Review of Chapter 2 and Chapter 3

1
• 3 basic atomic arrangements in metals:
– Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)
Models shown are known as hard-ball or hard-sphere
models

Single crystal with

Hard-ball model Unit cell
many unit cells
BCC Structure

• a ~ 0.1 nm
1
• Number of atoms in BCC: 1 + 8 × = 2
8
2
– Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)

Single crystal with

Hard-ball model Unit cell
many unit cells

FCC Structure

1 1
• Number of atoms in FCC: 6 × + 8 × = 4
2 8

3
 – Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)

Unit cell Single crystal with many

unit cells

HCP Structure

1 1
• Number of atoms in HCP: 3 + 12 × + 2 × = 6
6 2

4
• Crystalline structure deformation
– Crystalline structure may deform (slip) under stress

• Elastic deformation: When a single

crystal is subjected to an external force,
it returns to its original shape when the
force is removed

• Plastic deformation (or permanent

deformation): When force increased, the
crystal does not return to its original
shape when the force is removed

5
• Slip system calculation
-- Miller indices for directions: [u v w]

Z ▪ Three important set of directions

[011] related to the cube are:
[001] (i) cell edge ([001] type),
(ii) face diagonal ([011] type),
(iii) body diagonal ([111] type).

[101]
[010] Body diagonal
Y
[100]
[111]
[110]
X [110]

6
• Slip system calculation (cont.)
-- Miller indices for planes: (h k l)

o Find intercepts along axes → 2 3 1 (transitional motion can be applied)

o Take reciprocal → 1/2 1/3 1
o Convert to smallest integers in the same ratio → 3 2 6
o Enclose in parenthesis → (326)

Note: (326) does NOT represent one plane but an infinite set of parallel
planes passing through lattice points. 7
Slip System
-- Combination of a slip plane and its direction of slip is known as
a slip system
-- Metals with 5 or more slip systems are ductile
-- Crystalline structure slip system example – FCC

➢ Slip planes – highest planar density

➢ Slip directions – highest linear density

4 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑙

×
3 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠
= 12

8
• Non-crystalline (Amorphous) structure
– A comparison
• Crystalline structure: regular, repeating and densely packed
• Non-crystalline structure: random and loosely packed

Crystalline Non-crystalline

– Although many non-crystalline materials are liquid and

gas, there are solid non-crystalline materials such as glass,
some plastics and rubber

9
• Non-crystalline structure (cont.)
– Materials may change its structure under different
temperature

Organized structure
with lower energy

Glass-transition temperature

Melting temperature

10
• Grains and grain boundaries
– A mass of crystals form a grain in the process of solidification.
– Materials are usually made of many randomly oriented grains
– Surfaces that separate individual grains are called grain
boundaries

11
• Grains and grain boundaries (cont.)
– The formation of the grains

• When molten metal solidify, crystals begin to form at various

locations and have random orientations
• These crystals then grows into a crystalline structure or grain
• Number and size of the grains depends on the rate at which
nucleation takes place
• Surfaces that separate individual grains are called grain
boundaries
12
• Grains and grain boundaries (cont.)
– Grain size:
Example: Assume that the ball of a
ballpoint pen is 1 mm in diameter and has
an ASTM grain size of 10. Calculate the
number of grains in the ball.

Solution:

oThe volume of the 1-mm-diameter ball is

4r 3 4 (0.5)
3
V= = = 0.5236 mm 3
3 3
oTotal number of grains is
( )
N = (0.5236) 520,000 grains/mm3 = 272,300

13
-- Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
• 3 events take place consecuti-
vely during the heating process:
1. Recovery:
Occurs below recrystallization
temperature, stresses in the highly
deformed regions are relieved
2. Recrystallization:
Within a certain temperature range,
new equiaxed and strain-free grains
are formed to replace older grains
3. Grain growth:
Grains begin to grow in size and
exceed the original grain size when
temperature is raised further
14
– The process of stress-strain testing

Plastic deformation Necking

Breaking

Stress (se)

Elastic
deformation

Strain (e)

15
– Stress calculation
• The formula
F
se =
A0
• Note:
– se = engineering stress, MPa
– F = applied force, N
– A0 = original area of the specimen, in2 or mm2

