Chapter 4: Power Series

Kavikumar Jacob

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

Malaysia

December 6, 2020
Outline

Convergence Test

Power Series
Basics: Polynomial

Definition
A polynomial in the variable x is an expression of the form
n
X
ai xi = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an−1 xn−1 + an xn
i=0

where the coefficients ai are real numbers and n is a natural number.

The degree of the polynomial is the highest k for which xk appears
with non-zero coefficient.
I The point is that a polynomial can have a constant term (which
may be zero) and a finite number of terms involving particular
positive powers of x that have numbers as coefficients.
I A polynomial may be regarded as a function of x, and polyno-
mials are functions of a special type.
Example
1. x3 + 5x2 is a polynomial of degree 3 (also called cubic).
2. 2 + 2x + 2x2 + 2x7 is a polynomial of degree 7.
3
3. x4 + x3 + 2 is not a polynomial, because it involves a negative
x
power of x.
Series

Definition
A series is an extended sum of terms, written as
n
X
Sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an = ak
k=1

where a1 , a2 , . . . , an are the terms of the series.

I A series is convergent if, as n gets larger and larger, Sn goes
to some finite number.
I If Sn does not converge, and Sn goes to ∞, then the series is
said to be divergent.
Series

Example
1
I We write the decimal expansion of as the repeating decimal
3
1
= 0.333333333333
3
where 3 in this expansion go on forever and ever.
I An alternative way to write

1
= 0.3 + 0.03 + 0.003 + · · ·
3
= 3(0.1) + 3(0.1)2 + 3(0.1)3 + · · ·
∞
X
3(0.1)n −→ infinite sereis
n=1
Convergence Test

How to determine the series is converges or diverges?

→ Convergence Test
Geometric and p-Series
The two series that are the easiest to test are geometric series and
p-series.
Definition
A geometric series is of the form
∞
X
Sn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn = arn
n=1

and the sum for geometric series,

a[rn − 1] a[1 − rn ]
Sn = , r > 1 or Sn = , r < 1.
r−1 1−r

Definition ∞
X 1
p-series is generally in the form .
np
n=1
Geometric Series

I A geometric series is a series in which there is a constant ration

between successive terms
I For example,
I 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + · · · each successive term is the previous term
multiplied by 2.
1 1 1 1
I + + + + · · · each successive term is the previous
2 4 16 256
term squared.
∞
X a
I If |r| < 1, then the geometric series converge with = .
1−r
r=1
I If |r| > 1, then the geometric serie diverge.
Problem ∞
X 3
Determine whether the series converge. If converge find
3n+1
n=1
the summation.
Solution

∞ ∞ ∞  
X 3 X 3 3 X 1 1 1 1 1
= = 2 = + + + ···
3n+1 3n · 32 3 3n 3 3 32 33
n=1 n=1 n=1

1
Since r = < 1, the series will converge.
3
The summation,
∞ ∞ ∞  n
X 1 X 1 X 1
S=3 =3 =
3n+1 3n · 3 3
n=1 n=1 n=1
1
1 1 1 3 1
= + 2 + 3 + ··· = 1 =
3 3 3 1− 3
2
Problem ∞
X
Determine whether the series 5.3n+1 .21−2n converge. If con-
n=2
verge find the summation.
Solution

∞ ∞ ∞
X X X 30 · 3n
5.3n+1 .21−2n = 5.3.3n .2.2−2n =
22n
n=2 n=2 n=2
∞ ∞  n
X 30 · 3n X 3
= = 30
4n 4
n=2 n=2

3
Since r = < 1, the series will converge.
4
The summation,
∞  n
X 3 135/2
S= 30 = = 170
n=2
4 1 − 34
Problem ∞
X
Determine whether the series 5.3n+1 .2−n converge. If converge
n=2
find the summation.

Solution

∞ ∞ ∞  n
X
n+1 −n
X
n −n
X 3
5.3 .2 = 5.3.3 .2 = 15
2
n=2 n=2 n=2

3
Since r = > 1, the series will diverge.
2
Tutorial

Determine whether the series converge. If converge find the sum-

mation
∞
X 5
(a)
3n+1
n=1
∞
X 3n + 5 n
(b)
7n
n=1
X∞
(c) 5−n 3−n+1
n=1
∞
X 3n + 1
(d)
2n+1
n=1
p-series
∞
X 1 1 1
I Given a series = 1 + p + p + ···.
n p 2 3
n=1
I This series is said to be convergent if p > 1.
I This series is said to be divergent if p ≤ 1.

