Learner Resource Electricity ENG

College Humanities and Arts
School Creative Arts

Department Performing Arts
Qualification Certificate in Advanced Audio Engineering
Unit title CAE101 Sound and Electrical Concepts
Learner Resource - CAE101 Electricity

Associated Assessment tasks: CAE101 Task 2 Electricity Basics
This learner resource is designed to support the learning undertaken in classes delivered by your lecturers,
to ensure student comprehension of theoretical concepts and prepare you for the associated assessment
task/s.
Introduction to Electronics
Audio production involves converting sound (acoustic energy) to electrical energy so that it can be
processed and stored in some form. In this section, mechanisms for the conversion of acoustic energy to
electrical energy and electronic circuits and devices commonly used in audio recording will be examined.
6.1 Electricity
Electricity has become essential to modern life. It powers our appliances, makes possible all sorts of
industrial and manufacturing processes, and provides convenience to people in many ways: in the
generation of light, the preservation of food, and performance of tasks which would otherwise be difficult
or tedious.
The recording and reproduction of sound are two of those tasks. One hundred years ago, recording and
reproduction were mechanical processes. Now only transduction—the conversion of one form of energy
to another—is mechanical, but it still involves electricity and could more correctly be described as ‘electro-
mechanical’.
Electricity is a phenomenon which relies on substances being able to change instantaneously as a result of
their being unstable. To understand requires a little knowledge about how substances are made up and
how they behave.
All substances consist of atoms, tiny particles which are so small they cannot be seen, even under a
microscope. Atoms are made up of a nucleus and electrons which fly around the nucleus. The nucleus
consists of protons and neutrons. Electrons and protons have a property called electrostatic charge, which
causes them to attract one another. They also exert an electrostatic force, not unlike (but not the same
as) gravitational force between planetary bodies. It is electrostatic force which keep electrons flying
around the nucleus of the atom.
There are many different kinds of atoms with different numbers of electrons and protons and varying in
mass. These kinds are called elements: for example, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, helium, iron, silicon, etc.
Hydrogen, for example, has one electron; copper has 29.
Transduction is the conversion of one form of energy to another. Microphones convert acoustic energy to
electrical energy.
Creation date: 12/12/2018

Review date: 12/12/2019 Created by: David Rodger, Shane Simmonds, Jesse Roberts
Version: 1 © Melbourne Polytechnic 2018 | Page 1 of 19
6.1.1 Conductors
Each element exhibits greater or lesser ‘stability’, evident in its tendency to combine with other elements
to form compounds. Some elements, such as Helium, are inert: they do not react with other elements
under normal conditions.
Most elements are unstable. Their stability is related to the number of electrons they possess. An atom of
one element may ‘shares’ its electrons with one or more other atoms of the same or a different element.
Their combinations are many and varied. Two familiar examples are the combination of sodium and
chlorine to form common salt (NaCl), and the combination of one hydrogen and oxygen atoms to form
water (H2O). These compounds are usually more stable than individual atoms.
Some elements and substances are able to easily ‘shed’ electrons. Under certain conditions, when many
such atoms or molecules are combined, their electrons can easily ‘flow’ through the substance. These
substances are known as conductors. Many of the substances known as ‘metals’ are good conductors.
They are able to form bonds with atoms of the same type to form solids sheets or bodies. If electrons are
added to one atom, that atom sheds electrons to the next, which in turn sheds electrons to the next, and
so on.
Conditions which promote such a flow of electrons include light and heat, both of which add energy to
atoms' electrons. Thermal energy (heat) exists almost all the time, so some substances are very good
conductors in normal (ambient) conditions. However, another condition must be fulfilled before actual
flow of electrons occurs: the electrons must have somewhere to flow.
Copper is the conductor used in electrical cables to carry electricity.
6.1.2 Properties of Electricity
Having a conductor is not sufficient to generate electricity. There must be a difference in energy states
between different atoms in order for a current—a stream of electrons—to flow. This is called a potential
difference and the magnitude of the difference is called a potential. Such a potential can occur when two
substances are connected electrically. This is how batteries work. A battery comprises two chemical
solutions, one with an ‘excess’ of electrons and the other with a ‘deficit’ of electrons. When the two
solutions are connected with a conductor, the one with the excess ‘gives up’ electrons to the one with the
deficit. After a while, the excess and deficit balance and the battery runs down.
If we connect different conductors together in a circuit, we may cause a potential difference and current
will flow around the circuit. All materials present a resistance to the flow of electrons. In order to make a
current flow, work must be done to overcome that resistance. Any electrical circuit, in which electrons can
flow, has the following properties:
 Potential difference, called voltage (V) and measured in ‘volts’ (V).
 Current flowing (I), measured in ‘amperes’ or ‘amps’ (A).
 Resistance (R) in the circuit, measured in ‘ohms’ ( W).
Figure 6.1 A simple electrical circuit.

