ALTERNATING CURRENT PHYSICS - II C

Construction: dF
A schematic design of an ac dynamo is turn of the coil is - = BAw sin wt .
dt
shown in figure(a). A simplified diagram of the same
The total emf induced in the coil is,
is shown in figure (b). It consists of three main parts:
a magnet, an armature with slip rings and brushes. E = NBAw sin wt = E 0 sin wt
soft - iron core w
We see that the emf varies sinusoidally with
time with an angular frequency w and hence with
N S
B 2p
N
S
C1 a time period T = . The maximum magnitude
C1 w
C2 B1 C2
B1 P
P
B2
of the emf, known as peak emf, is E 0 .
B2
Q Q
B1.B2 = brushes C1.C2 = slip rings
æ2p ö
(a) (b)
We know, E = E 0 sin wt = E 0 sin ççç t÷÷
Magnet: It may be a permanent magnet or an èT ø÷
electromagnet. The poles of the magnet face each When t = 0 then E = 0
r
other so that a strong uniform magnetic field B is
T æ2p T ö
produced between the poles. When t = then E = E 0 sin ççç ´ ÷ ÷= + E 0
4 è T 4 ø÷
Armature: It is a coil generally wound over a
soft iron core. The core increases the magnetic field æ2p T ö
T
due to its magnetization. The two ends of the coil When t = then E = E 0 sin ççç ´ ÷ ÷= 0
2 è T 2 ø÷
are connected to two slip rings C1 and C2. The coil
together with the rings can rotate in the magnetic
3T æ2p 3T ö÷
field. The axis of rotation is in the plane of the coil When t = then E = E 0 sin ççç ´ ÷= - E 0
but perpendicular to the magnetic field. 4 èT 4 ø÷
Brushes: Two graphite brushes B1 and B2 æ2p ö
permanently touch the slip rings. As the armature When t = T then E = E 0 sin ççç ´ T ÷÷= 0
èT ø÷
rotates, the slip rings C1 and C2 slip against the
brushes so that the contact is maintained all the time. If the instantaneous value of alternating emf is
These brushes are connected to two terminals P and E = E 0 sin wt , then the corresponding
Q. The external circuit is connected to these instantaneous value of alternating current is given
terminals. by I = I0 sin wt . Where I0 and E0 denote the peak
emf Induced as the Coil Rotates: values of current and emf respectively.
Suppose the area of the coil is A, it contains N
turns and it is rotated at a constant angular velocity
+ E0
w . Suppose, the plane of the coil is perpendicular I or E
to the magnetic field at t = 0. The total magnetic T/2 3T/4
flux through each turn of the coil is BA in this O T/4 T Time
position. In time t, the coil rotates through an angle - E0
q = wt . The flux through each turn of the coil at
fig (a)
this time t is F = BA cos wt .
Using Faraday’s law, the emf induced in each Each cycle of ac consists of two half cycles.
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2.8 MEAN (OR) AVERAGE VALUE OF Hence the mean or average value for half
ac DURING COMPLETE CYCLE: cycle is given by
The value of current at any instant ‘t’ is given T/2 T/2

by I = I0 sin wt . ò I.dt ò I0 .sin wt.dt

0 0
The average value of a sinusoidal wave over Iave = T/2
= T/2
one complete cycle is given by
ò dt ò dt
T T 0 0
æ- cos wt ö÷T T/2
ò I.dt ò 0
I sin wt.dt I 0 çç
çè w ø÷ ÷ =
2 æ
.I 0 çç
- cos wt ö÷
÷
0
Iave = T = 0
T
= 0
T çè w ø÷0
T
T/2
ò dt ò dt =
2I 0 T æ
´ ç
ç- cos
2p ö÷
t÷
0 0 T 2p çè T ø÷0
- I0 æ ö÷T
= ççcos 2p t÷ I 2I
wT çè T ø÷ = 0 (- cos p + cos 0)= 0
0 p p
- I0 - I 2I0
= (cos 2p - cos 0)= 0 (1 - 1) = 0 \ Iave = = 0.637I0 = 63.7% of I0
wT wT p
Thus, the mean or average value of ac over
Thus, we see that the average value of ac
positive half cycle is + 0.637 I 0 and that over
over one complete cycle is zero.
negative half cycle is – 0.637 I0.
Similarly, we can prove that the average value Similarly, for alternating voltage over half
of alternating voltage over one complete cycle is cycle also, the same relation holds good.
also zero. 2
The reason is that alternating current or i.e., Eave = E0 = 0.637 E0 = 63.7% of E0
p
voltage during first half cycle ( 0 to T/2) is positive
and during other half cycle (T/2 to T) is negative. Note 2.4:
Therefore, we find the mean or average value of
alternating current or voltage only over any half (+)
cycle. I or E
a) Between A and B,
2.9 MEAN (OR) AVERAGE VALUE OF ac A Iave = 0
B
Eave = 0
FOR HALF CYCLE: t
(- )
It is an arithmetic average of all the values (+)
of current in a sine wave for half cycle. (or) A
The value of steady current which sends the Between A and B,
same amount of charge through a circuit in a certain b) Iave = 0
I or E
time interval as is sent by an alternating current t Eave = 0
through the same circuit in the same time interval (- )
(half the time period or half cycle) is known as mean B
or average value of alternating current over half (+)
cycle. (either positive half cycle or negative half
I or E
cycle) c)
A Between A and C or C and B
The value of current at any instant ‘t’ is given C B Iavg ¹ 0
t
(- )
by I = I0 sin wt . E avg ¹ 0

