PSD CEU 201july13

Water
Treatment
CEU 201
Continuing Education from the
American Society of Plumbing Engineers
July 2013
ASPE.ORG/ReadLearnEarn
READ, LEARN, EARN
Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education
article. Using information from other materials may result in a wrong answer.
Many types of possible pathogenic organisms can be

found in source water. These include dissolved gases, Table 10-1 Chemical Names, Common Names, and Formulas
suspended matter, undesirable minerals, pollutants, Chemical Name Common Name Formula
and organic matter. These substances can be separated Bicarbonate (ion) — HCO–3
into two general categories: chemical and biological. Calcium (metal) — Ca2+
They generally require different methods of remedia- Calcium bicarbonate — Ca(HCO 3)2
tion. No single filtration or treatment process satisfies Calcium carbonate Chalk, limestone, marble CaCO 3
all water-conditioning requirements. Calcium hypochlorite Bleaching powder, chloride of lime Ca(ClO)2
Surface water may contain more of these con- Chlorine (gas) — Cl2
Calcium sulfate — CaSO4
taminants than groundwater, but groundwater, while
Calcium sulfate Plaster of paris CaSO4.½H2O
likely to contain less pathogens than surface water,
Calcium sulfate Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
may contain dissolved minerals and have undesirable Carbon Graphite C
tastes and odors. Water provided by public and private Carbonate (ion) — CO32-
utilities is regarded to be potable, or adequately pure Carbon dioxide — CO2
for human consumption so long as it meets the stan- Ferric oxide Burat ochre Fe2O3
dards of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Ferruous carbonate — FeCO3
Safe Drinking Water Act and the local health official. Ferrous oxide — FeO
However, such water still might contain some levels Hydrochloric acid Muriatic acid HCl
of pathogens and other undesirable components. Even Hydrogen (ion) — H+
if the water quality would not cause a specific health Hydrogen (gas) — H2
threat to the general public, it may not be suitable for Hydrogen sulfide — H 2S
buildings such as hospitals and nursing homes that Iron (ferric ion) — Fe 3+
house populations that may be vulnerable. Moreover, Iron (ferrous ion) — Fe2+
Magnesium bicarbonate — Mg(HCO3)2
it may not be pure enough for certain industrial, medi-
Magnesium carbonate Magnesite MgCO3
cal, or scientific purposes.
Magnesium oxide Magnesia MgO
Impure water damages piping and equipment by Magnesium sulfate — MgSO4
scoring, scaling, and corroding. Under certain condi- Magnesium sulfate Epsom salt MgSO4.7H2O
tions, water containing particles in suspension erodes Manganese (metal) — Mn
the piping and scores moving parts. Water containing Methane Marsh gas CH4
dissolved acidic chemicals in sufficient quantities Nitrogen (gas) — N2
dissolves the metal surfaces with which it comes Oxygen (gas) — O2
in contact. Pitted pipe and tank walls are common Potassium (metal) — K
manifestations of the phenomenon called corrosion. Potassium permanganate Permanganate of potash KMnO4
Scaling occurs when calcium or magnesium com- Sodium (metal) — Na
pounds in the water (in a condition commonly known Sodium bicarbonate Baking soda, bicarbonate of soda NaHCO 3
as water hardness) become separated from the water Sodium carbonate Soda ash Na 2CO 3
and adhere to the piping and equipment surfaces. This Sodium carbonate Sal soda Na2CO3.10H2O
Sodium chloride Salt NaCl
separation is usually induced by a rise in temperature
Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda, lye NaOH
because these minerals become less soluble as the
Sodium sulfate Glauber’s salt Na2SO4.10H2O
temperature increases. In addition to restricting flow, Sulfate (ion) — SO42–
scaling damages heat-transfer surfaces by decreasing Sulfuric acid Oil of vitrol H2SO4
heat-exchange capabilities. The result of this condition Water — H2O
is the overheating of tubes, followed by failures and
equipment damage.
by adding chemicals to the water as it enters the equipment
Changing the chemical composition of the water by means
is referred to as internal treatment. Economic considerations
of mechanical devices (filters, softeners, demineralizers, de-
usually govern the choice between the two methods. Some-
ionizers, and reverse osmosis) is called external treatment
times it is necessary to apply more than one technology. For
because such treatment is outside the equipment into which
instance, a water softener may be required to treat domestic
the water flows. Neutralizing the objectionable constituents
Reprinted from Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 4. © 2012, American Society of Plumbing Engineers.
2 Read, Learn, Earn JULY 2013

water, but a reverse osmosis system may be needed before Distilled Water
the water is sent to HVAC or medical equipment. Another Distilled water also meets the requirements of the local
example is the need for an iron prefilter to remove large iron health department as well as the Safe Drinking Water Act.
particles to protect a reverse osmosis membrane, which would Distilling water involves removing the impurities by boiling
be damaged by the iron particles. and collecting the condensing steam into a clean container.
For reference, the chemical compounds commonly found Distilled water has many applications, and distillation is
in water treatment technologies are tabulated in Table 10- commonly the process used to provide bottled water for
1. Table 10-2 identifies solutions to listed impurities and consumption.
constituents found in water.
Purified Water
Basic Water Types Purified water meets the requirements of the local health
Following are the basic types of water. Keep in mind that department as well as the Safe Drinking Water Act. It is
these terms often have multiple meanings depending on the mechanically processed for laboratory or potable water use.
context or the discipline being used. Pure water is a relative term used to describe water mostly
free from particulate matter and dissolved gases that may exist
Raw Water in the potable water supply. Pure water is generally required in
Raw water, or natural water, is found in the environment. pharmacies, central supply rooms, laboratories, and laboratory
Natural water is rainwater, groundwater, well water, surface glassware-washing facilities. The two basic types of pure water
water, or water in ponds, lakes, streams, etc. The composition are high-purity water, which is free from minerals, dissolved
of raw water varies. Often raw water contains significant gases, and most particulate matter, and biopure water, which
contaminants in dissolved form such as particles, ions, and is free from particulate matter, minerals, bacteria, pyrogens,
organisms. organic matter, and most dissolved gases.
Potable Water Water purity is most easily measured as specific resistance
Potable water as defined in the International Plumbing Code in ohm-centimeters (Ω-cm) or expressed as parts per million
is water free from impurities present in amounts sufficient to of ionized salt (NaCl). The theoretical maximum specific
cause disease or harmful physiological effects and conform- resistance of pure water is 18.3 megaohm-centimeters (MΩ-
ing to the bacteriological and chemical quality requirements cm) at 25°C, a purity that is nearly impossible to produce,
of the public health authority having jurisdiction. The U.S. store, and distribute. It is important to note that the specific
EPA Safe Drinking Water Act defines the requirements resistance of water is indicative only of the mineral content
for water to be classified as potable. Potable water is often and in no way indicates the level of bacterial, pyrogenic, or
filtered, chlorinated, and/or otherwise treated to meet these organic contamination.
standards for drinking water. The four basic methods of producing pure water are dis-
tillation, demineralization, reverse osmosis, and filtration.
Process Wastewater Depending on the type of pure water required, one or more
Cooling tower water is classified as a process wastewater. of the methods will be needed. Under certain conditions, a
Cooling tower water can scale and corrode. When left un- combination of methods may be required. These processes
treated, cooling tower water can encourage bacteria growth are explained in detail later in the chapter.
and the subsequent health risks. As with many process
wastewaters, cooling tower water is monitored and controlled Water Conditions and
for pH, algae, and total dissolved solids. Recommended Treatments
Soft and Hard Water Turbidity
Soft water contains less than 60 parts per million (ppm) of Turbidity is caused by suspended insoluble matter, includ-
dissolved calcium or magnesium. ing coarse particles that settle rapidly in standing water.
Hard water contains dissolved minerals such as calcium Amounts range from almost zero in most groundwater and
or magnesium in varying levels. As defined by the U.S. Geo- some surface supplies to 60,000 nephelometric turbidity
logical Survey, water containing 61–120 ppm of dissolved units (NTU) in muddy, turbulent river water. Turbidity is
minerals is considered moderately hard, and water contain- objectionable for practically all water uses. The standard
ing 121–180 ppm of dissolved minerals is considered hard. maximum for drinking water is 1 NTU (accepted by indus-
Water containing greater than 181 ppm of dissolved minerals try), which indicates quite good quality. Turbidity exceeding
is considered very hard. (Note: pH and temperature affect 1 NTU can cause health concerns.
the behavior of dissolved minerals and should be considered Generally, if turbidity can be seen easily, it will clog pipes,
in the design of systems containing hard water.) damage valve seats, and cloud drinking water. For non-
Deionized Water process water, if turbidity cannot be seen, it should present
Deionized water has been stripped of mineral ions such as cat- few or no problems.
ions from sodium, iron, calcium, and copper as well as anions Turbidity that is caused by suspended solids in the water
of chloride and sulfate. However, the deionization process may be removed from such water by coagulation, sedimen-
does not remove viruses, bacteria, or other organic molecules. tation, and/or filtration. In extreme cases, where a filter
Deionized water is specified in ranges of conductivity. requires frequent cleaning due to excessive turbidity, it is
recommended that engineers use coagulation and sedimenta-
JULY 2013 Read, Learn, Earn 3

READ, LEARN, EARN: Water Treatment
tion upstream of the filter. Such a device can take the form Hardness is most commonly treated by the sodium-cycle
of a basin through which the water can flow at low velocities ion exchange process, which exchanges the calcium and
to let the turbidity-causing particles settle naturally. magnesium salts for very soluble sodium salts. Only calcium
For applications where water demand is high and space and magnesium (hardness ions) in the water are affected by
is limited, a mechanical device such as a clarifier utilizing a the softening process, which produces water that is non-scale
chemical coagulant may be more practical. This device mixes forming. If the oxygen or carbon dioxide content of the water
the water with a coagulant (such as ferric sulfate) and slowly is relatively high, the water may be considered aggressive.
stirs the mixture in a large circular container. The coarse The carbonic acid may be removed by aeration or de-
particles drop to the bottom of the container and are collected gasification, and the remaining acids may be removed by
in a sludge pit, while the finer particles coagulate and also neutralization, such as by blending hydrogen and sodium
drop to the bottom of the container. The clarified water then cation exchanger water. Another method of neutralizing the
leaves the device ready for use or further treatment, which acid in water is by adding alkali. The advantage of the alkali
may include various levels of filtration and disinfection. neutralization method is that the cost of the sodium cation
The water provided by municipalities is usually low exchange softener is eliminated. However, the engineer may
enough in turbidity and organic constituents to preclude the want to weigh the cost of chemicals against the cost of the
use of filters, clarifiers, or chlorinators. As always, however, sodium ion exchange unit.
there are exceptions to the rule. When dealing with health
Aeration and Deaeration
and safety or with the operating efficiency of machinery,
As hardness in water is objectionable because it forms scale,
engineers always must consider the occasional exception.
high oxygen and carbon dioxide contents are also objection-
Hardness able because they corrode iron, zinc, brass, and several other
The hardness of water is due mainly to the presence of cal- metals.
cium and magnesium cations. These salts, in order of their Free carbon dioxide (CO2) can be found in most natural
relative average abundance in water, are bicarbonates, sul- water supplies. Surface waters have the lowest concentra-
fates, chlorides, and nitrates. They all produce scale. tion, although some rivers may contain as much as 50 ppm.
Calcium salts are about twice as soluble as magnesium In groundwater, the CO2 content varies from almost zero to
salts in natural water supplies. The presence of bicarbonates concentrations so high that the carbon dioxide bubbles out
of calcium and magnesium produces a condition in the water when the pressure is released.
called temporary hardness because these salts can be easily Carbon dioxide also forms when bicarbonates are de-
transformed into a calcium or magnesium precipitate plus stroyed by acids, coagulants, or high temperatures. The
carbon dioxide gas. The noncarbonic salts (sulfates, chlorides, presence of CO2 accelerates oxygen corrosion.
and nitrates) constitute permanent hardness conditions.
Table 10-2 Water Treatment—Impurities and Constituents, Possible Effects and Suggested Treatments
Possible Effectsa Treatment
filtration, evaporation, ion
Neutralizing, followed by
chemicals, ion exchange
softening or evaporation
ion exchange materials,
Softening by chemicals,
demineralization by ion-
materials, evaporatiors
Coagulation, filtration,
filtration, evaporation
Softening by heaters,
Setting, coagulation,
Setting, coagulation,
exchange material
Evaporation and
Embritlement
None (Inert)
evaporators
evaporation
De-aeration
exchange
Corrosion
Priming
Foamin
Sludge
Scale
Suspended solids X X X X X
Silica — SiO2 X X
Calcium carbonate — CaCO3 X X
Calcium bicarbonate — Ca(HCO3)2 X X
Calcium Sulfate — CaSO4 X X X
Calcium chloride — CaCl2 X X
Magnesium carbonate — MgCO3 X X
Constituents
Magnesium bicarbonate — Mg(HCO3)2 X X