Example
∞
X 1
I , here, p = 3, so p > 1. Therefore this series converge.
n3
n=1
∞
X 1
I √ , here, p = 1/2, so p < 1. Therefore this series diverge.
n=1
n

Definition ∞
X 1
If p = 1, that is known as Harmonic series is divergent.
n
n=1
Tutorial

Determine whether the series convergent or divergent.

∞
X 1
(a) 3
n=1 n 2
∞
X 5
(b) n− 2
n=1
∞
X 1
(c) √ 7
n=1
( n)
∞
X
(d) n−1
n=1
Alternating Series
The series that contain both positive and negative term is called
alternating series. The general form:
∞
X
(−1)n+1 an = a1 − a2 + a3 · · ·
n=1

or
∞
X
(−1)n an = −a1 + a2 − a3 · · ·
n=1

An alternating series is converges is the following two conditions are

satisfied:
(a) a1 > a2 > a3 > a4 · · ·
(b) lim an = 0
n→+∞
If an alternating serie violatees condition (b), the series must diverge
by a divergence test but if condition (b) is satisfied, but (a) is not,
the series can either be converge or diverge (use other test).
Problem ∞
X (−1)n
Determine whether the series converge or not.
n
n=1

Solution
The series is alternating and
1
lim bn = lim = 0.
n→+∞ n→+∞ n

Therefore, the series converges.

Problem ∞
X (−1)n n
Determine whether the series converge or not.
4n + 1
n=1

Solution
The series is alternating but
n 1
lim bn = lim = .
n→+∞ n→+∞ 4n + 1 4
Therefore, the series diverges.
Tutorial

Determine whether the series convergent or divergent.

∞
X (−1)n−1
(a) (Ans: convergent)
7 + 2n
n=1
∞
X (−1)n+3
(b) (Ans: convergent)
n3 + 4n + 1
n=0
∞
X 1
(c) (Ans: convergent)
(−1)n (2n + 3n )
n=0
∞
X (−1)n+6 n
(d) (Ans: convergent)
n2 + 9
n=0
∞
X (−1)n+2 (1 − n)
(e) (Ans: convergent)
3n − n2
n=4
Divergent Test

Convergence test is to find the sum of a series by finding a closed

form for the nth partial sum and taking its limit. Sometimes it is
difficult to do it, hence we have one possible alternative method is
to prove that the series converges, and then approximate the sum
by partial sum with sufficiently many terms to achieve the desired
degree of accuracy.
Divergent Test
P
if lim an 6= 0 then an will diverge.
n→∞
Problem ∞
X 4n2 − n3
Determine whether the series converge or not.
10 + 2n3
n=1

Solution
4n2 − n3 1
lim 3
= − 6= 0.
n→∞ 10 + 2n 2
The limit of the series terms isn’t zero and so by the Divergence
Test the series diverges.
Therefore, the series diverges.
Problem ∞
X n2
Determine whether the series converge or not.
n2 + 3n + 2
n=1

Solution

n2
n2 n2
lim 2
= lim n2 3n 2
n→∞ n + 3n + 2 n→∞ + +
n2 n2 n2
1
= lim
1 + + n22
n→∞ 3
n
1
= =1=6 0.
1+0+0
The limit of the series terms isn’t zero and so by the Divergence
Test the series diverges.
Therefore, the series diverges.
Tutorial

Determine whether the series convergent or divergent.

∞
X n2
(a) (Ans: diverge)
n2 + n
n=1
∞
X n2
(b) (Ans: diverge)
n2 + 5n + 4
n=1
∞
X 1
(c) (Ans: diverge)
(n + 2)(n + 3)
n=1
∞
X 1
(d) (Ans: diverge)
n2 + 3n + 2
n=1
∞
X 1
(e) n n (Ans: diverge)
n=1
Comparison Test

Comparison Test X X
Suppose that we have two series an and bn with an , bn ≥ 0
for all n and an ≤ bn for all n. Then
X X
(a) If bn is convergent then so is an .
X X
(b) If an is divergent then so is bn .
Problem ∞
X 1
Determine whether the series converge or not.
3 + 3n
n=1

Solution

We know that 3n + 3 > 3n

1 1
> n
3n 3 +3
X 1 X 1
n
>
3 3n + 3
X 1 1 X 1
is geometric series with r = < 1, converge.
3n 3 3n
∞
X 1
Therefore the series converge.
3 + 3n
n=1
Problem ∞
X 1
Determine whether the series √ converge or not.
n=1
n−1