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2.12 POWER IN ac CIRCUITS : Here I  20 sin 300t

1. Compare it with standard equation
In dc circuits power is given by P = VI. But in
I  I 0 sin t  I0 sin 2t
ac circuits, since there is some phase angle between
we get I0 = 20A
voltage and current, therefore power is defined as
the product of voltage and that component of the and 2t  300t
current which is in phase with the voltage. or   150 Hz
I0
Thus P = EI cosf , where E and I are r.m.s. 2. We know, Irms =
2
values of voltage and current. 20
\ I rms = = 14.14A.
Power factor: The quantity cosf is called power 2
factor. Problem 2.4
a) Instantaneous power : Suppose in a circuit (a) The peak voltage of ac supply is 600 V.What is its
rms voltage?
E = E0 sin wt and I = I 0 sin (wt + f ) then (b) The rms value of current in an ac circuit is
20A.What is its peak current ?
Pinstantaneous = EI = E0I0 sin wt sin (wt + f )
Solution :
b) Average power (True power) : The (a) Here E0 = 600V
average of instantaneous power in an ac circuit over E0 600
a full cycle is called average power. Its unit is watt \ E rms = = = 424.3 V
2 2
i.e.
E I (b) Here Irms = 20 A.
Pave = Erms I rms cos f = 0 . 0 cos f
2 2 We know Irms =
I0
1 2
= E0 I 0 cos f
2 \ I0 = 2Irms
c) Apparent or virtual power : The product
of apparent voltage and apparent current in an or I0 = 2 ´ 20 = 1.414´ 20
electric circuit is called apparent power. This is = 28.28A;
always positive. Problem 2.5
EI
Papp = E rms I rms = 0 0 A current is made of two components a dc component
2 i 1 = 3A and an ac component i2  4 2 sin t . Find the
Problem 2.2 reading of hot wire ammeter.
The rms value of voltage of an alternator is 200 V, and
Solution :
the rms current delivered by it to a load is 3A. If the phase
angle between the current and voltage is  /6, find the power.. i  i1 +i 2 = 3 + 4 2 sin wt
Solution :
The power in ac circuits is given by T T
2

ò (3 + 4 )
2
P = E rms I rms cos f
2
ò i .dt 2 sin wt dt
0 0
Here Erms = 200 V, Irms = 3A and    / 6  30 0 .
irms = T
=
T
 P  200  3 
3
 300 3  519.6W
ò dt
0
2
Problem 2.3 T
1
The equation of an alternating current is I = 20
sin300  t. Calculate the frequency and r.m.s value of
i2
rms
T 0
(
= ò 9 + 24 2 sin wt + 32sin2 wt dt )
current.
\ irms = 5A
Solution :

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ALTERNATING CURRENT PHYSICS - II C

vectors (Phasors) with phase angle between R

them is called as phasor diagram.
Y
I
w
B ~
N
M I0 A E  E 0 sin t
f wt E0
1 X
X O The potential difference across resistor = IR.
E
So, E  IR or I 
R
Using equation (i), we get
1 Fig (a)
Y
E0
In figure (a), OA and OB represent two I sin  t or I  I 0 sin  t .....(ii)
R
rotating vectors having magnitudes E0 and I0 in
E0
anticlockwise direction with same angular velocity where I 0  is the peak value of alternating
R
‘ w ’. OM and ON are the projections of OA and current.
OB on Y-axis respectively. So, OM = E and ON = Comparison of equations (i) and (ii) shows that
I, represent the instantaneous values of alternating the emf and current across the resistor are in
emf and current. BOA = f represents the phase phase .
angle by which current I0 leads the alternating emf E0 E = E0 sin t
E0. Figure (a) also represents the phasor diagram. I = I0 sin t
I0
The phasor diagram, in a simple representation
is shown in fig(b). Moreover, when we are T/2 T
E&I o
interested only in phase relationship, the phasor T/4 3T/4 t
diagram may also be represented as shown in fig(c).
I0
Y Y E0

I The phasor diagram for pure resistance is shown

E I
figure .
f
wt f Y
O X O E X
Fig (b) Fig (c)