A further property, power, (P), is the work done to overcome resistance as current flows in the circuit,
measured in watts (W).
Different materials have different degrees of resistance. Good conductors, like copper, have a very low
resistance. Other materials, such as rubber and certain plastics, have a very high resistance and, under
most circumstances, do not allow the flow of electricity at all. For a specific substance, resistance is
relatively constant.
The unit for resistance, the ohm, is named after Georg Ohm, who discovered relationships between these
properties. It is symbolized by the Greek letter W.
6.1.3 Electromagnetic Induction
There is another property of such a circuit not shown in the diagram above. Any flow of electrons through
a material causes a magnetic force to emanate from around the conductors. This is called electromagnetic
induction: the magnetic field is induced by a changing current. Similarly, if a closed circuit passes through a
magnetic field, or is subjected to a magnetic field of changing strength or direction, a current is induced in
the conductors making the circuit.
Electromagnetic induction is exploited to make transducers such as microphones and loudspeakers. It is
also used in large-scale electricity generation.
6.2 Ohm’s Law
Ohm's Law describes the relationship between voltage, current and resistance. It states that one volt (1 V)
of potential difference will produce one ampere (1 A) of current when applied to one ohm (1 W) of
resistance.
Using symbols, we can state this simply as:
V = IR
V
where V is the voltage, I is the current, and R is the resistance.
I R
Potential difference can be considered to be the amount of energy applied to the circuit to overcome the
resistance. It is measured as ‘voltage’ or ‘electromotive force’. Power is the work done to overcome the
resistance. If there is a greater potential difference (energy) or a greater current (more energised
electrons), more work can be done. The power dissipated in the circuit described above is one watt (1 W):
P = IV
If the voltage is maintained and the resistance is halved, the current which flows will be doubled. If the
voltage is doubled, the current doubles. If we know the voltage and the resistance, we can work out the
current:
I = V/R
6.3 Direct Current and Alternating Current
If sound is to be recorded, we must covert the acoustic energy into some other form which can be stored
and reproduced. There are many ways to store sound, but most require at least one intermediate step:
conversion to electricity.
There are two types of electricity used in audio recording and reproduction: direct current (DC) and
alternating current (AC). The difference between them relates to the way current flows.
6.3.1 Direct current
A direct current occurs when the current is constant for a given voltage and resistance. Sources which
provide an unvarying voltage, like batteries, give a direct current. A number of the components which
make up circuits in audio equipment require a direct current power supply to work. They are called ‘active’
devices.
Ohm's Law can be easily applied to direct current circuits.
6.3.2 Alternating Current
For large-scale distribution of electricity, large voltages and currents are required. Batteries generate a
direct current by means of chemical reactions, but their ability to deliver such voltages and currents is
limited. Furthermore, the wiring used to distribute electricity has a small but significant resistance over
large distances which results in losses of energy. Transmission of high-voltage current compensates for
such losses.
Electricity is generated using a mechanical process which relies on the principal of electromagnetic
induction: a turbine rotating through a magnetic field. It contains three coils of wire, in which three
separate currents are generated. Because the orientation of the coils changes as they move through the
magnetic field, current flows one way and then the other—hence the term alternating current. Because
the turbine is rotated at a constant speed, the voltage and current of the electricity vary with simple
harmonic motion. A plot of their magnitude over time would produce a sine wave.
The coils are equally spaced around the turbine. Each enters and leaves the magnetic field in succession as
the turbine rotates. The resultant electrical signals are out of phase with one another by 120°. (120° x 3 =
360°, one complete revolution.)
For certain applications, electricity can be delivered as three phases. Many performance venues and
studios receive ‘three-phase’ electricity at 415 V. Audio, lighting and electro-mechanical equipment are
often connected to different phases. Because the phases are electrically isolated, they cannot interfere
with each other.
In Australia, the frequency of rotation is 50 Hz and the peak voltage and current supplied to domestic
premises are, respectively, 337 V and 14.1 A at their peaks. So where does the figures 240 V and 10 A come
from?
6.3.3 Root Mean Square (RMS)
If voltage and current are alternating in direction and varying in amplitude, the amount of work that they
can do in a circuit—the power dissipated—must also vary. However, under real world conditions,
resistances, such as light bulbs and heating elements, ‘lag’ somewhat in their response to changing
voltage and current. So, in considering the power dissipated in the circuit, it is more useful to find the
average over time. Once we know the average power consumption, we can work out the voltage which
would give us that power consumption.
Using the formulae from the Ohm's Law nomograph, we find that:
P = V 2 / R
If V is a sine wave varying between -337 V and +337 V and the resistance, R, is 1 W, the power dissipated
when the voltage is at its positive or negative peak is 113,569 W. (Multiplying a negative number by a
negative number produces a positive number.)
The equivalent constant power level is half that of the peak power. Using the formula in reverse, we find
that the equivalent voltage which would give a constant power is 0.707 of the peak voltage:
0.707 x 337 V = 240 V
This is not the true average voltage (which is actually 0.636 of the peak), but it is a more meaningful figure
because it is the voltage equivalent to the constant power. It is called the root mean square, or RMS
(Figure 6.3).
Similarly, the RMS current is 0.707 x peak current (14.1 A) or 10 A.
Figure 6.3 Peak and RMS amplitudes in a sine wave.
. We can easily work out the RMS value of voltage, current, and power with a (usually) steady-state signal
like the domestic electricity supply. But if the signal is varying (as musical signals do), it is much harder, if
not impossible. Furthermore, the phase of voltage and current change in electronic circuits, depending on
the components they contain and the frequencies in the signal passing through them.
It is not uncommon to see RMS specified for power ratings for electronic appliances, especially power
amplifiers built for music and sound reproduction. Occasionally, another ‘average’ rating—’continuous
power output’—is specified. Other ratings, such as PMPO (‘peak music power output’), are meaningless.
They claim to refer to the output during musical peaks—the ‘attack’ portion of a sound’s envelope. Any
reasonably designed amplifier should be able to supply the necessary voltage and current to accurately
reproduce a loud attack such as a drumbeat, which lasts for a very short time. The amplifier’s ability to
deliver voltage and current over a longer time is more important as it determines how much amplification
is possible before the onset of distortion. An RMS rating is the most accurate measure.
6.4 Converting sound to an electrical signal
Sound is a fluctuation in air pressure, whose size must be 0.00002 Pa or greater and whose rate must be
gnal. between 20 and 20000 Hz to be perceived by humans. In the conversion from sound to electricity, some
electrical properties must also fluctuate above and below zero. In fact, voltage and current both fluctuate
when sound is converted to electricity. Current flow alternates direction.
What is required is a transducer to convert acoustic energy to electrical energy. Microphones are
transducers which perform this conversion.
If we had a perfect transducer, the size and direction of any changes in air pressure would be perfectly
matched by the changes of the resulting electrical signal. It is very difficult to make a perfect transducer,
but in many cases the resulting electrical signal is very close to the original changes in air pressure. Any
differences between the original ‘source’ and the resulting signal are called distortion.
For example, a microphone has a diaphragm which is moved by changes in air pressure, but the range of
movement is limited. If the sound reaching the diaphragm is very loud, the diaphragm will reach its limits
of movement very quickly and the resulting electrical signal will not show the very high peaks and troughs