Solution

√ √
We know that n > n − 1
1 1
√ >√
n−1 n
X 1 X 1
√ > √
n−1 n

X 1 ∞
X 1 1 X 1
√ = 1 is p-series with p = < 1, √ diverge.
n n=1 n 2 2 n
∞
X 1
Therefore the series √ diverge.
n=1
n −1
Problem ∞
X n
Determine whether the series converge or not.
n2 − cos2 n
n=1

Solution
Since the cosine term in the denominator doesn’t get too large we
can assume that the series terms will behave like,
n 1
2
=
n n
which as a series, will diverge. Therefore
n n 1
> 2 =
n2 − cos2 n n n
X1 X1
is harmonic series, hence diverge.
n n
∞
X n
Therefore the series diverge.
n − cos2 n
2
n=1
Tutorial

Determine whether the series convergent or divergent.

∞
X 1
(a) 3/2
(Ans: converge)
n=1
n +2
∞
X 1
(b) √ 5 (Ans: diverge)
n=1
n− 6
∞
X 1
(c) (Ans: converge)
n7 + n5
n=1
∞
X 1
(d) (Ans: converge)
5n +4
n=1
Absolute Convergence

Definition X X
I A series an is called absolutely convergent if |an | is
convergent.
X X
I If an is convergent and |an | is divergent we call the
series conditionally convergent.
Problem ∞
X (−1)n
Determine whether the series absolute convergent, con-
n
n=1
ditionally convergent or divergent.

Solution
This is the alternating harmonic series and we saw in the last section
that it is a convergent series so we don’t need to check that here.
So, let’s see if it is an absolutely convergent series. To do this we’ll
need to check the convergence of.
∞  ∞
 (−1)n  X

X
= 1

 n  .
n
n=1 n=1

This is the harmonic series and we know from the integral test sec-
tion that it is divergent.
Therefore, this series is not absolutely convergent. It is however
conditionally convergent since the series itself does converge.
Problem ∞
X (−1)n+2
Determine whether the series absolute convergent,
n2
n=1
conditionally convergent or divergent.

Solution
In this case let’s just check absolute convergence first since if it’s
absolutely convergent we won’t need to bother checking convergence
as we will get that for free.
∞  ∞
 (−1)n+2  X

X
= 1

 n2  .
n2
n=1 n=1

This series is convergent by the p-series test and so the series is

absolute convergent. Note that this does say as well that it’s a
convergent series.
Problem ∞
X sin n
Determine whether the series absolute convergent, condi-
n3
n=1
tionally convergent or divergent.
Solution
In this part we need to be a little careful. First, this is NOT an alternating
series and so we can’t use any tools from that section.
What we’ll do here is check for absolute convergence first again since
that will also give convergence. This means that we need to check the
convergence of the following series.
∞   ∞
X  sin n  X
= | sin n|

 n3  .
n=1 n=1
n3

To do this we will need to note that −1 ≤ sin n ≤ 1 ⇒ | sin n| ≤ 1

∞
| sin n| 1 X 1
and so we have 3
≤ 3
. Now we know that converges by the
n n n=1
n3
∞
X | sin n|
p-series test and so by the Comparison Test we also know that
n=1
n3
converges. Therefore, the original series is absolutely convergent.
Tutorial

Determine whether the series convergent or divergent.

∞
X (−1)n+1
(a) (Ans: absolutely convergent)
n3 + 1
n=2
∞
X (−1)n−3
(b) √ (Ans: conditionally convergent)
n=1
n
∞
X (−1)n+1 (n + 1)
(c) (Ans: absolutely convergent)
n3 + 1
n=1
∞
X cos(nπ)
(d)
n4
n=1
Ratio Test

X
Suppose we have the series an . Define
 
 an+1 
L = lim 
 .
n→∞ an 

Then
1. if L < 1 the series is absolutely convergent (and hence conver-
gent).
2. if L > 1 the series is divergent.
3. if L = 1 the series may be divergent, conditionally convergent,
or absolutely convergent.
Problem ∞
X n
Determine whether the series convergent.
en
n=1

Solution

 n+1 
 n + 1 en 
   
 an+1   en+1 
lim   = lim  n  = lim  n+1
   
n→∞  an  n→∞ n n→∞ e n 
 e
 n + 1 en 
  
n + 1 1
= lim  n
  = lim  
n→∞ e .e n  n→∞ n e
  
 1 1 
t = lim  1 +
n→∞ n e
1 1
= 1 · = < 1.
e e
⇒ The series converge.
Problem ∞
X 1
Determine whether the series convergent.
n!
n=1

Solution

   1   
 an+1   (n+1)!   1 n! 
lim   = lim  1  = lim 
  
n→∞  an  n→∞ n→∞ (n + 1)n! 1 
 n! 
 1 
= lim   = 0 < 1.
n→∞ n + 1 

⇒ The series converge.