2.15 ALTERNATING VOLTAGE APPLIED O I E X

TO A RESISTOR In a purely resistive circuit, there is no phase
An ac source applied to a resistor of resistance difference between emf and current i.e., emf and
R is shown in figure. Such a circuit is known as a current will be in phase and have the same
purely resistive circuit. frequency but with peak emf more than peak
current.
The alternating emf applied is given by
Resistance (R) -frequency of applied ac source
E  E 0 sin t .....(i)
(v) curve of a purely resistive circuit is shown in
Let I be the current in the circuit at any instant t.
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we conclude that,  L  has the dimensions of d) Graphs between X L and  and X L and L
resistance. The term  L  is known as inductive
are as shown below
reactance.
\ Inductive reactance is given by relation. Y Y
XL = L = 2L XL slope = tan q = 2p L
XL
slope = tan q = w = 2p v

q q
Where ν is frequency of ac
v X L X
For dc, 0 \ XL  0
e) Practically an inductor always possesses
For ac of high frequencies, X L   some resistance because of the wire used to make
Hence, an inductor offers an easy path for its coil. It is, therefore, a pure inductor is only a
dc and resistive path for ac. theoretical concept.
i.e dc can flow easily through the inductor. f) We can have resistance without inductance
and inductor offers finite resistance to the flow of but we can not have inductance without resistance.
ac. 2.16 (b) POWER IN A PURELY
Note 2.7: INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
a) We have X L = Lw = L (2pn ) , Instantaneous power, P = EI
So XL increases with the increase in the  E0 I0sint sin  t - /2 
frequency of ac.
  E 0 I 0 sin t cos t
For high frequency of ac, XL   , i.e.,
E0 I0
inductor behaves as good as an open circuit  sin 2t
2
( i.e., I = 0 )
Average power over one cycle of alternating current
b) The SI unit of inductive reactance XL is T T
ohm. E 0 I0
ò P.dt  2
sin 2t dt
O 0
Pave = T
 T
 
 X  L  2   henry   sec ond  1  ò dt  dt
 L  O 0
 volt 1  T
  ampere / sec ond   sec ond   E I - E I é- cos 2wt ùT
  =- 0 0 ò sin 2wt dt = 2T0 0 ê ú =0
2T êë 2w úûO
 volt  0
  ohm   Average power = 0
 ampere 
So, there is no power consumption in a
c) Variation of voltage and current with time in a purely inductive circuit.
purely inductive circuit can also be represented as Problem 2.8
shown in figure. A 100 Hz ac is flowing in a coil of inductance
10mH.What is the reactance of the coil ?
I
E Solution :
Here L = 10 mH = 10´ 10- 3 H = 10- 2 H ,   100 Hz
Using XL  L  L  2, we get

t X L  10 2  2  3.14  100 = 6.28  .

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Comparison of equations (1) and (2) shows that Hence a capacitor behaves as an open
 circuit for ac and at high frequencies of ac , it
current leads the emf by an angle in a purely
2 acts like a high pass filter or a conducting wire.
capacitive circuit. Note 2.8:
1 1
E0 E = E 0 sin t a) We have X C = =
Cw C ´ 2pn
I0 So XC decreases with the increase in the
I = I 0 sin( t + /2 ) frequency of ac.
E&I o
t
For ac of high frequencies, X C ® 0
I0
E0 b) The SI unit of capacitive reactance is ohm.
c) The variation of voltage and current with time in
a purely capacitive circuit can also be represented
The phasor diagram for purely capacitive circuit
as shown in figure.
is as shown in figure.
E
Y I
I
O X
900
I
E (or) t
900

Y O E X

d) Graphs of X C and  and X C and C are as

2.17 (a) CAPACITIVE REACTANCE (XC)
shown below
The resistance offered by a capacitor to the
flow of ac is called capacitive reactance. Y Y
E0
Here I 0 = , Comparing it with
 1  XC XC
 ω C 
E0  1  X
I0  , we conclude that  v X C
R  C has t he
 1  e) As w ® 0 (dc ), X L ® 0, X C ® ¥
dimensions of resistance. The term   is known
C As w ® ¥ (ac ), X L ® ¥ , X C ® 0
as capacitive reactance.
2.17 (b) POWER IN A PURELY
1 1
\ capacitive reactance, XC   CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
C C  2v
1 Instantaneous power,
For dc ,   0  X C    P  EI  E0 I 0 sin t sin  t   / 2 
0
E I
For ac of high frequencies, X C  0  0 0 sin 2t
2
Thus , capacitor offers infinite resistance to the \ Average power over one cycle,
flow of dc. So dc cannot pass through the capacitor, T
T
however small the capacitance of the capacitor is. E0 I 0
ò P.dt  2
sin 2t dt
0
But capacitor offers small opposition to the Pave = T  0
T
flow of ac. So ac can be considered to pass through
it easily.
ò dt  dt
0
0

