Review of Chapter 5 & 6

1
• The Press
– The press for forging and stamping are similar
– There are many kinds of machines
• Hydraulic presses For forging and sheet metal
• Mechanical presses For sheet metal
– C frame
– Straight sided
• Others

2
– A simple example (simple crank – u
slider mechanism)
• The structure f
r
• The mathematical model

l l-r

l+r

3
• The basic kinematics equation
u
x = lcosa – rcosf – (l – r)
f
u = rsinf = lsina
r
Hence,
r
sin a =   sin f l-r
l l a
  2

1/ 2

 r 
x = r (1 − cos f ) − l 1 − 1 −   sin f  
2

   l   
 


• Set f = wt, we can then get the trajectory

l+r
of the punch (also called the ram)
• The velocity
−1/2
𝑑𝑥 𝑟 𝑟2 2 x
𝑣𝑥 = = 𝑟𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 − 𝑟𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 1 − 2 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2𝑙 𝑙

4
• A study of the forming energy of the press
– The sources and sinks of energy

Electrical motor
(driving energy)

Flywheel kinetic

Structure deformation

Hammer position

Machine friction

Workpiece deformation

5
– Computing the energy source
• Energy arising from a hydraulic press (mechanical press is more
difficult and hence, will not be discussed)
– The volume and pressure relation inside the cylinder d1
pVk = C, k = 1.4
Volume Initial = p0
Pressure Initial = l0

Stroke = l1
– The driving energy
p1V1 − p0V0
Ea =
1− k
– An example: l0 = 0.3 m, l1 = 1.2 m, m = 2500 kg m
d1 = 0.25 m, d2 = 0.18 m, h = 0.06 m
l1
p0 = 7 × 105 N/m2
h
V0 = p × 0.252 × 0.3 /4 ≈ 0.0147 m3
V1 = p × 0.252 × (1.2+0.3)/4 ≈ 0.0736 m3 d2
Since p0V0k = p1V1k
p1 = p0(V0/V1)k ≈ 0.734 x 105 N/m2 6
 Hence,
−4887.76
𝐸𝑎 ≈ J ≈ 12219.4J
−0.4

• Position energy of the hammer

– The formula:
Ep = mgl1
– The example:
Ep ≈ 2500 × 9.81 × 1.2 ≈ 29430 J
• The resultant energy
This is the maximum
E = Ea + Ep ≈ 41649 J energy that the machine
can give
• The striking velocity: from E = mv2/2
v ≈ 4.08 m / s
• Note that the actual striking force (and the striking energy) is dependent
on the work and will be discussed later
7
– Computing the energy source (cont.)
• Kinetic energy of the flywheel
– The instantaneous force could be very large. However, the force is acted on the
punch only for small amount of time. Hence, we can use flywheel to “smooth” the
demand on the energy supply.
– The computation is rather tedious. So, we only show that the flywheel slows down
after the punch
– The moment of inertia of a flywheel (thickness of b):
dJ = 2prdrbr2 = 2pbr3dr
R 2pbR 4
J =  dJ = dr
0 4
J (w12 − w 22 )
r
– The speed variation: =W
2 R
– An example: W = 560 J, J = 14.54 kgm2
2W
w12 − w 22 = = 77
J
At w1 = 41.9, w2 = 40.9 = 0.98w1

8
The flywheel slows down and gives rise the energy
– Computing the energy source (cont.)
» Energy consumption during shot
m1 = mass of the hammer
m2 = mass of the anvil
» The momentum is conservative before and after the shot:
m1v1 = (m1 + m2)v2
Hence,
m2
vm
v2 = 1 1 = 1
v =
m1 + m2 1 +  m1

» The kinetic energy:

𝑚1 𝑣12 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑣22 𝐸1
𝐸1 = 𝐸2 = =
2 2 1+𝜌

Therefore:  1  
E = E1 − E2 = E1 1 −  = E1
 1+   1+ 

An example: For  = 25, 4% energy lost


E = E1 − E2 = E1 = 0.96 E1 9
1+ 
• Main types of stamping operation
a) Blanking (shearing)
b) Bending
c) Drawing (deep drawing)

• Reference
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o5zTUo2t7_w 10
• Blanking
▪ Before a sheet-metal part is made, a blank is removed from
a large sheet by shearing
▪ The edges are not smooth and perpendicular to the plane of
the sheet

11
• Blanking (cont.)
– Illustration
– Major parameters
• Maximum punch force
Fmax = (0.7)(UTS)(t)(L)
t = sheet thickness
L = total length sheared, i.e., the circumference
UTS = ultimate tensile strength of the material
• Speed of punching
• Lubrication
• The shape of the punch and die
• The clearance, c, between punch and die
– The process of shearing
• Plastic deformation
• Thickness reduction (penetration)
• Fracture 12
• Bending
– Bending is a common industrial forming operation
– Bending imparts stiffness to the part by increasing its
moment of inertia
– Outer parts are in tension, while the inner in compression
– Poisson effect cause the width to be smaller in the outer
region and larger in the inner region