Magnesium chloride — MgCl2 X X X
Free acids — HCI, H2SO4 X X
Sodium chloride — NaCl X X
Sodium carbonate — Na2CO3 X X X X
Sodium bicarbonate — NaHCO3 X X X X
Carbonic acid — H2CO3 X X
Oxygen — O2 X X
Grease and oil X X X X X
Organic matter and sewage X X X X X
a
The possibility of the effects will increase proportionately to an increase in the water temperature.

Carbon dioxide can be removed from water by an aeration Chlorination
process. Aeration is simply a mechanical process that mixes Chlorination of water is most commonly used to destroy
the air and the water intimately. It can be done with spray organic (living) impurities. Organic impurities fall into two
nozzles, cascade aerators, pressure aerators, or forced draft categories: pathogenic, which cause disease such as typhoid
units. When this aeration process is complete, the water is and cholera, and nonpathogenic, which cause algae and
relatively free of CO2 gas. slime that clog pipes and valves, discolor water, and produce
Water with a high oxygen content can be extremely cor- undesirable odors. These pathogenic and nonpathogenic
rosive at elevated temperatures. Oxygen (O2) can be removed organisms can be controlled safely by chlorine with scientifi-
from the water by a deaeration process. Oxygen becomes less cally engineered equipment to ensure constant and reliable
and less soluble as the water temperature increases; thus, applications. An intelligent choice of the treatment necessary
it is removed easily from the water by bringing the water to cannot be made until a laboratory analysis of the water has
its boiling point. determined its quality and the quantities of water to be used
Pressure and vacuum deaerators are available. When it are known. If microorganisms are present in objectionable
is necessary to heat the water, as in boilers, steam deaera- amounts, a chlorination system is required.
tors are used. Where the water is used for cooling or other Chlorination traditionally has been used for the disin-
purposes where heating is not desired, vacuum units may fection of drinking water. However, the initial investment
be employed. required to properly chlorinate a potable water supply has,
With aerators and deaerators in tandem, water free of in many cases, restricted its use to the large water consumer
CO2 and O2 is produced. or to cities, which have the adequate financial support and
Minerals sufficient manpower to properly maintain the chlorination
Pure water is never found in nature. Natural water contains a system. Another drawback to the use of chlorine as a dis-
series of dissolved inorganic solids, which are largely mineral infectant is that the transportation and handling of a gas
salts. These mineral salts are introduced into the natural wa- chlorination system are potentially dangerous. When the
ter by a solvent action as the water passes through (or across) safety procedures are followed, however, there are few prob-
the various layers of the Earth. The types of mineral salts lems than with either liquid or solid products.
absorbed by natural water depend on the chemical content Chemically, chlorine is the most reactive halogen and is
of the soil through which the natural water passes before known to combine with nitrogenous and organic compounds
it reaches the consumer. This may vary from area to area. to form weak bactericidal compounds. Chlorine also com-
Well water differs from river water, and river water differs bines with hydrocarbons to form potentially carcinogenic
from lake water. Two consumers separated by a few miles compounds (trihalomethanes).
may have water supplies of very dissimilar characteristics. When chlorine is added to the water, hypochlorous and
The concentrations and types of minerals in the same water hydrochloric acids are formed. Hydrochloric acid is neutral-
supply even may vary with the changing seasons. ized by carbonates, which are naturally present in the water.
Many industries can benefit greatly by being supplied The hypochlorous acid provides the disinfecting properties
with high-grade pure water. These industries are finding of chlorine solutions. Part of the hypochlorous acid is used
that they must treat their natural water supplies in vari- quickly to kill (by the oxidation process) the bacteria in the
ous ways to achieve this condition. The recommended type water. The remaining acid keeps the water free of bacteria
of water treatment depends on the chemical content of the until it reaches the point of ultimate use.
water supply and the requirements of the particular industry. This residual hypochlorous acid can take two forms. It may
High-grade pure water typically results in greater economy combine with the ammonia present in almost all waters to
of production and better products. form a residual, or chloramine, that takes a relatively long
Before the advent of the demineralization process, the time to kill the bacteria, but it is very stable. Thus, when
only method used to remove mineral salts from natural water a water system is large, it is sometimes desirable to keep a
was distillation. Demineralization has a practical advantage combined residual in the system to ensure safety from the
over distillation. The distillation process involves removing treatment point to the farthest end use. If enough chlorine is
the natural water from the mineral salts (or the larger mass added to the system, more hypochlorous acid than can com-
from the smaller mass). Demineralization is the reverse of bine with the ammonia in the water is present. The excess
distillation: it removes the mineral salts from the natural hypochlorous acid is called free residual. It is quite unstable,
water. This renders demineralization the more economical but it kills organic matter very quickly. Though the time it
method of purifying natural water in most cases. Many in- takes for this water to pass from the treatment plant to the
dustries today are turning to demineralization as the answer point of ultimate use is short, only free residual can ensure
to their water problems. that all bacteria will be killed. Maintaining an adequate free
The stringent quality standards for makeup water for residual in the water is the only way to ensure that the water
modern boilers are making demineralizers and reverse is safe. Its presence proves that enough chlorine was origi-
osmosis a must for these users. Modern plating practices nally added to disinfect the water. If no residual is present,
also require the high-quality water that demineralization it is possible that not all of the bacteria in the water were
produces. killed; therefore, more chlorine must be added.
Chlorine gas or hypochlorite solutions can be readily
and accurately added to the water at a constant rate or by

proportional feeding devices offered by a number of suppli- as packaged units with simple in-and-out connections. Many
ers. Large municipal or industrial plants use chlorine gas chemical coagulants currently are available, including alu-
because it is less expensive than hypochlorite solutions and minum sulfate, sodium aluminate, ammonium alum, ferric
convenient. Chlorinators, such as those shown in Figure sulfate, and ferric chloride. Each coagulant works better than
10-1, inject chlorine gas into the water system in quantities the others in certain types of water. However, no simple rules
proportional to the water flow. guide the engineer in the choice of the proper coagulant,
For the treatment of small water supplies, hypochlorite coagulant dosages, or coagulant aids. Water analysis, water
solutions sometimes are found to be more advantageous. In temperature, type of clarification equipment, load conditions,
feeding hypochlorite solutions, small proportioning chemi- and end use of the treated water are some of the factors that
cal pumps, such as the one illustrated in Figure 10-2, may influence the selection of the proper coagulant. A few tests
be used to inject the hypochlorite solution directly into the conducted under actual operating conditions can assist the
pipelines or the reservoir tanks. designer in achieving the best results.
Water leaves the settling basin on the mechanical clari-
Clarification fier at atmospheric pressure. Thus, the designer should bear
Turbid water has insoluble matter suspended in it. As tur- in mind that the outputs must be pumped into the water
bidity in the water increases, the water looks more clouded, distribution system.
is less potable, and is more likely to clog pipes and valves.
Particles that are heavier than the fluid in which they Filtration
are suspended tend to settle due to gravity according to Filtration is the process of passing a fluid through a porous
Stokes’ law: medium to physically remove suspended solids. Various types
Equation 10-1 of filters are available, ranging from a back-washable filter
to filter cartridge housing. Depending on the type of filter, a
kd2 (S1 – S2) drain may be required.
v = Where a clarifier of the type described above precedes
z
the filters, the heavier, coagulated particles are removed
where from the water, and only the smaller, lighter particles reach
v = Settling velocity of the particle the filter bed. As the suspended particles lodge between the
k = Constant, usually 18.5
grains of the filter medium, flow is restricted. The coagulated
d = Diameter of the particle
S1 = Density of the particle particles build up on the surface of the filter bed. Penetration
S2 = Density of the fluid of the filter medium by the coagulated particles is achieved
z = Viscosity of the fluid at the surface in the first device or 2 inches of the bed. This
coagulated mat then acts as a fine filter for smaller particles.
From Equation 10-1, it can be seen that the settling The normal water flow rate for most filters is 3 gallons per
velocity of the particle decreases as the density (S2) and the minute (gpm) per square foot of filter area. Recent design
viscosity (z) of the fluid increase. Because the density and improvements in coagulation have enabled flow rates as high
viscosity of the water are functions of its temperature, it is as 5 gpm to 6 gpm for gravity filters.
readily understood why, for example, the rate of the particle The filter medium should be selected to provide a top
settling in the water at a temperature of 32°F is only 43 layer coarse enough to allow some penetration of the top
percent of its settling rate at 86°F. Therefore, the removal of few inches of the bed by the coagulated material. Where a
water turbidity by subsidence is most efficient in the summer. clarifier employing a chemical coagulant is placed ahead of
Where the water turbidity is high, filtration alone may be the filters, a separate coagulant feed should be used to form
impractical due to the excessive requirements for backwash a mat on the filter bed surface. Alum commonly is used for
and media replacement. Subsidence is an acceptable method this purpose at a rate of about 1/10 pound for each square foot
for the clarification of water that permits the settling of of filter bed surface. This coagulant mat should be replaced
suspended matter. after each backwash.
Although water flow in a horizontal plane does not seri- Filters are either gravity or pressure type.
ously affect the particle’s settling velocity, an upward flow
in a vertical plane prevents particle settling. The design of Gravity Filters
settling basins should, therefore, keep such interferences to As their name implies, the flow of water through gravity
a minimum. For practical purposes, the limit for solids re- filters is achieved by gravity only.
moval by subsidence is particles of 0.01 millimeter or larger The filter vessel may be rectangular or circular in con-
in diameter. Smaller particles have such a low rate of settling figuration and made of steel or concrete. The filter most
that the time required is greater than can be allowed. Figure commonly used is the rectangular concrete unit illustrated
10-3 shows a typical design of a settling basin. Obviously, in Figure 10-5. This unit has a very basic design. In its more
when a large volume of water is being handled, the settling sophisticated form, the gravity filter has storage wells for
basin occupies a large amount of space. Also, it can present the clarified water, wash troughs for even collection of the
safety and vandalism problems if not properly protected. backwash, and compressed air systems for agitation of the
Where space is limited, a more practical approach might sand during backwash.
be the use of a mechanical clarifier that employs chemical The advantages of the gravity filter over the pressure
coagulants (see Figure 10-4). Such devices can be purchased filter are that the filter sand can be easily inspected and the
application of a coagulant is usually more easily controlled. industrial applications. The design overcomes the basic
The disadvantages are the initial pressure loss, requiring problem of most sand and other single-medium filters, which
pumping of the water to pressurize the distribution system, provide a maximum filtering efficiency only in the top few
the additional space required for installation, and the pos- inches of the filter bed. The high-rate depth filters work at a
sibility of outside bacterial contamination. maximum efficiency throughout the entire filter bed.
As with any mechanical device, proper operation and
Pressure Filters
maintenance are key to continued high operating efficiency.
Pressure filters are more widely favored in industrial and
Chemical pretreatment often is used to enhance filter per-
commercial water-conditioning applications. These units
formance, particularly when the turbidity includes fine
have an advantage in that they may be placed in the line
colloidal particles.
under pressure, eliminating the need to repump the water.
The design of the pressure filter is similar to that of a Backwashing
gravity filter with respect to the filter medium, gravel bed, As the suspended particles removed from the water accumu-
underdrain system, and control devices. The filter vessel is late on the filter material, it should be cleaned to avoid any
usually a cylindrical steel tank. excessive pressure drops at the outlet and the carryover of
Vertical pressure sand filters, such as the one shown in turbidity. The need for cleaning, particularly in pressure fil-
Figure 10-6, range in diameter from 1 foot to 10 feet with ters, is easily determined through the use of pressure gauges,
capacities from 210 gpm to 235 gpm at an average filter rate which indicate the inlet and outlet pressures. Generally, when
of 3 gpm per square foot. the pressure drop exceeds 5 pounds per square inch (psi),
Multimedia depth filters are replacing single-media backwashing is in order.
pressure filters. The depth filter has four layers of filtration In this process (see Figure 10-7), the filtered water is
media, each of a different size and density. The media become passed upward through the filter at a relatively high flow
finer and denser in the lower layers. Particles are trapped rate of 10–20 gpm per square foot. The bed should expand at
throughout the bed, not just in the top few inches, which al- least 50 percent, as illustrated in Figure 10-8. This process
lows a depth filter to run longer and use less backwash water. keeps the grains of the filter medium close enough to rub
Horizontal pressure sand filters, usually about 8 feet in each other clean, but it does not lift them so high that they
diameter and 18 feet to 30 feet in length, have a water flow are lost down the drain. Backwashing can be automated
rate range of 218 gpm to 570 gpm. The industry trend in by employing pressure differential switches (electronically,
recent years has been back to the horizontal pressure sand hydraulically, or pneumatically) to activate the diaphragm
filters, which provide the advantages of a vertical filter with or control valves that initiate the backwash cycle at a given
a lower installed cost. When the filter tank is used in its pressure drop.
horizontal position, a larger bed area can be obtained, thus Some problems connected with filter beds are illustrated
increasing the flow rate available from a given tank size. in Figures 10-9 through 10-11. Extremely turbid water
High-rate pressure filters, with filtration rates of 20 gpm or insufficient backwashing causes accumulations called
per square foot, have proven to be very efficient in many mudballs (see Figure 10-9). If not removed, mudballs result
Figure 10-1 Automatic Chlorinators