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ALTERNATING CURRENT PHYSICS - II C
y
B C so ZLR is low for lower freqeuncy of ac and
high for higher frequency of ac
XL
b) The phase angle between voltage and current
(or)
E  1  2 vL  
VL    tan  R   increases with the
  
 increase in the frequency of ac
x
O V R (or) R A I Problem 2.13
fig (b) A series combination of a coil of inductance L and a
Using equations ( 1 ) and (2), we get resistor of resistance 12  is connected across a 12 V,,
2 2 50 Hz supply. Calculate L if the circuit current is
E I2R 2  I2 X L  I R 2  X L
0.5 A.
where X L  L is the inductive reactance. Solution :
E E 12
or I  Impedance, Z    24
2 .....(3) I 0.5
R2  XL 2
and Z  R   L
2 2

If Z LR is effective opposition offered by the Z 2  R2

or Z2  R 2  2 L2 or L2 
E 2
LR circuit to ac, then I  Z 22
LR Here   2   2   50 = 314 rads-1 and R  12
7
From equation (3), we get 2 2
 24   12 
or L  12 3  0.066H
2
L 
Z LR  R 2  X 2L  R 2  L2  2  314 
2
314
The effective opposition offered by LR circuit Problem 2.14
to ac is called the impedance of LR circuit. A 50V, 10W lamp is run on 100V,50Hz ac mains
Let  be the angle made by the resultant of Calculate the inductance of the choke coil required .
Solution :
VL and VR with the X-axis, then from figure, we Voltage marked on lamp, V = 50 V
get Power, P = 10W
AC OB VL IX L
tan      2
OA OA VR IR  Resistance of lamp, R  V  50  50  250  .
10P
X L L P 10 1
or tan    Current rating of lamp , Irms    A
R R V 50 5
In series LR circuit, emf leads the current The given circuit is equivalent to LR circuit .
or in other words, the current is said to lag Here E rms  100V ,   50Hz
behind the emf by an angle  given by the above When the lamp is worked on a.c., the impedance of the
equation. circuit is
E 100
\ Current in L-R series circuit is given by Z L  rms   500 ohm.
I rms 1
E E 5
I= = 0 sin( wt - f ) 2 2
ZL  R 2  2 L2 (OR) ZL  R2  42 2 L2
Z LR Z LR
2 2 Z 2L - R2
 4  L  z L  R or L =
2 2 2 2
(or) I = I 0 = sin(wt - f ) 4p 2n 2
(500) 2  (250) 2
Note 2.9: L2 
4  (3.14)2  (50) 2
a) Z LR  R 2  L2  2  R 2  L2  4  2 v 2 . 187500
Þ L2   1.9 or L = 1.38 H
Thus Z LR increases with the frequency of ac, 98596

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ALTERNATING CURRENT PHYSICS - II C

2 2
Let  be the angle made by E with X-axis, But, ZCR  R 2  XC2 or ZCR  R2  X C
then from the above phase diagram , we have or XC2  ZCR 2  R2
AC VC IX C
tan     2
or X C  Z CR  R 2 
2 2
OA VR IR  80    20  = 77.46 ohm
XC I Problem 2.17
or tan   
R CR A 10µF capacitor is in series with a 50 resistance
In series CR circuit, emf lags behind the
and the combination is connected to a 220V, 50 Hz
current or in other words, the current is said to line. Calculate (i) the capacitive reactance, (ii) the
lead the emf by an angle  given by the above impedance of the circuit and (iii) the current in the
circuit.
equation.
Solution :
\ Current in C-R series circuit is given by Here, C  10F  10  10 6  10 5 F
E E
I= = 0 sin( wt + f ) R  50 ohm, E rms  220V,   50Hz ,
Z CR Z CR
(i) Capacitive reactance,
(or) I = I0 .sin(wt + f ) 1 1 1
XC    = 318.5 
Note 2.10: C 2C 2  3.14  50  10 5
(ii) Impedance of CR circuit.
a) Impedance of CR circuit, ZCR  R 2  X C 
2 2
 50    318.5
2
 322.4
2 1
Z CR  R 2  X C  R2  2 2 E rms 220
C (iii) Current, I rms   = 0.68A
Z CR 322.4
1 2.21 L, C AND R SERIES CIRCUIT WITH
 R2 
4  v2C 2
2
ALTERNATING VOLTAGE
1 A circuit containing pure inductor of inductance
Thus Z C R µ (L), pure capacitor of capacitance (C) and resistor
v
For very high frequency (v) of ac. Z  R and of resistance (R), all joined in series, is shown in
for very low frequency of ac, Z   figure. Let E be the r.m.s value of the applied
alternating emf to the LCR circuit.
b) Phase angle between voltage and current is given L C R
by
1 1 I VL VC VR
tan   
C  R 2  vCR
As  increases, phase angle  decreases.
~
E
Problem 2.16 Let I be the r.m.s value of current flowing
A series circuit contains a resistor of 20 , a through all the circuit elements. The potential
capacitor and an ammeter of negligible resistance. It difference across L,
is connected to a source of 200 V, 50 Hz. If the reading VL  IX L .....(i)
of ammeter is 2.5 A, calculate the reactance of the 
capacitor. (Current I lags VL by an angle of )
Solution : 2
The potential difference across C,
Here R = 20 , E rms  200V,   50Hz , Irms = 2.5A VC  IX C .....(ii)
The circuit is CR circuit. 
Impedance of circuit. (The current I leads VC by an angle of )
2
ZCR 
E rms 200
  80 
The potential difference across R,
Irms 2.5
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Thus, the emf lags behind the current by an (c) Resistance offered by all the circuited
angle of  . Such LCR circuit is called capacitance elements to the flow of ac is impedance ( Z )
dominated circuit. 2
\ Z= R2 + X 2 = R2 + (X L - X C )
(d) If VC > VL in LCR circuit, then phasor diagram
is shown below and impedance of the LCR circuit (d) Calculate the peak value of current as
can be written as. E
I0 = 0
2 XC  XL Z
Z  R 2   X C  X L  and tan   (e) The phase difference between emf & current
R
Y
can be known by constructing an ac triangle as
vL X
tan f =
R