in the original sound. The diaphragm is heavy compared to the air molecules which move it, so it has
inertia. Very small changes in air pressure may not be registered as accurately as larger changes.
All audio devices produce distortion, but it can be minimised if those devices are operated within certain
limits. For a microphone, those limits are its diaphragm’s inertia and maximum possible displacement.
6.5 Resistance
Electronic circuits are made up of different components which cause changes in the electrical properties
of the signals passing through them. A basic circuit consists of a voltage source which passes through a
resistance, as shown in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4 A simple series circuit.

If we connect these components in different ways, the circuit exhibits different properties. For example, if
we connect a couple of resistances one after another—or in series—the total resistance in the circuit is
given by adding the values of the individual resistances.
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
Figure 6.5 A voltage divider: two resistors in series.

This sort of circuit is called a voltage divider. Because the resistances are in series, the same current flows
through them, so we can find the voltage difference across each of them using Ohm's Law.
If we split the flow of electricity and place resistors in the two arms of the circuit, the total resistance is
found differently:
R total = 1 + 1 + ... + 1
R1 R2 Rn
Figure 6.6 A current divider: two resistors in parallel.

This sort of circuit is called a current divider. We can apply Ohm's Law to find the current flowing through
each of these resistances, because the electrical potential flowing through each arm of the circuit is the
same.
Materials which exhibit the same resistance regardless of the frequency of the electronic signals are called
resistors. There are other materials, or combinations of materials, whose resistance varies with voltage,
current, and the frequency of voltage and current. When this sort of resistance characteristic occurs, it is
often referred to as impedance.
6.6 Impedance
There are two main forms of impedance:
Resistance is inherent in all materials. Some materials have low resistance and conduct electrical current
very well. Other materials have high resistance and are poor conductors. In most materials, resistance is
relatively constant, varying a little with temperature.
Reactance is a more complex form of impedance which varies with frequency. It has two components:
capacitance and inductance.
Marty McCann, in his paper Impedance in Audio Technology, writes:
Here is an analogy for impedance in the physical world. You have loaded a wheel barrow with dirt,
and now you must move the payload. When you pick up on the handles of the wheel barrow, the
weight offers a resistance. However, because the handles operate with the wheel and the axle to
form a kind of inclined plane (lever), the resistance is less than the actual weight. In order to get the
wheel barrow moving, you must apply even more force, but the mass (real weight of the dirt) offers
inertia or opposition to the force applied (Inductive reactance). Now imagine you have moved the
payload to its intended location, and must now stop the wheel barrow's forward motion. But now
the opposition to the deceleration is in the form of momentum or stored energy in the actual
motion of the wheel barrow (Capacitive reactance).1
Impedance is the total opposition to current flow offered by the frequency-independent resistive
component and the frequency-dependent reactive components (capacitance and inductance).
6.6.1 Capacitors
Capacitors consist of parallel ‘plates’ with an insulating material between them which impedes the flow of
electrons (electrical charge) between them. The plates are close enough to one another for electrostatic
forces emanating from each to interact with those of the other.
When connected to a battery or a signal source with a potential difference, electrons are pulled from one
plate, and pushed toward the other plate. The two plates now have a potential difference—the excess
electrons on one plate are attracted to the deficit of electrons on the other. Because of the insulating
material, they can’t flow. If the plates are bigger, the capacity to hold the excess electrons is greater and
the attraction is stronger. The smaller the gap between the plates, the greater the capacity to hold excess
electrons, because the attraction between the excess and the deficit is greater (they are closer in space).
The capacitor is therefore unable to charge and discharge quickly when a high-frequency signal is passed
through it. Low-frequency signals pass through unaffected, but high-frequency signals are attenuated.
McCann, M. Impedance in Audio Technology, http://www.peavey.com/tech/impedance.html