Notes: The system illustrated in (A) maintains a given residual where the flow is constant or where it changes only gradually. The direct residual control is most effective on
recirculated systems, such as condenser cooling water circuits and swimming pools. The desired residual is manually set at the analyzer. The flow is chlorinated until the residual
reaches a set upper limit. The analyzer starts the chlorinator and keeps it operating until the residual again reaches the established upper limit. In (B) the compound loop controls
the chlorinator output in accordance with two variables, the flow and the chlorine requirements. Two signals (one from the residual analyzer and another from the flow meter), when
simultaneously applied to the chlorinator, will maintain a desired residual regardless of the changes in the flow rates or the chlorine requirements.

in uneven filtration and short filter runs and
encourage fissures. When the filter bed surface
becomes clogged with these deposits and simple
backwashing does not remove them, the filter
may need to be taken out of service and drained
and the deposits removed by hand skimming, or
the filter must be rebedded.
When fissures occur in the sand bed (see Fig-
ure 10-10), the cause usually can be traced to one
or a combination of three items: the inlet water
is not being distributed evenly or is entering at
too high a velocity; backwash water is not being
distributed evenly or is entering at too high a
velocity; or mudballs have stopped the passage of
water through certain areas and raised velocities
in others. The filter must be drained and opened
and the filter medium cleaned and reoriented.
Gravel upheaval (see Figure 10-11) usually is Figure 10-2 Manual Control Chlorinator
caused by violent backwash cycles during which
water is distributed unevenly or velocities are too high. If disadvantage is that only waters of relatively low turbidity
not corrected, fissures are encouraged, or worse, filter media can be used efficiently. It is not advisable to use these filters
is allowed to pass into the distribution system where it may where incoming water turbidities exceed 100 ppm, since low-
seriously damage valves and equipment as well as appear in efficiency, short filter runs will result. Other disadvantages
potable water. are that the initial and operating costs usually far exceed
those of conventional sand filters and that the incidence of
Diatomaceous Earth Filters high pressure drop across the unit (as much as 25 to 50 psi)
The use of diatomaceous earth as a water-filtering medium and intermittent flows cause the filter cake to detach from
achieved prominence during the 1940s as a result of the need the support base.
for a compact, lightweight, and portable filtering apparatus.
The water enters the filter vessel and is drawn through a Demineralization
porous supporting base that has been coated with diatoma- Sometimes called deionization, demineralization produces
ceous earth. Filter cloths, porous stone tubes, wire screens, high-purity water that is free from minerals, most particulate
wire wound tubes, and porous paper filter pads are some of matter, and dissolved gases. Depending on the equipment,
the support base materials most commonly used today. Figure the treated water can have a specific resistance of 50,000 Ω to
10-12 illustrates a typical leaf design filter. nearly 18 MΩ. However, it can be contaminated with bacteria,
Diatomaceous earth, or silica (SiO4), is produced from pyrogens, and organics, as these can be produced inside the
mineral deposits formed by diatoms, or fossilized plants that demineralizer itself. Demineralized water can be used in most
are similar to algae. Deposits of diatoms have been found as laboratories, in laboratory glassware-washing facilities as a
much as 1,400 feet in thickness. Commercial filter aids are final rinse, and as pretreatment for still feed water.
produced from the crude material by a milling process that The typical demineralizer apparatus consists of either a
separates the diatoms from one another. The finished product two-bed unit with a resistivity range of 50,000 Ω to 1 MΩ or
is in the form of a fine powder. a mixed-bed unit with a resistivity range of 1 MΩ to nearly
When diatomaceous earth forms a cake on the support 18 MΩ. The columns are of an inert material filled with a
base, a filter of approximately 10 percent solids and 90 synthetic resin that removes the minerals by an ionization
percent voids is achieved. The openings in this filter are process. Since the unit runs on pressure, a storage tank is
so small that even most bacteria are strained out of the not required or recommended, as bacteria may grow in it. A
water. However, the openings in the support base are not demineralizer must be chemically regenerated periodically,
small enough initially to prevent the passage of individual during which time no pure water is being produced. If a
diatomite particles. Some of these diatomite particles pass continuous supply of water is needed, a backup unit should
through the support base during the precoating operation. be considered, as the regeneration process takes several
However, once the formation of the coating is complete, the hours. An atmospheric, chemical-resistant drain is needed,
interlocked mass of diatomite particles prevents any further and higher-pressure water is required for backwash during
passage of the particles. regeneration.
Commercial diatomaceous earth is manufactured in a If deionized water is required in a small amount and the
wide range of grades with differing filtration rates and dif- facility does not want to handle the regenerant chemicals
ferences in the clarity of the filtered water. The advantages and/or the regenerant wastewater, it may contract with a
of diatomaceous earth filters, as compared to pressure sand deionized water service provider to supply the facility with
filters, are a considerable savings in the weight and required the quality and quantity of deionized water required. The
space, a higher degree of filtered water clarity and purity service deionized water (SDI) provider furnishes the facility
in the outgoing water, and no required coagulant use. One
with service deionized water exchange tanks to supply the that carry an electric charge. They are of two types: cation,
quality, flow rate, and quantity of water required. When the which is positively charged, and anion, which is negatively
tanks are exhausted, the SDI provider furnishes a new set charged. For example, when dissolved in water, sodium
of tanks. The SDI provider takes the exhausted tanks back chloride (NaCl) splits into the cation Na+ and the anion Cl–.
to its facility for regeneration. Similarly, calcium sulfate (CaSO4) in solution is present as
the cation Ca2+ and the anion SO42–. All mineral salts in water
Ion Exchange
are in their ionic form.
According to chemical theory, compounds such as mineral
Synthetic thermosetting plastic materials, known as
salts, acids, and bases break up into ions when they are dis-
ion exchange resins, have been developed to remove these
solved in water. Ions are simply atoms, singly or in groups,
objectionable ions from the solution and to produce very
high-purity water. These resins are small beads (or gran-
ules) usually of phenolic, or polystyrene, plastics. They are
insoluble in water, and their basic nature is not changed by
the process of ion exchange. These beads (or granules) are
very porous, and they have readily available ion exchange
groups on all internal and external surfaces. The electro-
chemical action of these ion exchange groups draws one type
of ion out of the solution and puts a different one in its place.
These resins are of three types: cation exchanger, which ex-
changes one positive ion for another, anion exchanger, which
exchanges one negative ion for another, and acid absorber,
which absorbs complete acid groups on its surface.
A demineralizer consists of the required number of cation
tanks and anion tanks (or, in the case of monobeds, combined
tanks) with all of the necessary valves, pipes, and fittings
required to perform the steps of the demineralization process
for the cation resin, as well as an acid dilution tank material
for the cation resin and an acid dilution tank, as sulfuric acid
is too concentrated to be used directly. If hydrochloric acid
is to be used as a cation regenerant, this mix tank is unnec-
essary since the acid is drawn in directly from the storage
vessel. A mixing tank for soda ash or caustic soda, used in
anion regeneration, is always provided.
Since calcium and magnesium in the raw regenerant wa-
ter precipitate the hydroxide (or carbonate) salts in the anion
Figure 10-3 Settling Basin bed, the anion resin must be regenerated with hardness-free
water. This condition may be accomplished either with a wa-
ter softener (which may be provided for this purpose) or by
use of the effluent water from the cation unit to regenerate
the anion resin. The use of a softener decreases the regen-
eration time considerably, as both units may be regenerated
simultaneously rather than separately.
Provided with each unit is a straight reading volume
meter, which indicates gallons per run as well as the total
volume put through the unit. Also provided with each unit
is a conductivity and resistivity indicator used to check the
Notes: The turbid water enters the central uptake mixed with the coagulant and is forced
toward the bottom of the unit. Some water and the suspended precipitates enter the lower
end of the uptake for recirculation and contact with the incoming chemicals and the water.
New coagulation is encouraged by contact with these previously formed precipitates. The
water then enters the outer settling section. The clarified water rises to the outlet flume
above. The heavier particles settle and are moved along the bottom to the sludge pit.
Figure 10-4 Mechanical Clarifier Figure 10-5 Rectangular Gravity Sand Filter
purity of the effluent water at all times. This instrument is change units are operated in parallel, and their effluents are
essentially a meter for measuring the electrical resistance of combined. Mineral acids in the hydrogen ion exchange efflu-
the treated water leaving the unit. It consists of two principal ent neutralize the bicarbonates in the sodium ion exchange
parts: the conductivity cell, which is situated in the effluent effluent. The proportions of the two processes are varied to
line, and the instrument box to which the conductivity cell produce a blended effluent having the desired alkalinity. The
is connected.
The conductivity cell contains two electrodes across
which an electric potential is applied. When these poles are
immersed in the treated water, the resistance to the flow of
the electricity between the two poles (which depends on the
dissolved solids content of the water) is measured by a circuit
in the instrument. The purity of the water may be checked
by reading the meter. When the purity of the water is within