o VR (or) R A X
X Z sin f =
 Z
vC V L X
R
(or) cos f =
Z
XC XL f
B C
VC R
-Y Problem 2.18
Note 2.12: When a capacitor of small capacitance is connected
in series with series L -R circuit. the alternating
Relation between applied pd & pd’s across
current in the circuit increases. Explain why?
the components in L - C - R circuit
Solution :
For’dc’ For ‘ac’ Addition of capacitor in the given circuit decreases
the impedance Z of the circuit and hence increases
current I in the circuit as
V
I
Z
where Z  R 2  X L 2 without capacitor
2
and new Z  R 2   X L  X C  with capacitor
V = VR + VL + VC V  IZ
Problem 2.19
2
(only before  I R2   X L  X C 
An inductor, a capacitor and a resistor are in series
steady state) with an alternator of frequency 50Hz. The potential
2 differences across them are 50 V, 80 V and 40 V
  IR  2   IX L  IX C  respectively. Find the voltage of the alternator ?
2
V 2 = VR 2 + (VL - VC ) Solution :
I The potential difference across the inductor and the
where VL  IX L  I  L and VC  IX C  capacitor have a phase difference of  . The resultant
C
and VR = IR potential difference across the combination of inductor
and capacitor is 80 - 50 = 30 V. This 30 V potential
Note 2.13:
difference and the potential difference across the
Rules to be followed for various resistor, namely 40 V have phase difference of  /2. By
combinations of ac circuits vectorially adding these, the total potenital difference,
(a) Compute effective resistance of the circuit as R which is same as the voltage of the alternator is
(b) Calculate the net reactance of the circuit as obtained.
1
X = X L - X C where X L   L , X C  . V2  302  402  V  50V
C
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ALTERNATING CURRENT PHYSICS - II C
Y
2.22 ELECTRICAL RESONANCE
I0 R3>R2 > R 1
SERIES CIRCUIT
Electrical resonance is said to take place in a R1

series LCR circuit, when the circuit allows I

maximum current for a given frequency of R2

alternating supply, at which capacitive reactance O

R3
v0 X
v
becomes equal to the inductive reactance. Figure (A)

The current (I) in a series LCR circuit is given by Applications : Series LCR circuit at resonance admit
E E maximum current at particular frequencies, so they
I  can be used to tune the desired frequency or filter
Z  1 
2
2
R   L  .....(i) unwanted frequencies. They are used in transmitters
 C   and receivers of radio, television and telephone
From the above equation (i), it is clear that carrier equipment etc.
current I will be maximum if the impedance (Z) of 2.23 RESONANCE IN L - C CIRCUIT :
the circuit is minimum. At resonance ,
a) Net reactance X = 0
At low frequencies, L  L  2v is very
1 1 b) X L  X C
small and  is very large.
C  C  2 v c) Impedance Z = 0
At high frequencies, L is very large and E0
d) peak value of current I0 = =¥
1 Z
is very small. 1
C e) Resonant frequency 0 
1 2 LC
For a particular frequency (v0), L   i.e. p
C f) Voltage and current differ in phase by
X L  X C and the impedance (Z) of LCR circuit 2
is minimum and is given by Z = R. g) Power factor cos f = 0
2.24 RESONANCE IN L - C - R CIRCUIT :
Therefore, at the particular frequency (v0), the
At resonance,
current in LCR circuit becomes maximum. The
a) Net reactance X = 0
frequency (v0) is known as the resonant frequency
b) X L  X C
and the phenomenon is called electrical resonance. c) Impedance Z = R ( minimum )
Again, for electrical resonance (XL–Xc) = 0. E0 E0
i.e. XL = XC d) peak value of current I0 = = ( maximum
Z R
1 1 but not infinity )
or L   or  2  1
C LC e) Resonant frequency 0 
1 1 2 LC
or   or  2 v 0   f) Voltage and current will be in phase
LC LC g) power factor cos   1
1 h) Resonant frequency is independent of value of R.
or v 0  .....(ii)
2  LC i) A series L - C - R circuit behaves like a pure
This is the value of resonant frequency. resistive circuit at resonance.
The resonant frequency is independent of the **2.25 HALF POWER FREQUENCIES AND
resistanace R in the circuit. However, the sharpness BAND WIDTH :
of resonance decreases with the increase in R. The frequencies at which the power in the
Series LCR circuit is more selective when circuit is half of the maximum power (The power
resistance of this circuit is small. at resonance), are called half power frequencies.
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Different forms of Q factor Average power over complete cycle,