6.6.2 Inductors
Inductors work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The inductor is a coil of wire. When an
alternating current passes through the coil, a magnetic field is induced around the coil. As the current
rises, the magnetic field strength increases. As the current falls, the magnetic field strength decreases. If
the signal is an alternating current, the field’s strength not only rises and falls but its polarity changes as
well.
The changing magnetic field envelops the coil itself and induces current in the coil. The induced current
flows in opposition to the signal current. The induced current also has a voltage, sometimes called a ‘back
EMF’. The size of the effect principally depends on the tightness of the coils and the magnetic properties
of the wire.
As the signal current increases, the strength of the induced current in the inductor also increases. The back
EMF is very large but decreases as the rate of change in the signal decreases (approaches a peak, positive
or negative). When the signal strength reaches the peak, the induced current and back EMF fall to a
minimum.
6.7 Filters
Simple filter circuits can be built by placing inductors and capacitors in series with resistors. A capacitor in
series with a resistor builds a filter which passes low frequencies but attenuates high frequencies.
Accordingly, it is called a low-pass filter (Figure 6.12).
amplitude
0 dB
-3 dB
cut-off frequency
frequency
Figure 6.12 Frequency characteristic of a low-pass filter.

An inductor in series with a resistor builds filter which passes high frequencies and attenuates low
frequencies. It is called a high-pass filter (Figure 6.13).
amplitude
0 dB
-3 dB
cut-off frequency
frequency
Figure 6.13 Frequency characteristic of a high-pass filter.

The frequency at which a filter begins attenuating (stops passing a signal unaffected) can be calculated.
The frequency at which the attenuation reaches 3 dB—that is, –3 dB below the unaffected part of the
frequency spectrum—is called the cut-off point or cut-off frequency.
High-pass and low-pass filters can be used in combination. If the cut-off frequency of the high-pass filter is
lower than the cut-off frequency of the low-pass filter, the result is a filter which passes a limited band. It is
therefore a band-pass filter (Figure 6.14).
amplitude
0 dB 0 dB
-3 dB -3 dB
frequency
Bandwidth
Figure 6.14 Frequency characteristic of a band-pass filter.

If the cut-off frequency of the high-pass filter is higher than the cut-off frequency of the low-pass filter,
then a limited band is attenuated. This filter is called a band-reject filter (Figure 6.15).
amplitude
0 dB
-3 dB
Bandwidth frequency
Figure 6.15 Frequency characteristic of a band-reject filter.

With more complex circuits, employing more components in series and parallel arrangements, the
steepness of the attenuation can be altered. The steepness is usually expressed in dB per octave. For
example, a 6 dB/oct high-pass filter with a cut-off at 500 Hz causes attenuation at 250 Hz of 6 dB.
(Remember that an octave is a doubling of frequency. Therefore, an octave down from 500 Hz is 250 Hz.)
Combinations of such filters are used to build more complicated circuits: equalizers and crossovers. Since
the behaviour of the component—resistors, capacitors and inductors—is well understood, characteristics
of particular circuit designs can be predicted.
The perceived sound quality of a circuit may not be entirely sue to the circuit design. Differences in
components may cause slight differences. For example, polypropylene capacitors are generally thought to
sound different to paper capacitors.