the specific limits, the green light glows. When the water
becomes too impure to use, the red light glows. In addition,
a bell may be added that rings when the red light glows to
provide an audible as well as a visible report that the unit
needs regeneration. This contact also can close an effluent
valve, shift operation to another unit if desired, or put the
unit into regeneration.
Controls
Several types of controls are currently available to carry out
the various steps of regeneration and return to service. The Figure 10-6 Vertical Pressure Sand Filter
two most common arrangements follow:
• Type A: This consists of completely automatic, individual
air- or hydraulic-operated diaphragm valves controlled
by a sequence timer, and regeneration is initiated via a
conductivity meter. This arrangement provides maxi-
mum flexibility in varying amounts and concentrations
of regenerants, length of rinsing, and all other steps of
the operating procedure. The diaphragm valves used are
tight seating, offering maximum protection against leak-
age and thus contamination with minimal maintenance.
• Type B: This consists of manually operated individual
valves. This system combines maximum flexibility and
minimal maintenance with an economical first cost. It
typically is used on larger installations.
Internal Arrangements
The internal arrangements of the vessels are similar for all
types of controls. The internal arrangement used on me- Figure 10-7 Backwashing
dium to large units is shown in Figure 10-13. Smaller units
have simpler arrangements since the distribution problems
are less complex. The positive and thorough distribution of
regenerants, rinse, and wash waters to achieve maximum
efficiency provides economy and reliability.
Ion Exchange Water Softeners
A typical hydrogen-sodium ion exchange plant is shown
in Figure 10-14. This process combines sodium-cycle ion
exchange softening with hydrogen-cycle cation exchange.
The sodium ion exchange process is exactly the same as a
standard ion exchange water softener. The hardness (calcium
and magnesium) is replaced with sodium (non-scaling). The
alkalinity (bicarbonates) and other anions remain as high
as in the raw water.
The cation exchanger is exactly the same as the one used
with demineralizers; therefore, its effluent contains carbonic
acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid. Sodium ion ex-
Figure 10-8 Filtration and Backsplash Cycles
carbon dioxide is removed by a degasifier. The effluent is soft, frequency of regeneration, single versus multiple systems,
low in solids, and as alkaline as desired. space requirements, cost, and operating efficiency.
In the sodium ion exchange softener plus acid addition
Flow Rate
process (see Figure 10-15), the acid directly neutralizes the
After determining the total flow rate requirements for the
bicarbonate’s alkalinity to produce a soft, low-alkaline water.
building, including all equipment, the engineer can consider
The carbon dioxide produced is removed by a degasifier. The
the size of the water softener. The unit selected should not
chief disadvantages of this process are that the total dissolved
restrict the water flow rate beyond the pressure loss that the
solids are not reduced and control of the process is difficult.
building can withstand, based on the pressures available at
In a sodium ion exchange softener plus chloride deal-
the source and the minimum pressure needed throughout
kalizer process, water passes first through the sodium ion
the entire system. A water softener that meets both flow rate
exchange softener, which removes the hardness, and then
and pressure drop requirements should be selected.
through a chloride dealkalizer, which is an ion exchanger that
operates in the chloride cycle. The bicarbonates and sulfates
are replaced by chlorides. The resin is regenerated with
sodium chloride (common salt). The equipment is the same
as that for sodium ion softeners. This process produces soft,
low-alkaline water. Total dissolved solids are not reduced, but
the chloride level is increased. The chief advantages of this
process are the elimination of acid and the extreme simplicity
of the operation. No blending or proportioning is required.
In some cases, the anion resin can be regenerated with
salt and caustic soda to improve capacity and reduce the
leakage of carbon dioxide.
Water Softening
Water softening is required for practically all commercial and
industrial building water usage. Generally speaking, almost
any building supplied with water having a hardness of 3.5 Figure 10-9 Mudballs
grains per gallon (gpg) or more should have a water softener.
This is true even if the only usage of the water other than
for domestic purposes is for heating because the principal
threat to water heater life and performance is hard water.
Approximately 85 percent of the water supplies in the United
States have hardness values above the 3.5 gpg level.
However, it is not good practice to specify a water softener
to supply the heating equipment only and disregard the
softening needs for the balance of the cold water usage in
the building. A typical example of this condition is a college
dormitory. Many fixtures and appliances in a dormitory in
addition to the hot water heater require soft water, includ-
ing the piping itself, flush valve toilets, shower stalls, basins,
and laundry rooms. Many fixtures and appliances that use
a blend of hot and cold water experience scale buildup and
staining, even when the hot water is softened. Figure 10-10 Fissures
One of the most common reasons for installing water
softening equipment is to prevent hardness scale buildup in
piping systems, valves, and other plumbing fixtures. Scale
builds up continually and at a faster rate as the temperature
increases. The graph in Figure 10-16 illustrates the degree
of scale deposit and the rate increase as the temperature of
the water is elevated on water having a hardness of 10 gpg.
For water of 20-gpg hardness, scale deposit values can be
multiplied by two. Although the rate of scale deposit is higher
as the temperature increases, significant scale buildup occurs
with cold water. Thus, the cold water scale, while taking a
longer period to build up, is nevertheless significant.
Water Softener Selection
The factors the designer should consider in sizing water
softeners include the following: flow rate, softener capacity, Figure 10-11 Gravel Upheaval
The softener system also should be capable of provid-
ing the design flow rates within the desired pressure drop.
This means not only that the pipe and valve sizes must be
adequate, but also that the water softener tank and its min-
eral must be capable of handling the flows while providing
the soft water. The water softener design should be based on
hydraulic and chemical criteria.
Good design practices for general use dictate that service
flow rates through the water softener be approximately 1–5
gpm per cubic foot with mineral bed depths of 30 inches or
more. Based on these accepted practices, the water softener
is generally able to handle peak flows for short periods.
Standard softener units are designed for a pressure differ-
ential of approximately 15 psi, the most common differential
acceptable for building design. Thus, for general usage, a wa-
ter softener may be selected from a manufacturer’s catalog.
The engineer should give more detailed consideration to the
selection of a water softener where especially low pressure
Figure 10-12 Leaf Design, Diatomaceous Earth Filter
losses are needed. Many equipment manufacturers offer
complete pressure drop curves for their equipment, allow-
listed, the building has one air-conditioner with 5-gpm
ing the selection of components to fit any flow pressure drop
makeup. (Refer to the local code for the specific water
conditions desired.
supply load values used in the area.)
Fixture Count Flow Rate Estimating Guide for
Water Softeners Unit Total
This guide is for estimating average and maximum flow rate Fixtures Weight Weight
requirements (in gallons per minute) for both private and
10 kitchen sinks × 2 = 20
public buildings and is based on fixture flow rates and prob-
ability of use. It is to be used when actual continuous and 10 bathtub/showers × 2 = 20
peak flow rates are not known. 10 lavatories × 1 = 10
The average rates may be used when line pressure less 10 tank-type toilets × 3 = 30
the conditioner pressure drop is at least 30 psi at the highest 3 washing machines × 2 = 6
point of use in the building. The maximum rates are equal to Total = 86
the fixture count figures commonly used to size water lines
For a total of 86 fixture units, the corresponding flow rate
and are applicable especially in low water pressure areas is 31 gpm. Add 31 gpm to 5 gpm for the air-conditioner:
where pressure drop is critical. 31 + 5 = 36 gpm. Select the smallest unit that has a
1. Count and list each type of fixture used intermittently. continuous flow rate of 36 gpm.
Multiply the total of each type by its private or public 4. Select the smallest water conditioner with a continuous
unit weight. Private or public unit weights must be flow rate that is equal to or greater than the total flow
determined by the use of the fixture. For example, lava- rate requirement in step 3.
tories in an apartment house are private. Lavatories in
a restaurant are public. Add the products of each type The line pressure less the pressure drop of the selected
of fixture to determine the total fixture count weight. unit must be at least 30 psi to handle the peak flow rate
periods. If it is less than 30 psi, repeat step 2 using the
2. From the intermittent flow rate chart, select the total maximum column on the intermittent flow rate chart and
fixture count, or the next highest fixture count, deter- add the additional requirements of step 3. Select a water
mined in step 1. conditioner with a continuous flow rate that is equal to
3. Add to the flow rate determined in step 2 any con- or greater than the new total flow rate requirement.
tinuously used flow rates in gallons per minute. These When the maximum figures are used, the line pressure
additional requirements may include commercial dish- less the conditioner pressure drop must be 20 psi mini-
washers, garbage disposals that run continually, boiler mum
makeup water, or swimming pool makeup water. In some
cases, these additional requirements are seasonal and Note: When water conditioners are installed in series,
used separately. For example, if boilers are shut down such as an iron filter in a water softener, the 30-psi and
during the summer, use the additional requirement of 20-psi minimum pressures must be maintained after both
the boiler or the air-conditioning system, whichever is units. Select combinations of conditioners with a total
greater. pressure drop, when subtracted from the line pressure,
Example 10-1 of 30 psi minimum when using the average figures or 20
For example, the flow rate for a 10-unit apartment build- psi when using the maximum figures.
ing can be estimated as follows. In addition to the fixtures