W E I
Q=
w0
=
1 L Pave = = 0 0 cosf
a) T 2
Dw R C
E I
maximum P.D across C = 0 ´ 0 cosf = E rms I rms cosf
b) Q= 2 2
maximum P.D across R
E I
V X 1 \ Pave = 0 0 cos f = E rms .I rms cos f
= C= C= 2 R
VR R w0 CR Also, Pave = E rms I rms or
2
maximum P.D across L æ 1 ö÷
c) Q= R 2 + ççLw - ÷
maximum P.D across R çè Cw ø÷
VL X L w0 L Erms R
== = Pave = E rms ´ ´
2 2
VR R R æ 1 ö÷ æ 1 ö÷
R2 + ççLw - ÷ R2 + ççLw - ÷
2p ´ maximum energy stored çè Cwø÷ èç Cwø÷
d) Q =
loss of energy in one time period
2p ´ maximum energy stored E2rms R
e) Q = = 2
T ´ average energy exp ended æ 1 ö÷
R2 + ççLw - ÷
Note 2.14: çè Cw ø÷
a) Q is just a number Average power is also known as true power.
b) Q factor is also called voltage amplification The quantity E rms I rms is called the apparent power
factor or efficiency of the circuit. or virtual power. It is customary to express true
c) Q factor will be large i.e., the circuit will have power in kW and apparent power in kVA.
more sharpness if R is low or L is large or C is cos is called the power factor of LCR circuit.
low Its value varies from zero to 1.
d) Q factor of L - C circuit at resonance is infinity.
Power factor is defined as the ratio of true
2.27 POWER IN LCR CIRCUIT power to apparent power.
Instantaneous power, P = EI In L – C – R series circuit,
= E0 sin wt I0 sin (wt + f ) R R
Power factor= cosf = =
 E0 I0 sin t sin  t    Z æ 2
1 ö÷
 E0 I0 sin t  sin t cos   cos t sin   R 2 + ççLw- ÷
çè Cw ø÷
 E0 I0 cos  sin2 t+E 0 I0 sin  sin t cos t
2.27(a) POWER FACTOR :
If the instantaneous power is assumed to (a) It may be defined as cosine of the angle of
remain constant for a small time dt, then work done
lag or lead (i.e. cosf )
over a complete cycle is given by
T (b) It is also defined as the ratio of resistance
R
W= ò P.dt and impedance (i.e. )
0 Z

T
E I  c) The ratio
W    E 0 I 0 cos  sin 2 t  0 0 sin   2 sin  t cos  t  dt True power W kW
0
2  = = = cos f
T T Apparent power VA kVA
2 E I
W= E0 I0 cosf ò sin wt dt + 0 0 sinf ò sin 2wt dt Special Casses :
2
0 0
T Case I : If the ac circuit contains only pure resistance,
 W  E 0 I 0 cos 
2 then   0 0 .