6.7.1 Equalizers
Equalizers come in several varieties. They can be ‘passive’ devices which attenuate signals or ‘active’
devices which have amplifiers to boost or attenuate (‘cut’) signals and may allow adjustment of only some
parameters or all parameters.
Parametric equalizers can consist of high-pass filters, low-pass filters, or band-pass filters or a combination
of all these types with frequency and gain controls available. They may sometimes have a control for
bandwidth, the ‘width’ of the boost or cut. There is usually a high-pass band with a relatively low cut-off
frequency to control the amount of bass, and a low-pass band with a relatively high cut-off frequency to
control the amount of treble.
Graphic equalizers have 10 or more pass bands at fixed frequencies, usually specified at ISO 2 standard
frequencies, spaced one-third, two-third or whole octave intervals. Bandwidth may be fixed or variable
depending on the circuit design.
Graphic equalizers are often used in sound reinforcement to compensate for anomalies in the frequency
response of speakers or to get maximum gain before the onset of acoustic feedback between
microphones and speakers. Parametric equalizers are most often used to adjust the tonal quality of
individual signals and, sometimes, to apply equalisation to speaker systems broader than is possible with
graphic equalizers.
6.7.2 Crossovers
If tweeters—speaker drivers able to reproduce high frequencies—receive high-amplitude low-frequency
signals, they may be damaged. Woofers— speaker drivers able to reproduce low frequencies—are too
heavy to accurately reproduce high frequencies. A crossover is needed to ensure that speaker drivers
receive signals they are best able to reproduce.
Crossovers typically have filters with a fixed amount of attenuation (‘slope’, specified in dB per octave)
and controls which alter the cut-off frequencies of adjacent bands. For example, in a 2-way crossover,
there is one frequency control: lowering the control lowers the cut-off frequency of the low-pass filter and
the cut-off frequency of the high-pass filter. If this were not so, there might be an overlap between the
frequency responses of the low- and high-frequency drivers, resulting in an unwanted boost, or a gap
between the frequency responses, resulting in an unwanted cut.
6.8 Active Circuits
Most of the circuits described so far are called ‘passive’ circuits, because any effects they have attenuate
the signal. There is another class of circuits which amplify the signals passing through them. They called
active circuits.
The basis of the devices which provide amplification are called semiconductors. They have a very high
resistance under normal conditions. When a direct current voltage is applied to them, they allow current
to flow in one direction. The DC voltage applied to them is called bias.
Particular configurations of connected semiconductors make up transistor circuits. Networks of
transistors, resistors and capacitors produce circuits which can greatly amplify a signal. Such networks
used to be made of discrete (separate) components. Nowadays, they are built on a very small scale into
integrated circuits.
Because it allows current to flow one way only, a single transistor will not amplify an alternating current
signal. It is necessary to have two networks of transistors, one to amplify the current flowing in one
2
ISO: International Standards Organisation.

direction and one to amplify the current flowing in the opposite direction. There is invariably some low-
level distortion when the current flow switches from one network to the other. However, the benefit of
amplification easily achieved is generally felt to be greater than the small amount of distortion produced.
In any case, well-designed amplifiers exhibit very low switching distortion.
Filters which incorporate active devices provide a means of boosting a signal at the certain frequency
rather than merely attenuating it. Most circuits used for tonal control nowadays employ active devices.
6.9 Measuring Electrical Signals
The properties of electrical signals—voltage, current, impedance (or resistance), and power—can be
measured and specified in their respective units: Volts, Amperes, Ohms and Watts. But it is often not
practical to use these properties to describe an audio signal. Why?
Humans do not hear in a linear manner. Each tenfold increase in pressure variation sounds about twice as
loud. If we convert those sound waves into electrical signals using a reasonably accurate transducer, the
sound that is ‘twice as loud’ will produce a voltage variation, 10 times that of the signal produced by the
‘softer’ sound. Over the entire range that humans can hear (from the threshold of hearing to the
threshold of feeling), the voltage difference between corresponding signals would be the same as the air
pressure difference between the softest and loudest sounds: 1 million times!
Therefore, it is useful to use a logarithmic scale to measure and specify electrical signals. There is already
such a scale for sound: the decibel. The decibel is a comparison between two sounds.
For example, what is the ratio in decibels between a signal whose power is 8 watts and a signal whose
power is 2 watts?
Ratio = 10 log 8/2
= 10 log 4
= 6.02 dB
To measure the absolute size, rather than the relative size, of a sound, one of those sounds being
compared should be a known size. In measuring sound, both Sound Intensity Level and Sound Pressure
Level are expressed relative to the typical threshold of human hearing. That is, any sound measured using
SIL or SPL scales is being compared to a sound at the threshold of hearing.
The example above tells us that that the 8 watt signal is 6.02 dB louder than the 2 watt signal. To make
this comparison meaningful, we must assume that the conditions under which the signals occurred were
the same, because power is related to voltage, current and load (impedance). If the conditions were the
same, this would still not provide a real measure of the signal level, but only a comparison between the
two signals.
It is not enough to say that a device can produce a maximum of 20 dB. One might be prompted to ask, ‘20
dB compared to what?’, since decibels express a ratio rather than an absolute quantity.
When measuring sounds, we have a known reference: the threshold of hearing. But signals are not
sounds: we cannot hear them. Therefore, there is no ‘threshold’. Instead, we can compare the signal we’re
measuring to a signal under some known set of conditions.
All audio devices (and in fact all electrical devices) are designed to operate under fairly limited conditions.
If they are operated outside those conditions, they may produce distortion or even be damaged. For this
reason, electrical manufacturers often specify the operating conditions of their products. In the case of
audio products, this means stating the conditions of signals they can receive and produce. Some units of
measurement are commonly used: dBm, dBu, dBv and dBV.