Where measurements of water consumption are not the equipment to be serviced, or by taking water meter
possible—for instance, where water meter records are not readings during peak periods of water consumption.
available—the information in Table 10-3 can be used to 4. Determine the water pressure by installing a pressure
estimate the amount of water consumed in several establish- gauge. If there is a well supply, check the pump’s start
ments. (Note: For more accurate figures, take meter readings and stop settings.
during average or peak periods—a week or a month. Water
5. Determine the capacity: gallons per day × grains per
bills may be used to determine daily water consumption.)
gallon = grains per day.
If manually operated equipment is desired, longer periods
between regenerations may be desired to reduce the atten- 6. Select the smallest unit that can handle the maximum
tion that an operator must give to the water softener. Thus, capacity required between regenerations with a low salt
larger-capacity units must be selected. dosage. Avoid sizing equipment with the high dosage
unless there is reason to do so, such as a high-pressure
Softener Capacity boiler.
Once the size of the water softener is selected based on flow Example 10-2
rate and pressure drop, the designer should consider the For example, the capacity required is 300,000 grains. What
length of the service run. For each standard-size water soft- size unit should be selected?
ener, a nominal quantity of softening mineral is used. This
A 300,000-grain unit will produce this capacity when
amount is based on the recommended depth of the mineral regenerated with 150 pounds of salt.
(normally 30–36 inches) and the proper free-board space
above the mineral (the space required for the proper expan- A 450,000-grain unit will produce this capacity when
sion of the mineral during backwashing). Thus, from the unit regenerated with 60 pounds of salt.
initially selected, a standard capacity is known. The 450,000-grain unit is the better selection to remove
The capacity of a water softener is its total hardness 300,000 grains. The salt consumption will be 75 pounds
exchange ability, generally expressed in terms of grains per regeneration as opposed to 150 pounds for the smaller
exchange. The normal capacity of available softening min- unit, a 50 percent salt consumption savings. It should be
eral (resins) is 20,000–30,000 grains for each cubic foot of noted that while a salt savings is realized in using the
mineral. Thus, the total capacity for the water softener is lower salting rate on the larger unit, hardness leakage
obtained by multiplying this value by the number of cubic will increase. If minimum hardness leakage is required,
feet of mineral in the water softener. The hardness of the raw such as for boiler feed water, the maximum salting rate
water must be ascertained. By dividing the water hardness (15 pounds per cubic foot) should be used.
(grains per gallon), expressed as CaCO3 equivalent, into the 7. Determine if the unit selected will deliver the required
total softener capacity (grains), the designer can determine flow rate.
the number of gallons of soft water that the unit will produce
before requiring regeneration.
Knowing (or estimating) the total gallons of water used
per day indicates the frequency of regeneration. Most often,
it is best to have a slight reserve capacity to accommodate
any small increases in water usage.
Softening is not really a form of water purification since
the function of a softener is to remove only the hardness (cal-
cium and magnesium) from the water and substitute, by ion
exchange, the softer element of sodium. Softeners frequently
are used in hard water areas as pretreatment to distillation
to simplify maintenance. They are often necessary as a
pretreatment to deionizers and reverse osmosis, depending
on the analysis of the feed water and the type of deionizer.
The following steps should be taken prior to selecting a
water softener.
1. Perform a water analysis by analyzing the water with
a portable test kit, obtaining a water analysis from the
local authorities, or sending a water sample to a qualified
water testing lab.
2. Determine the water consumption using sizing charts or
consumption figures from water bills or by taking water
meter readings.
3. Determine continuous and peak flow rates using the
fixture count flow rate estimating guide to determine
the required flow rate, obtaining flow rate figures for Figure 10-13 Ion Exchange
Vessel—Internal Arrangement

Space Needs
Many times a softener system is
selected without much concern for
space needs. Generally, sufficient
floor space is available, although this
factor should not be overlooked for
storage. More commonly overlooked is
the actual height of the softener tank
and the additional height required
(24 inches) for access through the top
manhole opening for loading the unit.
If height in the room is critical, the
upper manhole can be located on the
Figure 10-14 Hydrogen-Sodium Ion Exchange Plant upper side shell of the softener tank
(if so specified).
Severe room height restrictions
normally require specifying a large-
diameter, squat softener tank with the
same specified quantity of softening
mineral. Further consideration must
be given to the floor space around the
equipment, particularly around the
salt tanks, for loading purposes and
accessibility for servicing the unit.
Where water softeners are installed
in existing buildings, the door openings
should be checked for passage of the
softener equipment to the final loading.
Cost
Technical advances in the water-soft-
Figure 10-15 Sodium Cycle Softener Plus Acid Addition ening industry and increasing labor
a. When sizing to a continuous flow rate, subtract the pres- costs are, for the most part, responsible
sure drop from the line pressure. At least 30 psi should for the fact that almost all equipment produced is operated
be left for the working pressure. automatically. For budget-estimating purposes, automatic
water-softening costs range from $15 to $40 per 1,000 grains
b. When sizing to a peak flow rate, subtract the pressure of exchange capacity, depending on the degree of sophistica-
drop from the line pressure. At least 20 psi should be
tion. This estimate is based on the total capacity of all units.
left for the working pressure.
Operating Efficiency
If one of those options results in less than the minimum
Most water softeners are alike in terms of their operation.
allowable working pressure, select a larger model that
has a higher flow rate. The water softener requires a Their basic operating cost is the salt consumption. Practi-
dynamic pressure of 35 psi to draw brine. cally all use a high-capacity, resinous mineral. The mineral
can exchange 30,000 grains of hardness per cubic foot of
8. Compare the dimensions of the unit selected with the mineral when regenerated with 15 pounds of salt, which is
space available for installation. the nominal standard rating currently used in the industry.
9. Make sure both the softener and the brine tank will fit As salt is the basic commodity that affects the operating
through all doors and hallways to the installation area. cost, it is the only area where reduced costs may be consid-
If not, a twin unit or smaller brine tank may be used. ered. Fortunately, the softening mineral can be regenerated
10. Make sure a drain is available that will handle the at different salt levels, yielding actual cost savings on the
backwash flow rate of the unit selected. Refer to the salt consumption. As indicated, with a 15-pound salt level,
specification sheet for backwash flow rates. 30,000 gains per cubic foot can be obtained. With a salt dos-
age of 10 pounds or 6 pounds, a resulting capacity yield of
Single or Multiple Systems 25,000 gains per cubic foot or 20,000 gains per cubic foot
A single-unit softener will bypass the hard water during peri- respectively is obtained.
ods of regeneration (normally 1.5 hours). This is the danger Thus, approximately a 40 percent salt rating can be ef-
with a single-unit softener. If soft water requirements are fected at the lower salt level. The lower salt levels can be
critical and adequate soft water storage is not available, a used effectively on general applications, resulting in lower
twin or duplex water softener will be needed. operating costs. However, where very high-quality soft water

is required in an area where very hard water exists, this ap- systems may require bulk salt storage and delivery systems,
proach is not recommended. consisting of an aboveground storage tank that is loaded
directly from salt trucks. The salt then is conveyed through
Sizing
piping to the brine tank. This system may be wet or dry.
Figure 10-17 can be used to develop the data required to size
Underground storage tanks almost always require the
the basic softening equipment. The final selection of a system
salt to be premixed with water in the storage tank. It then
for specification should be made using this information. In
can be piped to the brine tank as a brine solution and mixed
many cases, the importance of the water-softening equipment
down to the desired concentration levels.
justifies calling on manufacturers’ representatives for their
recommendations. Their specialized knowledge can help in Distillation
the design of a reliable, economical water softener system. Distillation produces biopure water that is free from par-
Figure 10-18 provides a step-by-step procedure for selecting ticulate matter, minerals, organics, bacteria, pyrogens, and
the water softener equipment. most dissolved gases and has a minimum specific resistance
Salt Recycling Systems of 300,000 Ω-cm. Until recent advances in the industry, the
To increase the efficiency of the water softener in terms of salt use of distilled water was limited to hospitals and some
consumption and water usage during the regeneration cycle, pharmaceutical applications. Now, in hospitals, schools with
one option to consider is the use of a salt recycling system. It science departments, laboratories, and industries other than
is essentially a hardware modification available for both new pharmaceuticals, distilled water is vital to many operational
and existing water softeners that immediately reduces the functions. When used in healthcare facilities, biopure water
amount of salt needed to regenerate a softener by 25 percent, is needed in the pharmacy, central supply room, and any
without any loss of resin capacity or treated water quality. other area where patient contact may occur. Biopure water
It works best with water softener equipment that utilizes a also may be desired in specific laboratories at the owner’s
nested diaphragm valve configuration as seen in Figure 10- request and as a final rinse in a laboratory glassware washer.
19. It is not recommended for water softeners that utilize a The Distillation Process
top-mounted, multi-port motorized control valve. The typical water distillation system consists of an evapora-
The salt recycling process adds a brine reclaim step to the tor section, internal baffle system, water-cooled condenser,
regeneration process after the brine draw has occurred. Dur- and storage tank. The heat sources, in order of preference
ing brine reclaim, used dilute brine flow is
diverted from the drain and routed back
to the brinemaker tank where it is stored
and resaturated for later use, thereby sav-
ing both salt and water. The salt savings
occur because the make-up water to the
brinemaker contains approximately 25
percent of the salt needed for the next
regeneration. Therefore, only 75 percent
of “new” salt is dissolved for the next re-
generation. Water savings occur because
the recycled brine is not discharged to
drain but is used to make up the brine
solution for the next regeneration. The
effective salt dosage for the water softener
is unchanged; therefore, the 25 percent
salt savings can be realized in softener
systems that use both maximum and
minimum salt dosages.
The hardware package consists of a
diverter valve (see Figure 10-19) in the
drain line that routes the recycled brine
to the brinemaker tank and a modified
control system that incorporates the extra
brine reclaim step.
Salt Storage Options
A few options for salt storage are avail-
able. Salt blocks and bags of salt, or beads,
may not be suitable for large systems in
which dozens or even hundreds of pounds
may be needed on a daily basis. These Figure 10-16 Lime Deposited from Water of 10 Grains Hardness as a Function of
Water Use and Temperature

based on economy and maintenance, are steam, electricity, teed to be free of bacteria, viruses, and pyrogens. It may pay
and gas. (Gas is not a good choice.) The still may be oper- to have pretreatment before a still to cut down on mainte-
ated manually or automatically. The distilled water may be nance (descaling), downtime, and energy consumption and
distributed from the tank by gravity or by a pump. A drain to have better efficiency, capacity, and quality. Pretreatment
is required. On stills larger than 50 gallons per hour (gph), a may require a higher initial investment, but the supplier who
cooling tower should be considered for the condenser water. has the experience and technology in all water treatment
The principles of distillation are quite simple. The water systems can give unbiased advice—that is, to offer a systems
passes through two phase changes, from liquid to gas and approach instead of pushing only one method.
back to liquid (see Figure 10-20). All the substances that are Distilled water is often called hungry water. This refers
not volatile remain behind in the boiler and are removed to the fact that distilled water absorbs in solution much of
either continuously or intermittently. Water droplets are the matter, in any phase, with which it comes in contact. It
prevented from coming up with the water vapor by proper becomes important, therefore, to select a practical material
design of the still, which takes into account the linear veloc- for the production, storage, and distribution of distilled water.
ity, and by use of an appropriate system of baffles.
Although distillation removes nonvolatile substances suf-
ficiently, the volatile substances in the feed water cause more Table 10-3 Water Consumption Guide
problems. These, mainly carbon dioxide, which are already Apartments
present in the feed water or are formed by the decomposition One-bedroom units 1.75 people/apartment
of bicarbonates, can be removed by keeping the distillate at Two-bedroom units Three people/apartment
a relatively high temperature because carbon dioxide is less Three-bedroom units Five people/apartment
soluble at high temperatures. Ammonia (NH3) is much more Full line 60 gpd/person
soluble in water than carbon dioxide, and its tendency to Hot only 25 gpd/person
redissolve is much higher as well. Moreover, the ionization One bath 1.5 gpm/apartment
constant of ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) is much greater Two baths 2.5 gpm/apartment
than that of carbonic acid (H2CO3), which means that equal Barber shops 75 gpm/chair
amounts of ammonia and carbon dioxide show different Beauty shops 300 gpd/person
conductivities (that for ammonia is much higher than that Bowling alleys 75 gpd/lane
Factories (not including process waters)
for carbon dioxide).
With showers 35 gpd/person/shift
The purity of the distillate is usually measured with a con-
Without showers 25 gpd/person/shift
ductivity meter, and a resistivity of 1 MΩ—or a conductivity Farm animals
of 1 microsiemen (µS)—is equivalent to approximately 0.5 Dairy cow 35 gpd
ppm of sodium chloride. Most of the conductivity is accounted Beef cow 12 gpd
for by the presence of carbon dioxide (and ammonia) and not Hog 4 gpd
by dissolved solids. The question arises: Which is preferred, Horse 12 gpd
1 MΩ resistivity or a maximum concentration of dissolved Sheep 2 gpd
solids? It is quite possible that a distillate with a resistivity Chickens 10 gpd/100 birds
of 500,000 Ω (a conductivity of 2 µS) contains fewer dissolved Turkeys 18 gpd/100 birds
solids than a distillate with a resistivity of 1,000,000 Ω (1 µS). 225 gpd/bed (Estimate air-
A problem in distillation can be scale formation. Scale conditioning and laundry
Hospitals separately.)
forms either by the decomposition of soluble products of
Motels (Estimate the restaurant, bar, air-conditioning,
insoluble substances or because the solubility limit of a swimming pool, and laundry facilities separately, and add these
substance is reached during the concentration. Solutions to to the room gallonage for total consumption.)
this problem include the following: Full line 100 gpd/room
• A careful system of maintenance, with descaling at regu- Hot only 40 gpd/room
lar intervals Estimate 3.75 people/home,
and estimate 60 gpd/person.
• Softening of the feed water, that is, removing all calcium (Outside water for sprinkling,
and magnesium ions. However, this does not remove the washing cars, etc., should be
silica, which then may form a hard, dense scale that is Mobile home courts bypassed.)
very difficult to remove. Restaurants
Total (full line) 8 gal/meal
• Removal of the alkalinity (bicarbonates). When originally Food preparation (hot and cold) 3 gal/meal
present, sulfate and silica still form a harder scale than Food preparation (hot only) 1.5 gal/meal
a carbonate scale. Cocktail bar 2 gal/person
• Removal of all or most of the dissolved substances. This 175 gpd/bed (Estimate laundry
can be done by demineralization with ion exchangers or Rest homes separately.)
by reverse osmosis. Schools
Full line 20 gpd/student
It may sound foolish to remove the impurities from the Hot only 8 gpd/student
water before distilling the water. However, keep in mind that Trailer parks 100 gpd/space
distillation is the only process that produces water guaran-