Problem ∞
X 31−2n
Determine whether the series convergent.
n2 + 1
n=1

Solution

 31−2(n+1) n2 + 1 
   
 an+1 
lim   = lim  
n→∞  an  n→∞ (n + 1)2 + 1 31−2n 
 3−1−2n n2 + 1 
 
= lim  
n→∞ (n + 1)2 + 1 31−2n 

n2 + 1 
 
 1
= lim 
n→∞ (n + 1)2 + 1 32 
n2 + 1
 
  1
= lim   = < 1.
n→∞ 9[(n + 1)2 + 1]  9

⇒ The series converge.

Tutorial

Determine whether the series convergent or divergent.

∞ n
X e
(a) (Ans: diverge)
n
n=1
∞
X n
(b) (Ans: converge)
3n
n=1
∞
X (2n)!
(c) (Ans: diverge)
3n
n=1
∞
X 2n
(d) (Ans: converge)
n!
n=1
Root Test

X
Suppose we have the series an . Define
p 1
n
L = lim |an | = lim |an | n .
n→∞ n→∞

Then
1. if L < 1 the series is absolutely convergent (and hence conver-
gent).
2. if L > 1 the series is divergent.
3. if L = 1 the series may be divergent, conditionally convergent,
or absolutely convergent.
Problem ∞
X nn
Determine whether the series convergent.
31+2n
n=1

Solution

 n 1
 n n n ∞
L = lim  1+2n  = lim 1 = = ∞ > 1.
n→∞ 3 n→∞ 3 n
+2 32

⇒ The series diverge.

Problem ∞  n
X 5n − 3n3
Determine whether the series convergent.
7n3 + 2
n=1

Solution

 1
 5n − 3n3 n  n  5n − 3n3   −3  3
    
L = lim   = lim   =   = < 1.
n→∞ 7n3 + 2  n→∞  7n3 + 2   7  7

⇒ The series converges absolutely and hence converges.

Problem ∞ 
(−12)n n
X 
Determine whether the series convergent.
n
n=1

Solution

 1
 (−12)n n  n

L = lim   = lim 121 = 12 = 12 > 1.
n→∞ n  n→∞ n n 1

⇒ The series diverge.

Tutorial

Determine whether the series convergent or divergent.

∞ 
3n + 1 2n
X 
(a) (Ans: diverge)
4 − 2n
n=1
∞
X n1−3n
(b) (Ans: converge)
42n
n=1
∞
X (−5)1+2n
(c) (Ans: converges)
25n−3
n=1
Power Series
Definition
A power series is a series of the form
∞
X
cn (x − a)n ,
n=0

where the constants cn , for n ≥ 0, are called the coefficients and

the number a is called the center.
If a = 0, we have
Definition
A power series is a series of the form
∞
X
cn xn = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + · · ·
n=0

where x is a variable, the cn ’s are constants called the coefficients

of the series.
Convergence of Power Series

When a value is substituted for the variable x, the power series re-
duces to a series of constant terms that can then be tested for con-
vergence, using any of the tests that we have previously discussed.
The result of such a test, convergence or divergence, depends on x.
Example
∞
X xn
Consider the power series .
n!
n=0
Applying the Ratio Test, for any fixed x, yields
 n+1   
 x n!   x 
lim  = lim 
  = 0.
n→∞  (n + 1)! xn  n→∞ n + 1 

since no matter how large |x| is, eventually n will exceed it. There-
fore, this power series is absolutely convergent for all x.
Problem ∞
X
Determine the convergence of following power series nn xn .
n=0

Solution ∞ ∞
X X
n n
The power series n x = (nx)n . diverges when x 6= 0,
n=0 n=0
because, by the Ratio Test,
 ((n + 1)x)n+1  1 n
    
 
lim 

n
 = lim  1 +
 (n+1)x = lim |e(n+1)x| = ∞
n→∞ (nx)  n→∞ n

On the other hand, if x = 0. then all the terms vanish except for
n = 0, the series converges to 1.
Problem ∞
X xn
Determine the convergence of following power series .
n
n=1