13
• Bending (cont.)
– Major parameters
• Thickness, t
They are independent!
• Bend length, L
• Bend radius, R
• Bend angle, a
• Die opening dimension w
L

t
w
R

14
 – The bending force
(UTS ) Lt 2
Fmax =k
w
where, k = 1.2 ~ 1.33 for “V” dies and 2.4 ~ 2.6 for “U” dies

– Minimum bend radius: the radius beyond which the

workpiece will tear.

Tearing

Elongated grain directions from rolling affects

bending cracks – optimizing sheet cutting
orientation to maximize bendability
15
– Minimum bend radius
• To find the minimum bend radius, we first consider the strain.
Engineering strain during bending is

𝑅 + 𝑡 − 𝑅 − 𝑡/2 1
𝑒0 = =
𝑅 + 𝑡/2 2𝑅/𝑡 + 1

   R+t 
 o = ln (1 + eo ) = ln 1 +
1
 = ln  
 (2R t ) + 1   R + (t 2) 
• On the other hand, at the fracture:
𝐿𝑓 𝐴0 100
𝜀𝑓 = ln 1 + 𝑒𝑓 = ln ≈ ln = ln r is the tensile reduction
𝐿0 𝐴𝑓 100 − 𝑟
percentage of area
• Hence,
100 𝑅+𝑡 Based on
≈ experiment
100 − 𝑟 𝑅 + 𝑡/2
data fitting
R 50 R 60
• Hence, min = −1 min = −1
t r t r 16
– Springback https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o5zTUo2t7_w

• Bend allowance: the length of the

neutral axis in the bend area
Lb = a(R + kt)
t
where, k is a constant: k = 0.33 when R
< 2t and k = 0.5 when R > 2t.
• The bend allowance is the same before
and after springback and hence,

 t  t
 Ri + a i =  R f + a f
 2  2

• The springback factor that is

dependent on the material:
a f (2 Ri t ) + 1
Ks = =
a i (2 R f t ) + 1

• The springback estimation:

3
Ri  RiY   RY  Y: yield strength
= 4  − 3 i  + 1 17
Rf  Et   Et  E: Young’s modulus
• Drawing
‒ Drawing is the most common stamping operation
‒ Parts are made by having punch forces on a flat sheet-metal blank
into a die cavity, a process called deep drawing
‒ Also used to make parts that are shallow or have moderate depth
‒ A sheet-metal blank is placed over a die opening and is held in
place with a blank holder

18
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y4N2iusS-30
– Forces in sheet metal drawing

Blank-holding
force
Blank holder

• Maximum drawing/punch force

 D  
Fmax = pD pT (UTS ) 0  − 0.7
 D p   UTS: ultimate tensile strength

• Blank-holding force
2
𝐹ℎ = 0.015𝑌𝜋 𝐷02 − 𝐷𝑝 + 2.2𝑇 + 2𝑅𝑑

Unit system: SI or mm-MPa-N 19

– Progressive stamping
• Bending beyond the limit: use multiple steps to bend
• It is usually a combination of bending, drawing and blanking
• Example 1: forming a clamp
• Example 2: forming a cover

20
• The dies
– A typical die set and die assembly
Punch forces are simultaneously
provided by one press

Die Set Die Assembly 21

– Example 1: manufacturing of a washer

22
 Plastic materials
• Plastics include two broad classes:
– Thermoplastic
• Can be repeatedly softened when heated and hardened
when cooled.
• Formed into parts primarily by injection molding,
extrusion and extrusion blow molding.
– Thermoset
• Transforms on heating and cannot be re-melted because
of the curing process which will involve a chemical
reaction that changes the molecular structure irreversibly.
• Formed primarily by compression and transfer molding.
23
• Material properties (cont.)
– Thermal property:
• Glass transition temperature (Tg): material transits from
rigid to more flexible and rubbery state. At this Tg, 30 to 50
carbon chains start to move and gap between molecular
chains increases by 2.5 time.
• Melting temperature (Tm): material melt

24
• Material properties (cont.)
– The mechanics of plastic deformation in
processing
• During processing, plastics materials are heated up
to melt to flow
• Behavior of melt: viscosity

Kinematic viscosity v
Pseudo-plastic fluid

Newtonian fluid



25
• Material properties (cont.)
– Viscoelasticity
• Melts has an ability of recovering
• Die swell: the viscoelasticity causes the die swell

Dx
rx =
Dd
• Swell index:
26
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_swell
• Extrusion
– In extrusion, the raw materials are in the form of
thermoplastic pellets, granules or powder.