Years of experience and research have shown that pure tin is quired. The single-effect still operated at atmospheric
the most practical material for the production, storage, and pressure is generally the most practical and widely used.
distribution of distilled water due to its inert characteristic. For the consumption of larger quantities of distilled water,
It is the least soluble. (Other materials, such as gold, silver, consideration may be given to other types of stills (such as
and platinum, have equal or superior qualities but are not the multiple-effect and vapor-compression stills). These stills
considered for obvious reasons.) A secondary but almost have advantages and disadvantages that should be studied
equal advantage of tin is its relatively low porosity, which when conditions warrant.
virtually eliminates the possibility of particle entrapment
Centralized vs. Decentralized Systems
and growth in pores. In a good water still, therefore, all of
The choice between central distillation equipment and in-
the surfaces that come in contact with the pure vapors and
dividual stills in each department is a matter of economics.
distillate should be heavily coated with pure tin. Likewise,
In the case of central distillation, the factors to consider
the storage tank should be heavily coated or lined with pure
are the distances involved in piping the water to the vari-
tin on all interior surfaces. Tinned stills and storage tanks
ous departments—hence, the cost of the appropriate piping
are not significantly more expensive than glass ones in all
and, possibly, the pumping requirements. The original and
but the smallest sizes.
maintenance costs of multiple individual stills can be high.
Titanium is being strongly considered as a promising
In the majority of installations, the use of one or two large,
material for distillation equipment. Although some stills
centrally located stills with piped distribution systems has
have been made of titanium, it is more expensive than tin
proven more practical and economical than a number of
and has not yet been proven superior.
small, individual stills.
Distillation Equipment Applications and
Selection Stills
In the construction of buildings requiring distilled water, While a well-designed still can produce pure distilled water
the selection of the appropriate equipment is usually the for most purposes, the distilled water to be used by a hospital
responsibility of the plumbing engineer. Before the proper for intravenous injections or by a pharmaceutical company
equipment can be selected, the following factors should be manufacturing a product for intravenous injections must be
considered: free of pyrogens (large organic molecules that cause individu-
als to go into shock). For such uses, a still with special baffles
• The quantity of distilled water that will be required per to produce pyrogen-free distilled water must be specified.
day (or per week) by each department Other types of stills are designed to meet various purity
• The purity requirements of each department requirements. The recommendations of the manufacturer
• The space available for the equipment should be obtained to specify the proper type of still for a
specific application.
• The availability of power Due to the amount of heat required in the operation to
Regarding the first two items, the engineer should obtain change the water into steam, it is impractical to make large-
the anticipated quantity and purity requirements from all capacity, electrically heated and gas-heated stills. All stills
department heads who require distilled water. larger than 10 gph, therefore, should be heated by steam. For
In this section, it is assumed that less than each gallon per hour of a still’s rated capacity, steam-heated
1,000 gallons per day (gpd) of distilled water is re- stills require approximately 1/3 boiler horsepower, electrically
date
Project name
Location
Type of facility
What is water being used for?
Water analysis: (express in gr./ gal. or ppm as CaCo3)

Total hardness
Sodium
Total dissolved solids
Sodium to hardness ratio
Iron
Flow rate (gpm) peak Normal Average
Allowable pressure loss System inlet pressure
Operating hours/day Gallons/day
Influent header pipe size
Electrical characteristics
Type of operation
Special requirement or options (ASME, lining, accessories)
Space limitation L W H
Figure 10-17 Water Softener Survey Data
Date
Project name
Location
Step I. Operating conditions
A. Operating hours per day
B. Can regeneration take place once each day? Yes No
C. If “B” is No, state days between regenerations
D. Is a twin unit required? Yes No
E. Type of operation:
Time clock Alarm meter Auto reset meter
F. Allowable pressure loss psi.
Step 2. Flow rate (gpm) (peak, average, continuous)
Step 3. Water usage per day:
× 60 min./hr. × GPM =

Operating hr/day Average flow rate gal/day
Step 4. Required exchange capacity:
× =
Gal/day water usage Water hardness (gr/gal) Required exchange capacity (gr/day)
Step 5. Select resin capacity & salt dosage per cu ft.:
( ) 32,000 gr @ 15# ( ) 29,000 gr @ 10# ( ) 21,000 gr @ 6#

Step 6. One day of operation per regeneration (step no. 1-B)
÷ =
Required exch. cap (gr/day) Resin cap (gr/ft3) Required resin (ft3/day)
Note: If more than one day between regenerations is required, use step no. 7 instead of step no. 6.
Step 7. More than one day of operation per regeneration (step no. 1-B)
Cubic feet of resin required:
× ÷ =
Required exch. cap. (gr/day) Number of days/regn. Resin cap. (gr/ft3) Resin required (ft3)
Step 8. Salt consumption per regeneration:
× =
Required resin (ft3 /regn.) Salt dosage (lb/ft3) Salt regeneration (lb)

Step 9. System selection:
(If auto-reset operation is desired, refer to step no. 10.)
A. Select from the manufacturer’s specification table, a single unit that meets the flow rate (step no. 2).
B. Check that selected unit meets the allowable pressure loss at the flow rate (step no. 1-F).
C. If a single unit will not meet both steps no. 9-A and 9-B, then a multiple unit is required (refer to step no. 10).
D. Check that selected unit contains the required cubic feet of resin (step no. 6 or 7).
E. If single unit will not meet step no. 9-D, then a multiple unit is required. (refer to step no. 10).
F. Select a standard system that meets, or exceeds by no more than 10%, step nos. 9-A, 9-B, and 9-D. If a good balance
is not available, refer to step no. 10.
G. Check that brine-tank salt storage is sufficient to provide a minimum of two regenerations before requiring refill (step
no. 8).
Step 10. Multiple systems:
The following procedure should be followed for a twin unit.
A. Select either auto-reset meter initiation or time clock to start regeneration. Refer to the appropriate subtitle.
Auto-reset meter-initiated regeneration.
B. Select, from the specification table, a tank size that meets the flow rate (step no. 2) and the allowable pressure loss (step
no. 1-F). Each tank in the system must meet these conditions.
C. Divide the required cu. ft. of resin (step no. 6 or 7) by two to determine the required cubic feet of resin contained in the tanks
selected in step no. 10-B. Select a tank large enough to match the required cu. ft. resin/tank.
D. Check that the brine tank salt storage is sufficient to provide a minimum of four regenerations per tank.
Time clock regeneration
E. Divide the flow rate (step no. 2) by 2 to determine the flow rate per tank. Select a tank size that meets this flow rate. (Both
tanks will be on line during the operating period.)
F. Check that the tank selected meets the allowable pressure loss (step no. 1-F) at the flow rate per tank.
G. Follow step no. 10-C to determine the required cubic feet of resin per tank.
H. Follow step no. 10-D to determine the brine tank to be used.
Step 11. Using this data, select a standard system from the softener specifications that most closely matches all the data. If none is
available, a detailed specification should be developed which will allow the manufacturer to match the system requirements.
Step 12. Select options such as ASME code tanks, lining, and materials of construction, as required.
Figure 10-18 Water Softener Sizing Procedure

cartridge. A and B are intake breather valves, and C is
an exhaust valve.
As a further safeguard against any possible contami-
nation of the distilled water by biological impurities, an
ultraviolet light can be attached to the inside of the cover
(not very effective) and/or immersed in the distilled water
(also not very effective) or in the flow stream to effectively
maintain its sterility. Ultraviolet lighting should be given
strong consideration for hospital and pharmaceutical
installations, as well as for any other applications where
sterility is important.
Example 10-3
Assume that a total of 400 gpd of distilled water is re-
quired by all departments. A fully automatic still and
storage tank combination should be used in this appli-
cation. Fully automatic controls stop the still when the
storage tank is full and start the still when the level in
the storage tank reaches a predetermined low level. In
addition, the evaporator is flushed out each time it stops.
A 30-gph still (with a 300-gallon storage tank) produces
Figure 10-19 Water Softener with Salt Recycling System more than the desired 400 gpd. Because the still operates
on a 24-hour basis, as the storage tank calls for distilled
heated stills need 2,600 watts, and gas-fired stills need 14,000
water (even if no distilled water is used during the night), 300
British thermal units per hour.
gallons are on hand to start each day. As water is withdrawn
The still must be well designed and baffled to effect an
from the storage tank, the still starts and replenishes the
efficient vapor separation without the possibility of carryover
storage tank at a rate of 30 gph.
of the contaminants and to ensure optimum removal of the
In this example, the storage tank volume, in gallons, is
volatile impurities. It is equally important that the materi-
10 times the rated capacity of the still. This is a good rule of
als used in construction of the still, storage reservoir, and
thumb for a fully automatic still and storage tank combina-
all components coming in contact with the distilled water do
tion. A closer study of the pattern of the anticipated demands
not react with the distilled water.
may reveal unusual patterns, which may justify a larger ratio.
Distribution Systems
Cost can be a significant factor in the distribution system,
particularly if it is extensive. The distribution system can
consist of 316 stainless steel, CPVC Schedule 80, and poly-
vinylidene fluoride (PVDF). The fittings should be of the
same material.
The purity requirements should be considered and a
careful investigation made of the properties and character-
istics of the materials being considered. Many plastics have
a relatively porous surface, which can harbor organic and
inorganic contaminants. With some metals, at least trace
quantities may be imparted to the distilled water.
Storage Reservoir
The storage reservoir used for distilled water should be made
of a material that is suited for the application and sealed with
a tight cover so that contaminants from the atmosphere can-
not enter the system. As the distilled water is withdrawn from
the storage tank, air must enter the system to replace it. To
prevent airborne contamination, an efficient filter should be
installed on the storage tank so that all air entering the tank
may be filtered free of dust, mist, bacteria, and submicron
particulate matter, as well as carbon dioxide.
Figure 10-21 illustrates a typical air filter. This air filter
(both hydrophilic and hydrophobic) removes gases and
airborne particles down to 0.2 µ. Purified air leaves at the
bottom. The rectangular chamber is a replaceable filter
Figure 10-20 Distillation