Solution
Applying the Ratio Test,
 n+1 
x n 
lim  = |x|.
n→∞  n + 1 xn 

It follows that the power series converges when |x| < 1, and diverges
when |x| > 1. When x = 1, the series diverges, because it is the
harmonic series, but when x = −1, it converge, by the Alternating
Series Test.
Radius and Interval of Convergence
∞
X
I If any x value is substitute in a power series cn xn .
n=0
I The resulting series may either converge or diverge.
I This will lead to the problem of determining the value of x that
will make the power series converges.
I Step of finding radius and interval of convergence: Given the
X∞
power series cn xn .
n=0
Step 1 Apply ratio test for absolute convergence. Will get the open
interval of convergence x ∈ (−a, a),
Step 2 Investigate the convergence at point x = −a and x = a by
substitute these value into the power series and then use any
suitable convergence test.
Step 3 State radius of convergence.
Problem
Determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence for
the following power series.
∞
X (−1)n n
(x + 3)n .
4n
n=1

Solution
We know that, the given power series will converge for x = −3. To
determine for other points of x, we can use any convergence test.
For instance, we use ratio or root test,
 (−1)n+1 (n + 1)(x + 3)n+1 n
 
4 
L = lim  n+1 n 3

n→∞ 4 (−1) (n)(x + 3) 
 
 −(n + 1)(x + 3) 
= lim    = |x + 3| lim n + 1
n→∞ 4 n  n→∞ 4n
1
= |x + 3|
4
So, by ratio test, we have, if L < 1
1
|x + 3| < 1 ⇒ |x + 3| < 4 series converges
4
if L > 1,
1
|x + 3| > 1 ⇒ |x + 3| > 4 series diverges
4
if L = 1, we will get the radius of convergence for this power series
as follows
|x + 3| = 4
Hence R = 4. Now, let’s get the interval of convergence,

−4 < x + 3 < 4 ⇒ −7 < x < 1

Determine the convergence as follows for L = 1
When x = −7
∞ ∞ ∞
X (−1)n n X (−1)n n X
(−4)n = (−1)n 4n = (−1)n (−1)n n
4n 4n
n=1 n=1 n=1
X∞
= n
n=1

This series is divergent.

When x = 1
∞ ∞
X (−1)n n X
(4)n = (−1)n n
4n
n=1 n=1

This series is divergent.

So, in this case the power series will not converge for either endpoint.
The interval of convergence is then,

−7 < x < 1
Problem
Determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence for
the following power series.
∞
X 2n
(4x − 8)n .
n
n=1

Solution
We know that, the given power series will converge for x = 2. To
determine for other points of x, we can use any convergence test.
For instance, we use ratio or root test,
 n+1
(4x − 8)n+1

2 n 
L = lim   
n→∞ n+1 2n (4x − 8)n 
 
 2n(4x − 8) 
= lim   = |4x − 8| lim 2n
n→∞ n+1  n→∞ n + 1

= 2|4x − 8|
So, by ratio test, we have, if L < 1
1
2|4x − 8| < 1 ⇒ |x − 2| < series converges
8
if L > 1,
1
2|4x − 8| > 1 ⇒ |x − 2| > series diverges
8
if L = 1, we will get the radius of convergence for this power series
as follows
1
2|4x − 8| = 1 ⇒ |x − 2| =
8
1
Hence R = . Now, let’s get the interval of convergence,
8
1 1 15 17
− <x+3< ⇒ <x<
8 8 8 8
Determine the convergence as follows for L = 1
15
When x =
8
∞
X 2n 15 n X ∞  n X ∞ ∞
2n 2n (−1)n X (−1)n

1
−8 = − = =
n 2 n 2 n 2n n
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

This is the alternating harmonic series and we know that it con-

verges.
17
When x =
8
∞ n X ∞ ∞ ∞
n 2n 1 n X 2n 1
X2   
17 X 1
−8 = = n
=
n 2 n 2 n 2 n
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

This is the harmonic series and we know that it diverges.

So, the power series converges for one of the endpoints, but not the
other. This will often happen so don’t get excited about it when it
does. The interval of convergence for this power series is then,
15 17
≤x<
8 8
Tutorial

Determine whether the series convergent or divergent.

X∞
(a) n!(2x + 1)n (Ans: R = 0)
n=0
∞
X (x − 6)n
(b) (Ans: R = ∞)
nn
n=1
∞
X x2n √ √ √
(c) n
(Ans: R = 3, − 3 < x < 3)
(−3)
n=1
∞
X n2n+1
(d) (2x + 17)n (Ans: R = 0)
43n
n=0
∞
X 6n 1 5 7
(e) (4x − 1)n−1 (Ans: R = , ≤x< )
n 24 24 24
n=1