6.9.1 An ‘Absolute’ Signal Level: dbm

The term dBm is a measure of signal level compared to 1 milliwatt (0.001 W):
Watts 0 dBm = 0.001 W
If we say that a device can produce a maximum signal level of 30 dBm, it means that it can produce a
maximum 1 W (one thousand times 1 milliwatt).
dBm is a useful unit because it allows us to express an absolute measure. But it is really absolute? Power is
related to voltage, current and impedance. Unless we know another of these signal properties, we can’t
actually say very much about the signal we’re measuring except that it is 30 dBm (1 W). If this power level
is to be delivered by the device and the output impedance was increased then the voltage would have to
be increased too to maintain the 1 watt output.
6.9.2 An Absolute Signal Level: dBu
Because dBm expresses nothing about the conditions under which the signal was measured, another unit
has been introduced. The term dBu means the signal level compared to 1 milliwatt when (and only when)
the load (the impedance through which it passes) is 600 ohms:
0 dBu = 0.001 W (600 )
Why do we need to know the conditions? If a device is designed to be connected to a high impedance, but
we connect a low-impedance load, the voltage at its output will be much lower. If we wish to maintain the
signal level coming from the device, we would have to either amplify the signal before it reaches the
device’s output or amplify the signal after it leaves the device. In the first case, this is likely to increase
distortion or cause damage because the device may not be able to handle a highly-amplified signal. In the
second case, the noise produced by all devices in the preceding signal chain will be amplified along with
the (now very low) signal.
Different audio devices produce signals of different amplitudes which must be treated in different ways to
be properly transferred and reproduced in the audio chain.
Mic Level
Microphones generally give levels up to -20 dBu. They typically have output impedances of 50 to 200
ohms.
Line Level
Line levels, such as one gets from synthesizer outputs, preamp outputs, and most inputs and outputs of
signal processors, are from -20 dBu to +30 dBu. A typical specification is +4 dBm input and output levels.
Input impedances are typically around 600 ohms, and input impedances are often in the order of 50
kilohms (50,000 ohms).
Speaker Level
Speaker level describes all levels above +30 dBu, such as outputs of power amplifiers. The outputs of
power amplifiers typically have impedances of less than 0.1 ohms. Speaker impedances are typically
between 4 and 16 ohms. One should remember, though, that speakers’ impedance varies with frequency.
There may also be considerable interaction between the speaker and the crossover network, so
impedance ratings for speakers are nominal and do not necessarily represent how the speaker will behave
when fed a complex signal.
Level and impedance matching is not quite as simple as it seems, because products intended for different
markets or applications may be used together. Consumer audio equipment operates around –16 to –10

dBu into 10 kilohm loads. This is generally too low for most professional audio equipment which has
nominal operating levels around +4 dBm (typically at 600 ohms), and may cause an overload in the output
of the consumer audio device. Connecting the output of professional audio unit (nominal +4 dBm output)
to the input of consumer unit causes a different problem. The consumer audio equipment is designed to
receive a signal of –16 to –10 dBu. Its input stage will probably overload and produce distortion.
Connecting Audio Devices
Bohn, Dennis (1991). Unity Gain and Impedance Matching: Strange Bedfellows. Rane Corporation.
http://www.rane.com/tech/note124.pdf.
Macatee, Stephen (1995). Connecting and Shielding Audio Devices. Mukilteo: Rane Corporation.
Rane Technical Staff (1995). Sound System Interconnection. Mukilteo: Rane Corporation.
Electrical Appliances and Equipment
240 volt alternating current (AC) mains power supply

In Australia, audio equipment is powered by 240 Volts AC, at a frequency of 50Hz as supplied from typical
wall power outlets at 10 amperes in domestic residences and at 20 amperes in many commercial /
industrial complexes. In other countries such as USA and in Europe these figures vary and therefore the
equipment used in other countries is not compatible in Australia.
Power Supply
Different countries have differing electrical supply available to them. Generally, electricity is supplied at
230V in Indonesia. However, this may vary so it is important to understand how to calculate how much
power you need to draw for your sound system. Much of the power is supplied via a two-pronged plug
and socket. Some venues will have sockets that offer an earth pin in addition to the other two prongs on a
plug.
If you have a 2 Amp amplifier plugged into a 230V power outlet you will need 460 watts of available
power. So, if you have a large sound system that draws 11 Amps and is connected to a 230 Volt power
outlet you will need 2530 watts of power to run your equipment.
In Indonesia, power is supplied at 230 volts so a master switch allows us an electrical current of 25 amps
then our power connection is 230 volts x 25 amps = 5,750 (W).
The electrical power we use is measured in watts (W) or in kilowatts (kW), a kilowatt is a thousand watts.
In this example, we have used 5,500 Watts of our available electrical supply.
For example, In Australia household electricity is supplied at 240 volts and up to 10 amps per electrical
circuit. Each circuit must also be fitted with a 10 amp circuit breaker. This means the maximum amount of
power you can draw from an outlet is calculated as follows
Amount Of volts Supplied Maximum Amps to draw Total amount of Watts
240V X 10A = 2400 W

This means if I had a sound system that required more power than 2400 Watts, I would need to find
additional power. Power supply is never really constant, in fact it can vary a lot. It is not uncommon for
electricity to vary plus or minus 10% from the suggested supply levels. Calculating electrical usage can save
your equipment from damage as power being cut off can create large audible pops, click and other noise
that can damage your sound system.
Generators and Un-interrupted power supplies

If a power supply is too inconsistent or inadequate for audio production tasks, external equipment such as
generators, power conditioners, or uninterrupted powers supplies (UPS), may be required.
Generator:
A device usually powered by Diesel fuel capable of producing
electricity.
Power conditioner:
External device used to regulate electrical surges
and noise
Un-interrupted Power Supply:

