuously during 10 s 3,5 x Ur (Max. 500 V AC for COMBIFLEX)
4,0 x Ur (Max. 500 V AC for COMBIFLX)

34 Voltage levels in Pakistan:

The distribution level voltage in Pakistan is 11kV. In Pakistan the transmission level is 132kV,
220kV and 500kV.

35 Vector groups in Pakistan:

The three phase transformer windings can be connected several ways. Based on the windings’
connection, the vector group of the transformer is determined. The vector group indicates the phase

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difference between the primary and secondary sides, introduced due to that particular configuration
of transformer windings connection. Dyn11 is used in distribution systems.

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