27
• Extrusion (cont.)
– Screw geometry
𝑝
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 =
𝜋𝐷
– Translation movement
𝑣 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
𝑁: rotational speed
– Drag flow rate of viscosity polymer melt
1 1 1
𝑄𝑑 = 𝑣𝑑𝑤 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑑𝑐 𝑤𝑐 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑑𝑐 𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 − 𝑤𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
2 2 2

– Negligible flight land width 𝑤𝑓

𝑄𝑑 ≈ 0.5𝜋 2 𝐷2 𝑁𝑑𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
28
• Extrusion (cont.)
– Back pressure flow caused by downstream dies
𝜋𝐷𝑑𝑐3 sin2 𝐴 𝑑𝑝
𝑄𝑏 = 𝜂: viscosity
12𝜂 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑝/𝑑𝑙: pressure gradient
– Linear assumption of pressure gradient
𝑝𝜋𝐷𝑑𝑐3 sin2 𝐴
𝑄𝑏 ≈
12𝜂𝐿
– Real flow rate

𝑄𝑥 = 𝑄𝑑 − 𝑄𝑏
𝑝𝜋𝐷𝑑 3 sin2 𝐴
𝑐
𝑄𝑥 ≈ 0.5𝜋 2 𝐷 2 𝑁𝑑𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 −
12𝜂𝐿
• Extrusion (cont.)
– Extruder characteristic
3 2
2 2
𝑝𝜋𝐷𝑑 𝑐 sin 𝐴
𝑄𝑥 ≈ 0.5𝜋 𝐷 𝑁𝑑𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 −
12𝜂𝐿

6𝜋𝐷𝑁𝐿𝜂𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ 0.5𝜋 2 𝐷 2 𝑁𝑑𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴, 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑑𝑐2
– Die characteristic
𝑄𝑥 = 𝑘𝑠 𝑝
𝑘𝑠 : shape factor

30
• Injection Molding
– Working principle
• Pellets or granules are fed into the heated cylinder
• The melt is forced into the mold either by a hydraulic plunger
or by the rotating screw system of an extruder
• Modern machines are of the reciprocating or plasticating
screw type
– Part shrinkage
• Polymers have high thermal expansion coefficient
• Shrinkage from cooling down should be considered

Typical values of shrinkage for molding of selected thermoplastics

• Empirical cavity dimension correction

𝐷𝑐 = 𝐷𝑝 + 𝐷𝑝 𝑠 + 𝐷𝑝 𝑠 2
s : shrinkage
𝐷𝑐 : cavity dimension
𝐷𝑝 : target part dimension 32
Example 1
A round disk of 150-mm diameter is blanked from a strip of 3.2-mm,
half-hard cold-rolled steel whose UTS = 400 MPa. Determine the
maximum blanking force.

Solution:
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.7 𝑈𝑇𝑆 𝑡𝐿

⇒ 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.7 × 400𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 3.2𝑚𝑚 × 𝜋 × 150𝑚𝑚 ≈ 422.2𝑘𝑁

33
Example 2
A sheet metal blank is bent as shown in the figure below. The metal
has a modulus of elasticity = 205 GPa, yield strength 275 MPa, and
tensile strength = 450 MPa. Determine (a) starting blank size, (b)
maximum bending force if a V-die is used with a die opening
dimension = 25 mm, and (c) final bend angle after spring back
L = 44.5

Solution:
(a) The workpiece has bend length = 44.5 mm and thickness = 3.2 mm.
The only dimension that need to be calculated is the length of the
workpiece. 34
Example 2 (cont.)
L = 44.5

Solution:
𝑅 = 4.75𝑚𝑚 < 2𝑡 = 6.4𝑚𝑚

So bend allowance:
𝐿𝑏 = 𝛼 𝑅 + 0.33𝑡
180° − 120°
⇒ 𝐿𝑏 = × 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 × 4.75𝑚𝑚 + 0.33 × 3.2𝑚𝑚 ≈ 6.08𝑚𝑚
180°
Bend angle definition and arc length calculation
Total length:
𝐿𝑡 ≈ 25𝑚𝑚 + 38𝑚𝑚 + 6.08𝑚𝑚 = 69.08𝑚𝑚
35
Example 2 (cont.)
L = 44.5

Solution:
(b) Maximum bending force:
𝑈𝑇𝑆 𝐿𝑡 2
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑘
𝑤

450𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 44.5𝑚𝑚 × 3.2𝑚𝑚 2

⇒ 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.2~1.33 ×
25𝑚𝑚

⇒ 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ 9.8~10.9𝑘𝑁
36
Example 2 (cont.)
L = 44.5