A device that can store electricity and deliver it if electrical supply is interrupted

Classes of electrical appliances
Class 0 – no protective earth connection (specialized design and not used in audio);
Class I – most common in professional audio systems. All have their chassis connected to earth by an
earth conductor. A fault in the appliance which causes a live conductor to contact the casing will cause a
current to flow in the earth conductor.
Class II – a double insulated electrical appliance which has been designed in such a way that it does not
require a safety connection to electrical earth. It has two layers of insulating material surrounding live
parts. These are found in many domestic media players, audio outboard signal processors, synth /
keyboards, guitar / bass ‘stomp-boxes’ etc.
Class III – is not common to audio equipment. The voltage from this type of supply is low enough that
under normal conditions a person can safely come into contact with it without risk of electrical shock. The
extra safety features built into Class I and Class II appliances are therefore not required.
Single and three-phase types of mains power supply
Single - phase systems – most commonly used in homes and many small - medium size venues. This
power supply is adequate for many small to medium audio systems but will share power supply with other
equipment in the building. This can lead to electrical interference (hum or buzzing noise) being amplified
with the audio signal.
Three - phase systems – provided more for industry to run specialized equipment such as electric motors.
Also used in dedicated music / concert venues to provide audio only power supply isolated from other
systems such as lighting and air conditioning. This ensures minimal electrical interference in the audio path
from those other systems.
240V Cable colour codes SINGLE PHASE THREE - PHASE
LINE 1 – BROWN
PHASE CONDUCTOR (LIVE) BROWN LINE 2 – BLACK
LINE 3 - GREY
NEUTRAL CONDUCTOR BLUE
PROTECTIVE CONDUCTOR (EARTH) GREEN AND YELLOW
Mains power fuses – safety and equipment protection
All audio equipment is protected by circuit breakers called fuses designed for easy access and
replacement. A fine resistor / element within the fuse will ‘blow’ (melt and break) when either

1. there is an internal problem due to short circuit or signal overload, or

2. there is an external problem such as temporary or constant excess current flow.
When servicing a blown fuse observe the following important safety precautions:
 ALWAYS DISCONNECT equipment from the power source FIRST – remove the power cable
altogether if possible.
 Work under good light and at bench height wherever possible.
 If the fuse is not accessible externally: the fuse will be inside the chassis near the main power
transformer – this requires disassembly of the unit which could take some time. (Consider sending
the unit to a repairer and replacing the unit temporarily with a backup unit).
 If the fuse is accessible externally: Locate the fuse holder which will be near or beside the mains
power cable entry point on the chassis. Remove the blown fuse and READ ITS Voltage and Current
VALUES - inscribed upon it in fine print.
 You must match the physical size of the fuse and its values (eg 240V – 3A) identically with the
replacement fuse or risk damaging the equipment.
 Avoid using ‘slow-blow’ fuses as they can cause major damage by not disconnecting immediately
 If after replacement the fuse blows again you must remove the equipment and tag it as faulty
before outsourcing to a qualified repair person.
Electrical Safety for you and your equipment

Fuses are an important way of protecting your equipment from power surges and being connected to
incorrect voltage supplies. It is important to understand the main types of fuses you will encounter and to
understand how to identify them. A fuse will have its Amp and Voltage rating stamped into the metal
ends. Whenever you change a fuse be sure to replace it with one of the exact recommended size and type.
A fuse contains an element that is designed to blow and prevent incorrect voltage being
supplied to your equipment. A tiny spring like spiral element is used in slow blow type
fuses. These fuses are usually found in lower voltage type applications
A fast blow glass fuse has a single fine element, and will blow much quicker than a slow
blow fuse. As equipment requires higher voltage it becomes more important that a fuse
can react quickly enough to prevent equipment damage
Ceramic fuses are also used in higher voltage applications. They are easily identifiable as
they are opaque and white in colour.

Electrical circuit breakers- Safety switch designed to cut power in the event of
electrocution or other electrical accidents. These should be regularly checked to
ensure they are operating quickly enough to save lives and equipment damage.
Other ways of ensuring electrical safety in your workplace.

In addition to ensuring all the circuits you use have a properly functioning
circuit breaker ensuring that you always wear correct foot wear is a good
way of reducing your risk of electrical shock.
Rubber soled shoes can prevent electricity from passing through your body.
Setting up production equipment can expose you to electrical cables that
have been damaged or crushed. You may encounter water spills or rain near
electrical connections. Correct footwear can reduce your risk of
electrocution.
Testing and tagging of electrical equipment is also a good way to ensure your cabling and equipment are
not damaged and dangerous. A portable test tag unit can be used to ensure cables have safe insulation,
the plugs are correctly wired, and the earth cable is good enough to save your life.
Many cables will fail test tagging on the visual checks alone. Inspect
cables for cuts or crushes in the rubber insulation. Remove any gaff
tape or old labels so you can inspect all the cables. Run your hands
along the entire length of the cable (not when it is connected to
active power), and feel for cable damage each time you pack them
for an event, and again when they are returned to the factory.
Beware of any plugs that look like have been fitted to cable that
don’t match the cable. Inspect plugs and pins for burn marks also.
If you see someone being electrocuted DO NOT touch them with your bear hands. The electricity will pass
through them and shock you. Find something with a wooden or rubber handle (a broom stick) and
attempt to push them away from the source of the electricity. Pushing them behind the knees can help
collapse their body away from electricity.
ALWAYS report damaged cables and electrical issues to your supervisor. Ask your supervisor to mark an
electrical hazard with correct signage until it can be safely dealt with.
Pay attention to electrical warning signs.