Purity Monitor verse osmosis), soften, or otherwise pretreat the feed water.
One frequently used accessory is the automatic purity moni- Demineralizing the feed water practically eliminates the need
tor. This device tests the purity of the distilled water coming to clean the evaporator. For this purpose, the demineralizing
from the still with a temperature-compensated conductivity process is relatively expensive; however, it does contribute
cell. This cell is wired to a resistivity meter that is set at a to a higher purity of distilled water.
predetermined standard of distilled water commensurate Because water softening is less expensive than the de-
with the capability of the still. If for any reason the purity of mineralizing process, it is used more often as a method of
the distilled water is below the set standard, the substandard pretreatment. It does not have the advantages of deminer-
water does not enter the storage tank and is automatically alized water—eliminating cleaning and contributing to a
diverted to waste. At the same time, a signal alerts personnel higher purity—but it does eliminate hard scale formation
that the still is producing substandard water so an investiga- in the evaporator.
tion may be made as to the cause. Simple wiring may be used When any kind of pretreated feed water is used, an ad-
to make the alarm signal visual or audible at any remote equate preheater (for pretreated water) and a float feeder
location, such as the plant engineer’s office. The advantages valve should be specified by the designer. With these devices,
of this automatic purity monitor are obvious, particularly the raw water is used only as cooling water for the condenser,
ahead of large storage tanks (as one slug of bad water can and the pretreated feed water is piped separately to the still,
ruin a whole tank). eliminating the waste of the pretreated water. When the float
feeder valve is used on any still equipped with an automatic
Feed Water drain, an automatic shutoff valve to the float feeder valve also
Pretreated Feed Water should be specified so the supply of pretreated water stops at
In the conventional or basic operation of a still, potable water the same time the drain valve opens. Specifications prepared
is used to condense the pure vapors from the evaporator and by the designer should describe the type of pretreated water
is heated. Part of this preheated water enters the evapora- to be used.
tor as feed water, while the greater part goes to the drain. Condensate as Feed Water
A well-designed still has the intrinsic features to retard the Another method of reducing maintenance on a steam-heated
formation of scale in the evaporator. These features include still is to use the condensed boiler steam as feed water. Here
frequent, automatic flushing and a bleeder valve that con- again, the raw water is used only as condenser cooling water.
tinuously deconcentrates the buildup of impurities in the The condensate from the steam trap is cooled and then passed
evaporator. through an ion exchange cartridge and an organic removal
As a further aid in reducing the maintenance of a still in filter. These cartridges remove any traces of scale-forming
areas having exceptionally hard water, it is often desirable salts, ionized amines, odor, or taste impurities present in the
(but not essential) to demineralize (with a deionizer or re- original condensate, as well as organics that may be given
off by the ion exchange cartridge.
This type of system commonly is referred to as the feed-
back purifier. This design contributes to a higher purity of
distillate and virtually eliminates the need to clean the still
(since scale-forming hardness has been eliminated from the
feed water).
It is important for the engineer to determine the char-
acteristics of the steam condensate when considering the
feedback purifier system. If amines are used as the treat-
ment for the boiler feed water in an excessive amount, this
method should not be used. However, most condensates are
satisfactory for this purpose.
Distribution Pressure
Whenever possible, it is best to locate the still and the storage
tank where gravity can be employed to provide an adequate
pressure to operate the distribution system. When this condi-
tion is not possible, centrifugal pumps of the appropriate size
must be used. Along with the circulation pump, an orificed
bypass back to the storage tank should be installed so the
pump can be operated continuously, maintaining adequate
pressure in the distribution system. Then the distilled water
is available in any outlet all the time. The bypass relieves
the pressure on the circulating pump when the water is not
being drawn at its outlets.
A low water cutoff also should be installed on the storage
tank to shut off the pump if the storage tank runs dry. This
Figure 10-21 Typical Air Filter
pump arrangement is simple in construction, efficient to considered to provide 8,000 hours of continuous use and to
operate, and less expensive than a pressurized tank. not degrade to more than 55 percent of their initial output.
When ultraviolet equipment is sized, the flow rate and
Specialized Water Treatment quality of the incoming water must be taken into consider-
Ozone Treatment ation. It is generally necessary to filter the water before the
ultraviolet equipment. Sometimes it may be necessary to
Ozone is a compound in which three atoms of oxygen are com-
filter downstream of the ultraviolet equipment with 0.2-µ
bined to form the ozone molecule O3. It is a strong, naturally
absolute filter cartridges to remove dead bacteria and cell
occurring, oxidizing, and disinfecting agent. The unstable
fragments.
ozone (O3) compound can be generated by the exposure of
Ultraviolet equipment often is used in drinking water,
oxygen molecules to ultraviolet radiation or high-energy
beverage water, pharmaceutical, ultra-pure rinse water, and
electrical discharge in manufactured ozone generators.
other disinfection applications.
Ozone can react with any oxidizable substance, such as
To validate effectiveness in drinking water systems, the
certain forms of inorganic materials like iron and manganese,
methods described in the U.S. EPA’s Ultraviolet Disinfec-
many organic materials, and microorganisms. In an oxida-
tion Guidance Manual is typically used. For wastewater
tion reaction, energy is transferred from the ozone molecule,
systems, the National Water Research Institute’s Ultraviolet
leaving a stable oxygen (O2) and a highly reactive oxygen
Disinfection Guidelines for Drinking Water and Water Reuse
atom (O1). The molecule being oxidized then bonds with the
is typically used, specifically in wastewater reclamation ap-
loose oxygen atom, creating an oxidized product or a deriva-
plications.
tion of the substance. Bacterial cells and viruses are literally
split apart (lysed) or inactivated through oxidation of their Reverse Osmosis
DNA and RNA chains by ozone in water and wastewater Reverse osmosis produces a high-purity water that does not
treatment applications. Ozone is the most powerful oxidizer have the high resistivity of demineralized water and is not
that can be safely used in water treatment. biopure. Under certain conditions, it can offer economic ad-
Ozone frequently is used to treat wastewater and as a vantages over demineralized water. In areas that have high
disinfectant and oxidant for bottled water, ultrapure waters, mineral content, it can be used as a pretreatment for a de-
swimming pools, spas, breweries, aquariums, cooling towers, mineralizer or still when large quantities of water are needed.
and many other applications. Ozone is not able
to produce a stable residual in a distribution
system. However, ozone can lower the chlorine
demand and thus the amount of chlorine re-
quired and the chlorinated by-products.
Ozone systems can be big enough to serve
central plants or municipalities. Figure 10-
22 shows an example of a large-scale system.
Figure 10-23 shows a simplified plan view of
such a system.
Ultraviolet Light Treatment
Ultraviolet light is electromagnetic radiation,
or radiant energy, traveling in the form of
waves. A short-range (UVC) wavelength is
considered a germicidal UV. When ultraviolet
light of a sufficient energy level is absorbed
into matter, it causes a chemical or physi-
cal change. In the case of microorganisms,
ultraviolet light is absorbed to a level that is
just enough to physically break the bonds in
DNA to prevent life reproduction. Therefore,
ultraviolet light is a mechanism capable of
disinfecting water. The most widely used
source of this light is low-pressure mercury
vapor lamps emitting a 254-nanometer (nm)
wavelength. However, 185 nm can be used for
both disinfection and total oxidizable carbon
reduction. The dosage required to destroy mi-
croorganisms is the product of light intensity
and exposure time. The exposure require-
ments for different microorganisms are well
documented by the EPA. Ultraviolet bulbs are
Figure 10-22 Schematic Diagram of a Large-Scale Ozone System
Figure 10-23 Simplified Plan View of Ozone System

Source: Ozone Technology, Inc. All rights reserved. Pressureless Ozone Water Purification Systems is a trademark of Ozone Technology, Inc. Copyright, 2006.
Reverse osmosis is used primarily in industrial applications completely shuts off water flow when the storage tank is full
and in some hospitals and laboratories for specific tasks. It also but allows an hourly washing of the membrane is essential.
is used by some municipalities and end users for the removal Three types of semipermeable membranes are manu-
of dissolved components or salts. factured from organic substances: tubular membrane,
Several types of reverse osmosis units are available. Basi- cellulose-acetate sheet membrane, and polyamide-hollow
cally, they consist of a semipermeable membrane, and water fiber membrane. They may be used for similar applications,
is forced through the membrane under high pressure. A drain assuming that the proper pretreatment for each is furnished.
and storage tank are required with this system. In properly designed and maintained systems, RO mem-
RO is a relatively simple concept. When equal volumes of branes may last two or three years.
water are separated by a semipermeable membrane, osmosis
RO Membranes
occurs as pure water permeates the membrane to dilute the
The current technology of RO developed rapidly as one
more concentrated solution (see Figure 10-24). The amount of
specific application of the larger technology of synthetic
physical pressure required to equalize the two volumes after
membranes. Several code requirements had to be met before
equilibrium has been reached is called the osmotic pressure.
these membranes could be considered practical or economical
If physical pressure is applied in excess of the osmotic pressure,
for water purification processes.
reverse osmosis (see Figure 10-25) occurs as water passes
First, the membrane had to be selective—that is, it had to
back through the membrane, leaving contaminants such as
be capable of rejecting contaminants and yet still be highly
dissolved salts, organics, and colloidal solids concentrated
permeable to water. This condition meant that it had to have
upstream. In practice, the concentrate is diverted to drain,
a consistent polymeric structure with a pore size in the range
thus rejecting contaminants from the system altogether. The
of the smallest contaminant molecules possible.
continuous flushing process of the membrane prevents a
Second, the membrane had to be capable of sustained
phenomenon known as concentration polarization, which is a
high flux rates to be economical and practical in water ap-
buildup of the polarized molecules on the membrane surface
plications. This condition meant that the membrane had to
that further restricts flow in a short period.
be thin and yet durable enough for long-term use.
For dependable long-term performance, RO equipment for
Developments in membrane technology led to a membrane
large-volume applications should be of all stainless steel fit-
with a thin skin (approximately 0.05 µ) cast on top of a po-
tings and bowls. Such a system should use solid-state controls
rous support structure (100 µ thick). This resulted in high
(with simple indicator lights and gauges) plus a conductivity
flux rates, selectivity, and structural strength. The resulting
meter that reads the tap and permeates water quality. High-
RO membrane proved to be highly resistant to chemical and
pressure relief devices and low-pressure switches protect
microbial degradation. It also could maintain the required
the membrane and the pump from any prefilter blockage
water quality and flow rates under a sustained high pressure.
and accidental feed water shutoff. A water-saver device that
Such a membrane could be incorporated into a system with