Solution:
(c) Springback estimation:
3
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖 𝑌 𝑅𝑖 𝑌
=4 −3 +1
𝑅𝑓 𝐸𝑡 𝐸𝑡

3
4.75𝑚𝑚 4.75𝑚𝑚 × 275𝑀𝑃𝑎 4.75𝑚𝑚 × 275𝑀𝑃𝑎
⇒ =4 −3 +1
𝑅𝑓 205𝐺𝑃𝑎 × 3.2𝑚𝑚 205𝐺𝑃𝑎 × 3.2𝑚𝑚

⇒ 𝑅𝑓 ≈ 4.78𝑚𝑚
37
Example 2 (cont.)
L = 44.5

Solution:
(c) Final bend angle after spring back:
𝑡 3.2𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑖 + 4.75𝑚𝑚 +
𝛼𝑓 = 𝛼𝑖 2 ≈ 60° × 2 ≈ 59.7°
𝑡 3.2𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑓 + 4.78𝑚𝑚 +
2 2

38
Example 3
A drawing operation is used to form a cylindrical cup with inside
diameter = 75 mm and height = 50 mm. The starting blank diameter =
138 mm and the sheet thickness = 2.4 mm. The material is low-carbon
steel with UTS = 300 MPa and yield strength = 175 MPa. The die
corner radius = 6 mm. Determine (a) maximum drawing force and (b)
blank-holding force.

Solution:
(a) Maximum drawing force:
𝐷0
𝐹𝑑 = 𝜋𝐷𝑝 𝑇 𝑈𝑇𝑆 − 0.7
𝐷𝑝

138𝑚𝑚
⇒ 𝐹𝑑 = 𝜋 × 75𝑚𝑚 × 2.4𝑚𝑚 × 300𝑀𝑃𝑎 × − 0.7 ≈ 193.4𝑘𝑁
75𝑚𝑚

39
Example 3 (cont.)
Solution:
(a) Blank-holding force:
2
𝐹ℎ = 0.015𝑌𝜋 𝐷02 − 𝐷𝑝 + 2.2𝑇 + 2𝑅𝑑

2 2 2
⇒ 𝐹ℎ = 0.015 × 175𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 𝜋 × 138𝑚𝑚 − 75𝑚𝑚 + 2.2 × 2.4𝑚𝑚 + 2 × 6𝑚𝑚

⇒ 𝐹ℎ ≈ 86.8𝑘𝑁

40
Example 4
An extruder barrel has a diameter D = 75 mm. The screw rotates at N =
60 RPM. Channel depth dc = 6.0 mm. and thread angle A = 20°. The
flight land width in the extruder is negligible. Die end pressure p = 7
MPa, length of the barrel L = 1.9 m, and the viscosity of the polymer
melt η = 100 Pa∙s. Determine the volume flow rate Qx of the plastic if
the pressure distribution is assumed to be linear.

Solution:
With negligible flight land width, the drag flow rate:
𝑄𝑑 ≈ 0.5𝜋 2 𝐷2 𝑁𝑑𝑐 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴

⇒ 𝑄𝑑 ≈ 0.5𝜋 2 × 75𝑚𝑚 2 × 60𝑅𝑃𝑀 × 6.0𝑚𝑚 × sin 20° cos 20°

⇒ 𝑄𝑑 ≈ 53,525𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠

Be careful about the units during calculation. 41

Example 4 (cont.)
Solution:
The back pressure flow from linear pressure distribution:
𝑝𝜋𝐷𝑑𝑐3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
𝑄𝑏 ≈
12𝜂𝐿

7𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 𝜋 × 75𝑚𝑚 × 6.0𝑚𝑚 3 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 20°

⇒ 𝑄𝑏 ≈ ≈ 18,276𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠
12 × 100𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠 × 1.9𝑚

The real volume flow rate:

𝑄𝑥 = 𝑄𝑑 − 𝑄𝑏 ≈ 35,249𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠

42
Example 5
For the same configuration, except the die end pressure, in Example 4,
if the die has a shape factor ks = 20,000 mm5/Ns, determine Qx and p
at the operating point.

Solution:
With previous calculation and treat the die end pressure p as unknown:
𝑄𝑥 = 𝑄𝑑 − 𝑄𝑏 ≈ 53,525𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠 − 𝑝 × 0.0026𝑚𝑚3 /𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠

From the die characteristic:

𝑄𝑥 = 𝑘𝑠 𝑝 = 𝑝 × 0.02𝑚𝑚3 /𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠
Be careful about the units.
Combining these two equations:
𝑝 ≈ 2.37𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑄𝑥 ≈ 47,367𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠
43