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If a.c. source is directly connected to a mercury e) For an ideal choke coil r = 0, no electric
tube, the tube will be damaged. To avoid this a energy is wasted i.e. average power P = 0
choke coil is connected in series with the tube. This f) In actual practice, choke coil is equivalent
is a simple L.R circuit wit h impedance to a R - L circuit.
g) Choke coil for different frequencies are made
Z  R 2   2 L2 . If t he applied volt age is by using different substances in their core.
E = E 0 sin wt , the peak current through the circuit is For low frequency, L should be large thus iron
E0 core choke coil is used. For high frequency ac circuit,
I0 = . L should be small, so air cored choke coil is used.
R2 + w2 L2
The rms current is given by 2.30 TRANSFORMER
I0 E0 2 E rms i) The transformer is a device which is used to
I rms = = = change the voltage of an alternating current. As such
2 2 2
2 R +w L R + w 2 L2
2
they are of two types.
The rms voltage across the resistor is When it changes the low alternating current at
R.E rms high voltage into high alternating current at low
VRrms = R.I rms =
R 2 + w2 L2 voltage, then it is known as STEP-DOWN
If choke coil were not used, the voltage across TRANSFORMER.
the resistor would be the same as the applied voltage. On the other hand, if it changes high alternating
Thus, by using the choke coil, the voltage across current at low voltage into low alternating current
the resist or is reduced by a fact or at high voltage then it is called STEP-UP
R.E rms TRANSFORMER.
VR = R.I rms = .
rms
R 2 + w2 L2 A transformer is called step-up or step-down
The advantage of using a choke coil to reduce type depending upon whether it increases or
the voltage is that an inductor does not consume decreases the voltage respectively.
power. Hence, we do not lose electrical energy in ii) Principle :- It works on the principle of mutual
the form of heat. induction i.e. when current flowing through a coil
If we connect an additional resistor in series or magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an
with the tube, to reduce the voltage instead of a induced emf is produced in the other coil.
choke coil, power will be lost due to Joule’s heating iii) Construction :- It consists of two coils of
(H  i 2 Rt) . copper wire wound separately over a rectangular
Iron core and laminated soft iron core [The core is made by
placing soft-iron strips one above the other. These
Starter strips are insulated from each other to reduce the
Choke eddy currents and hence to reduce the loss of energy
Coil of Cu wire ~ coil
in the core]. These coils are kept insulated from each
~ L, R
1) It consist of a Cu coil wound over a soft other as well as from the iron core. The two coils
are known as primary coil P and secondary coil S.
iron laminated core.
The ac source is connected across the primary coil
2)Thick Cu wire is used to reduce the resistance
while transformed voltage or transformer output is
(R) of the circuit. obtained across the secondary coil S.
3) Soft iron is used to improve inductance (L) In case of a step-up transformer, the primary
of the circuit. coil consists of smaller number of turns of thick
d) The inductive reactance or effective copper wire, while the secondary coil consists of
opposition of the choke coil is given by larger number of turns of thin copper wire. In step
XL = wL = 2p vL down transformer, the order is just reversed.
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**2.30(a)EDDY CURRENT (FOUCAULT is placed in a high frequency changing magnetic

CURRENT)
 field. Strong eddy currents are induced in the block.
B Due to the high resistance of the metal, a large
amount of heat is produced in it. This heat ultimately
Eddy melts the metallic block.
currents The induction furnace is used to seperate metals
Metallic
block
from their ores and to make some alloys.
**2.30(d) DISADVANTAGES/
When the magnetic field in a metal changes UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS OF EDDY
with time, induced electric field is produced which CURRENTS
applies force and makes the free electrons of the 1. The production of eddy currents in a metal
metal to move in closed paths. These are called eddy block leads to the loss of electrical energy in the
currents. form of heat.
These currents were discovered by Foucault, 2. The heat produced due to eddy currents breaks
so they are also known as Foucault currents. the insulation used in the electric machine (or)
The direction of eddy currents is given by appliance.
Lenz's law. 3. Eddy currents cause the damping effect.
** 2.30(b) MINIMISATION OF LOSSES Problem 2.21
DUE TO EDDY CURRENTS
A transformer has 400 primary turns and 300
Metallic cores are used in electrical devices like secondary turns. If the operating voltage for the load
transformer, dynamo, choke etc. Due to changing connected to the secondary is measured to be 300 V,
magnetic field, large eddy currents are produced in what is the voltage supplied to the primary ?
the core which cause large amount of heat in the Sol. Here, N P = 400, NS = 300
core. It results into the loss of useful energy. E S = 300, E P = ?
B B E N
U sin g S = S , we get
EP NP
NP 400 ´ 300
solid core La min ated core EP = ´ ES = = 400 V
 A  B NS 300
To minimise losses due to eddy currents, the Problem 2.22
solid metallic core (fig.A) is replaced with a large A step up transformer operates on a 230 V line and a
number of thin sheets (fig.B).These sheets are load current of 2 ampere. The ratio of the primary
electrically insulated from one another and are and secondary windings is 1 : 25. What is the current
called as laminations. Such a core is called in the primary ?
laminated core. These sheets are arranged parallel Sol. Using the relation
NP I N I
to the magnetic flux . The insulation breaks the paths = S ; IP = S S
NS IP NP
of the eddy currents and keeps the eddy currents
Here N p / N s  1 / 25 (or) N s / N p  25 / 1 = 25
confined to the individual sheets. As a result of this,
eddy current produced in one sheet is not added to and IS = 2A
Current in primary,
the current produced in the other sheet. In other
I P = 25´ 2 = 50A
words, eddy currents in the core as a whole are
reduced to a large extent. Problem 2.23
A step down transformer converts a voltage of 2200 V
** 2.30(C) INDUCTION FURNACE into 220 V in the transmission line. Number of turns
Induction furnace is based on the heating effect in primary coil is 5000. Efficiency of transformer is
due to eddy currents. A metallic block to be melted 90%and its output power is 8kW. Calculate (i) num-