Figure 10-24 Osmosis Figure 10-25 Reverse Osmosis
relatively low capital, equipment, and operating costs. These by exchanging them with sodium salts). The reverse osmosis,
attributes were combined successfully, and the resulting deionization, and distillation processes are all capable of
membrane achieved a flow rate of 20 gallons per square foot producing laboratory-grade water.
per day at 800 psi with 95 percent removal of salt. The quality of the laboratory-grade water produced by
several methods of central-system water production is shown
RO Water Quality
in Table 10-4. The RO and distillation processes remove more
The term high purity often is applied to a type of water that
than 99 percent of all bacteria, pyrogens, colloidal matter,
may be exceptionally free of one class of contaminant and yet
and organics above molecular weight 200. These methods
may contain large amounts of another. The key, of course, is
remove the dissolved inorganic material, such as multivalent
the application involved. One useful distinction is between
ions, calcium, magnesium, carbonates, and heavy metals to
reagent-grade water and laboratory-grade water. Reagent-
the level of 98 percent, while monovalent ions, such as so-
grade water means that all classes of contaminants have been
dium, potassium, and chloride, are removed to the level of 90
removed from the water. Several nationally recognized stan-
percent to 94 percent by RO and 97 percent by distillation.
dards for reagent-grade water are published by ASTM and
Large-scale deionization processes achieve similar levels
the College of American Pathologists (CAP). The minimum
of inorganic ion removal, but they do not remove bacteria,
resistivity for reagent-grade water is 10 MΩ-cm at 25°C. The
production of reagent-grade water always
requires more than one stage of treatment. Table 10-4 Comparison of Laboratory-Grade Water Quality Produced by
It should be produced at the point of use Centralized Systems
to minimize (or eliminate) transportation Reverse Osmosis Distilled Deionized
and storage, which invariably degrade Tap, Percent Percent Percent
the reagent water purity. A system for Contaminant Typical Actual Removal Actual Removal Actual Removal
producing reagent-grade water might, for Microorganism/ mL 100 1 >99 1 >99 1000 a none
example, use the RO process to produce Particles 5 µm/mL 10,000 1 >99 200 >97 10,000 none
laboratory-grade water, plus a combina- Pyrogens Variable — >99 — >99 Variable none
tion of activated carbon, deionization, Dissolved
organics ppm 12 1 >95 1 >95 12 b none
and 0.20-µ membrane filtration. Only the
Dissolved
laboratory-grade water would be accumu-
inorganics ppm CaCO3 170 1–17 >90–98 1–8 >95–99 1–8 >95–99
lated and stored. The reagent water would Monovalent ions c — — >90 — >97 — >97
be produced at high flow rates as needed, Multivalent ions d — — >97 — >97 — >97
thus eliminating the need to store it. Conductivity, µS, 25°C 333 2–40 — 2–10 — 2–10 —
Laboratory-grade water is less rigor- Specific resistance
0.003 0.025–0.5 — 0.1–0.5 — 0.1–0.5 —
ously defined, but it still refers to water MΩ/cm, 25°C
from which one or more types of contami- Silicates ppm 1 0.1 >90 0.1 >90 0.1 >90
nants have been removed. This definition Heavy metals ppm 1 0.1 >97 0.1 >97 0.1 >90
should be distinguished from other pro- pH 7.5 6. 8 — 4–7. 5 — 7.0 —
cesses that exchange one contaminant for a
Bacteria often multiply in large deionizing (D.I.) resin beds used directly on tap water.
another, such as water softening (in which c Large D.I. resin beds also contribute organics from+ the+ resin– beds.
b
Monovalent ions: Singly charged ions such as Na , K , Cl

calcium and magnesium salts are removed d Multivalent ions: Multiply charged ions such as Ca2+, Mg2+, CO32–, SO42–
pyrogens, particles, and organics. Bacteria, in fact, can laboratory-grade water is readily available directly from the
multiply on the resins, resulting in an increase in biological RO system. Moreover, the transportation and storage of the
contaminants over normal tap water. reagent-grade water are avoided.
It should be stressed that the degrees of water purity
Nanofiltration
shown in Table 10-4 are obtainable only from well-cleaned
Nanofiltration (NF) is a cross-flow membrane filtration sys-
equipment that is performing to its original specifications.
tem that removes particles in approximately the 300–1,000
Maintaining this condition for the deionization process
molecular weight range, rejecting selected ionic salts and
means that the resins must be replaced (or regenerated)
most organics. Nanofiltration rejects the dissociated inorgan-
regularly and that the internal components of the still must
ic salts that are polyvalent, such as calcium, magnesium, and
be thoroughly cleaned. If a still is not properly and regularly
sulfate, while passing monovalent salts, such as sodium and
cleaned, the residual contaminants can cause the pH value
chloride. Therefore, nanofiltration often is called a softening
of the end product water to fall as low as 4. Reverse osmosis
membrane system. Nanofiltration operates at low feed pres-
is the only one of the methods that uses a reject stream to
sures. The equipment is similar to that for reverse osmosis.
continuously remove the residual contaminants. Regularly
scheduled prefilter changes and system maintenance are, Ultrafiltration
of course, necessary to maintain the desired water quality. Ultrafiltration (UF) is a membrane filtration system that
Applications for RO separates liquids and solids. This separation process is used
in industry and research to purify and concentrate macro-
The quality and cost of RO water make RO a strong competi-
molecular solutions, especially protein solutions. It provides
tor for distillation and deionization in many applications.
filtration in the range of 0.0015 µ to 0.1 µ, or approximately
Table 10-5 compares the three methods of water purification
1,000–100,000 molecular weight. Ultrafiltration in an indus-
for several research and industrial applications.
trial application often is used to separate oil and water as in
Frequently, the user needs both laboratory-grade and
cutting solutions, mop water, and coolants.
reagent-grade waters to meet a wide range of needs. Figure
10-26 shows two ways of approaching this situation. Alterna- Copper-Silver Ionization
tive A consists of a central RO system from which the water Copper-silver ionization is a not a filtration system, but
is piped to a point-of-use polishing system to be upgraded a method of injecting positive ions into the water stream.
to reagent-grade water. This approach utilizes the econom- The positive cations attach to the negative anions of organic
ics of a large central RO system while ensuring the highest pathogens, destroying their cell structures. It is used to elimi-
reagent-grade purity at those use points that require it. nate Legionella and other waterborne organisms; thus, these
Alternative B employs smaller point-of-use RO systems with systems are used extensively in hospitals and healthcare
point-of-use polishing, which eliminates lengthy distribution centers. Figure 10-27 shows the basic system components.
piping, a potential source of recontamination. Both alterna-
tives include a final polishing by activated carbon, mixed-bed
deionization, and 0.2-µ membrane filtration. In each case,
Figure 10-26 Approaches to Providing Laboratory-Grade and Reagent-Grade Water: (A) RO Water
Purified Centrally and Transported by Pipe to Points of Use Then Polished, (B) RO System Coupled with
Deionization System Totally at the Point of Use, Eliminating Piping

Table 10-5 Applications of Purified Water
Method of Purification
Water Use RO Distilled Deionized
General process use Yes Yes Yes
Yes (except
for pyrogens,
General lab use (buffers, chemical bacteria, and
mfg.) Yes Yes organics)
Dishwasher final rinse Yes Yes Yes
Critical lab use (reagents, tissue
Post-treatment necessary
culture, etc.)
Yes (must meet
purified water
USP XXIII water for injection standard) Yes No
Yes (except
for pyrogens,
bacteria, and
Hemodialysis Yes No organics)
Figure 10-27 Silver Ionization Unit and Control Panel

ASPE Read, Learn, Earn Continuing Education

You may submit your answers to the following questions online at aspe.org/readlearnearn. If you score 90 percent or higher on the test,
you will be notified that you have earned 0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward CPD renewal or numerous regulatory-agency CE pro-
grams. (Please note that it is your responsibility to determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.) CEU information will be kept
on file at the ASPE office for three years.
Notice for North Carolina Professional Engineers: State regulations for registered PEs in North Carolina now require you to complete ASPE’s
online CEU validation form to be eligible for continuing education credits. After successfully completing this quiz, just visit ASPE’s CEU Valida-
tion Center at aspe.org/CEUValidationCenter.
Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through June 30, 2014.
CE Questions — “Water Treatment” (CEU 201)

1. High-purity water is free from _______. 7. To size a water softener, you must consider _______.
a. minerals a. frequency of regeneration
b. bacteria b. space requirements
c. pyrogens c. flow rate
d. all of the above d. all of the above
2. Distillation is the reverse of _______. 8. Standard water softener units are designed for a pressure
a. deaeration differential of approximately _______.
b. demineralization a. 10 psi
c. filtration b. 15 psi
d. reverse osmosis c. 20 psi
d. 25 psi
3. What is formed when chlorine is added to water?
a. hypochlorous acid 9. Distillation removes which of the following?
b. hydrochloric acid a. particulate matter
c. sulfuric acid b. pyrogens
d. both a and b c. bacteria
d. all of the above
4. What is the normal water flow rate for most filters?
a. 2 gpm 10. Reverse osmosis equipment for large-volume applications
b. 3 gpm should be made of what material for long-term dependability?
c. 5 gpm a. copper
d. 6 gpm b. stainless steel
c. PVC
5. Which of the following is a problem connected with filter
d. glass
beds?
a. fissures 11. Which of the following is capable of producing laboratory-
b. gravel upheaval grade water?
c. mudballs a. reverse osmosis
d. all of the above b. deionization
c. distillation
6. Demineralization removes which of the following?
d. all of the above
a. pyrogens
b. bacteria 12. Which of the following is used to eliminate Legionella?
c. dissolved gases a. copper-silver ionization
d. organic matter b. nanofiltration
c. ultrafiltration
d. distillation

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Water

Many types of possible pathogenic organisms can be

2 Read, Learn, Earn JULY 2013

JULY 2013 Read, Learn, Earn 3

Magnesium bicarbonate — Mg(HCO3)2 X X

4 Read, Learn, Earn JULY 2013

JULY 2013 Read, Learn, Earn 5

Figure 10-1 Automatic Chlorinators

JULY 2013 Read, Learn, Earn 7

12 Read, Learn, Earn JULY 2013

JULY 2013 Read, Learn, Earn 13

14 Read, Learn, Earn JULY 2013

JULY 2013 Read, Learn, Earn 15

16 Read, Learn, Earn JULY 2013

Water analysis: (express in gr./ gal. or ppm as CaCo3)

× 60 min./hr. × GPM =

Step 4. Required exchange capacity:

Step 5. Select resin capacity & salt dosage per cu ft.:

( ) 32,000 gr @ 15# ( ) 29,000 gr @ 10# ( ) 21,000 gr @ 6#

Step 8. Salt consumption per regeneration:

Figure 10-18 Water Softener Sizing Procedure

18 Read, Learn, Earn JULY 2013

Figure 10-20 Distillation

Figure 10-23 Simplified Plan View of Ozone System

22 Read, Learn, Earn JULY 2013

Monovalent ions: Singly charged ions such as Na , K , Cl

24 Read, Learn, Earn JULY 2013

Figure 10-27 Silver Ionization Unit and Control Panel

JULY 2013 Read, Learn, Earn 25

ASPE Read, Learn, Earn Continuing Education

CE Questions — “Water Treatment” (CEU 201)

26 Read, Learn, Earn JULY 2013

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