Use hazard tape to mark out an area with an electrical hazard
Common maintenance of mains power connections

Visual checks - check regularly and use good lighting to inspect for signs of wear on cables and
connectors.
 Observe codes of best practice that all electrical equipment must be tested and tagged. This
should occur not less frequently than:
1. annually in the case of house lanterns and electrical equipment;
2. six monthly in the case of extension cables;
3. before and after every hire in the case of hired equipment;
4. five yearly in the case of non-moveable fixed electrical equipment;
5. after repair and before use in the case of electrical equipment under repair.
 Tag all faults clearly and isolate any item needing service repair;
 If in doubt take no risk with 240 Volt mains power anywhere or anytime;
 Use an endorsed reporting process to ensure any fault is dealt with appropriately;
 Carry tested and tagged replacement spares as part of ongoing contingency planning.
Common Faults – appropriate actions
Fault Appropriate action

Too many devices connected to one power point or
circuit. Recalculate total current draw from
Activation of circuit breaker or RCD due to
equipment being used. Reduce number of devices
excess current-draw on one power point or one
and reset breaker to test. If it trips again you may
circuit.
well have a faulty device in which case you should
locate and remove it. Tag this.
Exposed inner flex wires – colours are visible Cut entire damaged section of cable and refit plug in
beneath the outer rubber sheath. This occurs accordance with Australian safety standards or
due to repeatedly removing a plug by gripping outsource to qualified electrician.
the cable rather than the plug itself. This will
cause fracture, stretch and/or premature wear Test and tag as safe to use.
on the cable and /or strain-relief points.
Plug terminals are bent and won’t fit socket If any terminal is fractured or cracked then remove
easily and replace entire plug. If only bent these can be
straightened carefully with large pliers. Test and tag
as safe.
Earth terminal missing or deliberately removed DO NOT USE! Remove and tag clearly as DANGER.
Power point moves on wall mounting plate Use power point tester. If faulty cover with electrical
tape to prevent use. Label and report in any case.
Outer protective sheath is fractured from Remove and replace entire cable.
impact or inappropriate winding up by user

Outer protective sheath or plug is hot or Suspect the worst – an internal short-circuit
melted due to current overload or internal between conducting wires (wires touching each
short circuit. other). Remove completely and trash. Cut cable to
prevent further use.


Learner Resource Electricity ENG

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Learner Resource Electricity ENG

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Learner Resource Electricity ENG

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

College Humanities and Arts

School Creative Arts

Learner Resource - CAE101 Electricity

Creation date: 12/12/2018

Figure 6.1 A simple electrical circuit.

Figure 6.3 Peak and RMS amplitudes in a sine wave.

Creation date: 12/12/2018

Figure 6.4 A simple series circuit.

Figure 6.5 A voltage divider: two resistors in series.

Figure 6.6 A current divider: two resistors in parallel.

Creation date: 12/12/2018

McCann, M. Impedance in Audio Technology, http://www.peavey.com/tech/impedance.html

Figure 6.12 Frequency characteristic of a low-pass filter.

Figure 6.13 Frequency characteristic of a high-pass filter.

Creation date: 12/12/2018

Figure 6.14 Frequency characteristic of a band-pass filter.

Figure 6.15 Frequency characteristic of a band-reject filter.

Creation date: 12/12/2018

ISO: International Standards Organisation.

Creation date: 12/12/2018

6.9.1 An ‘Absolute’ Signal Level: dbm

Creation date: 12/12/2018

Electrical Appliances and Equipment

240 volt alternating current (AC) mains power supply

Creation date: 12/12/2018

Generators and Un-interrupted power supplies

Un-interrupted Power Supply:

Creation date: 12/12/2018

Classes of electrical appliances

Single and three-phase types of mains power supply

240V Cable colour codes SINGLE PHASE THREE - PHASE

NEUTRAL CONDUCTOR BLUE

PROTECTIVE CONDUCTOR (EARTH) GREEN AND YELLOW

Mains power fuses – safety and equipment protection

Creation date: 12/12/2018

1. there is an internal problem due to short circuit or signal overload, or

Electrical Safety for you and your equipment

Creation date: 12/12/2018

Other ways of ensuring electrical safety in your workplace.

Creation date: 12/12/2018

Use hazard tape to mark out an area with an electrical hazard

Common maintenance of mains power connections

Common Faults – appropriate actions

Fault Appropriate action

Creation date: 12/12/2018

Creation date: 12/12/2018

You might also like