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ALTERNATING CURRENT PHYSICS - II C

capacitor gets converted into magnetic field energy d2 r

2
 2 r=0 (differential equation of S.H.M)
in the inductor. At this stage, there is maximum dt
current in the inductor. Hence on comparing
Energy now flows from inductor to the 1 1
capacitor except that the capacitor is charged 2  ;
LC LC
oppositely. This process of energy transfer continues
1 1
at a definite frequency (v). Energy is continuosly 2  ; 
shuttled back and forth between the electric field in LC 2 LC
the capacitor and the magnetic field in the inductor. The charge therefore oscillates with a frequency
If no resistance is present in the LC circuit, the 1
 and varies sinusoidally with time.
LC oscillation will continue infinitely as shown. 2 LC
**2.31 (a) COMPARISON OF L - C
+q 0 t OSCILLATIONS WITH SHM :
-q 0 * The L - C oscillations can be compared to
S.H.M of a block attached to a spring
1
However in an actual LC circuit, some * In L - C oscillations  0 
LC
resistance is always present due to which energy is K
dissipated in the form of heat. So LC oscillation * In Mechanical oscillations  0 
m
will not continue infinitely with same amplitude as where K is the spring constant
shown. 1  V
* In L - C oscilations    tells us the
C  q
+q0 potential difference required to store a unit
charge
t
 F
* In a mechanical oscillation K    tells us the
x
-q 0 external force requred to produce a unit dis-
placement of mass
Let q be the charge on the capacitor at any * In L - C oscillations current is the analogous
di quantity for velocity of the mass in mechanical
time t and be the rate of change of current. Since oscillations
dt
* In L - C oscillations energy stored in capacitor
no battery is connected in the circuit,
is analagous to potential energy in mechanical
q di
 L.  0 oscillations
c dt * In L - C oscillations energy stored in inductor
dq is analogous to kinetic energy of the mass in
but i  
dt mechanical oscillations
from the above equations, we get * In L - C oscillations maximum charge on ca-
pacitor q0 is analogous to amplitude in mechani-
q d2q d2q 1
L 2 0  q0 cal oscillations
C dt dt 2 LC
*  As Vmax = A  in mechanical oscillations,
The above equation is analogus to I 0  q0 0 in L- C oscillations

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12. What is power dissipation in an ac circuit in

x SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS x which voltage and current are given by
1. Explain instatantaneous, maximum,and rms V  300sin  t   / 2  and I  5sin t ?
values of a current. 13. Why a thick metal plate oscillating about a
2. Discuss the flow of ac through a pure resistor. horizontal axis stops when a strong magnetic
3. Obtain an expression for the current through field is applied on the plate?
an inductor when ac emf is applied. 14. Who discovered eddy current ?
4. Obtain an expression for the current in a
capaictor when an ac emf is applied.
x ASSESS YOUR SELF x
5. State the princple on which a transformer 1. Can a transformer be used for stepping up or
works. Describe the working of a transformer down dc ?
with necessary theory.
Ans.No
x VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS x 2. Why is the core of a transformer laminated ?
1. Where is the power dissipation in an
alternating current? In resistance? In Ans.To reduce eddy current losses
inductance? in capacitance? 3. When the emf is maximum how is the current
2. What is average value of ac over a complete in a pure inductor ?
cycle and why ? Ans.Minimum, since the phase difference between
3. What is peak value of 220V ac ? emf and current through a pure inductor is 90
4. What is meant by admittance of an ac circuit ?
4. When the emf is maximum, how is the current
5. In an inductor, current rises to a steady value in a pure resistor ?
at a constant rate. Comment.
Ans.Maximum, since the phase difference between
6. A larger value of Q implies sharper
resonance. Comment emf and current through a pure inductor is 0
7. What are the dimensions of R/L ? 5. When the emf is minimum, how is the current
8. What is the significance of time constant of R - L in a pure capacitor ?
circuit ? Ans.Maximum, since the phase difference between
9. Can we use 25 c/s.ac for lighting purposes ? emf and current through a pure inductor is 90
10. A bulb connected in series with a solenoid is 6. In a series LCR circuit, at resonance what is
lit by ac source. If a soft iron core is
the nature of the circuit ?
introduced in the soleniod, will bulb glow
brighter ? Ans.It behaves like a pure resistor circuit.
11. An electric lamp connected in series with 7. In a series LCR circuit, at resonance what is
capacitor and an ac source is glowing with the relation between the potential differences
certain brightness. How does the brightness across the inductor and capacitor ?
of the lamp change on reducing the
capacitance ? Ans.They are equal and opposite.

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