– Strain calculation
• The formula:
L − L0
e=
L0
• Note: it has no unit
– True strain-stress
• Engineering stress is based on the original cross-sectional
area, Ao, of the specimen
• Engineering stress does not represent the actual stress and
hence, we need true stress
• True stress
F
s=
A Actual (instantaneous) area
• True strain
L dL L
e = = ln
L L
0 L0

• The correlation between the engineering stress-strain and

true stress-strain
s = se(1 + e)
e = ln(1 + e)

17
– True stress – true strain (cont.)
• Illustration: with the true stress and true strain, it is seen that the
material becomes stronger as it is strained

fracture
s True strain

UTS Engineering
strain
Y Plastic deformation
zone
Elastic
deformation zone
e

• Area under true stress–true strain curve is called specific energy

• Area under true stress–true strain curve up to fracture is known
as the toughness
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– The true stress – true strain relationship can be described
by the flow curve equation:
s = Ke n
where, K is the strength coefficient or flow strength (MPa) and is
equal to the true stress at a true strain of unity, and n is the strain
hardening exponent and is equal to the true strain at the onset of
necking.

– The log form:

logs = logK + nloge
– Note that n is the slope
• n is between 0 and 1
• n = 0 → perfect plastic
• n = 1 → perfect elastic
19
– Calculation of 𝑛
• Necking – stress instability:
0 = 𝑑𝐹𝑛 = 𝑑 𝜎𝑛 𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴𝑛 𝑑𝜎𝑛 + 𝜎𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑛

• Volume conservation of material:

0 = 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑𝐿 + 𝐿𝑑𝐴

𝑑𝜎𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑛
⇒ =− = 𝑑𝜀𝑛
𝜎𝑛 𝐴𝑛

𝑑𝜎𝑛
⇒ = 𝜎𝑛
𝑑𝜀𝑛

𝑑𝜎𝑛 𝑛−1
= 𝐾𝑛𝜀𝑛 = 𝐾𝜀𝑛𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛 = 𝜀𝑛
𝑑𝜀𝑛 20
• Bauschinger effect
‒ When a metal is subjected to tension into the plastic range, the
yield stress in compression is lower than that in tension

21
• Compression test
– How to test the compression stress-strain
– The formula
F
se =
A0

h − h0
e=
h0

– A comparison to tensile stress-strain: much more load is

required in the plastic region because:
• The size increases
• The friction increases (barreling effect)

22
• Shearing test setup – torsion test
• Stress and strain
T
t=
2R 2t
R
g =
L

• Typical shear curves

• The relationship in the
elastic region

t = Gg

Isotropic materials:
G = E/(2+2v)
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• Bending and testing of brittle materials
• The setup

• The transverse rupture strength

𝐹𝐿
𝑀𝑡 𝑡 3𝐹𝐿
𝑇𝑅𝑆 = = 2 2 =
2𝐼 2𝑏𝑡 3 /12 2𝑏𝑡 2
where, TRS = transverse rupture strength (MPa), F = applied force
(N), L = length of the specimen between supports (mm); and b and t
are the dimensions of the cross section (mm).
24
 – Hardness test example: Brinell test
• Use a carbide ball of 10 mm diameter to press the surface
of a specimen
• The applied force P is 500, 1,500 or 3,000 kg.
• The formula to compute the HB value:
2𝑃
𝐻𝐵 =
𝜋𝐷 𝐷 − 𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 The area of a spherical cap

• An empirical relationship with the ultimate tensile stress for

steel:
UTS (N / mm2) = 3.5 HB (N / mm2)

Indentation must be fully

developed in the test

There is no direct mathematics transformation

among different hardness scales 25
• Fluid viscosity
– Definition: the resistance to flow
– Measuring the viscosity
t
Viscosity  =
F g
Shear stress t =
A

dv
Rate of shear g =
dy

26
• Physical Property 2: Thermal Properties
– Specific heat (C): the quantity of heat energy required to
increase the temperature of a unit mass of the material by 1
degree
– Thermal conductivity (k): the capability to transfer heat
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑞 = −𝑘 − 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 1𝐷
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

𝒒 = −𝑘𝜵𝑇 − 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙

27
• Physical Property 3: Electrical Properties
– Resistivity:
• How to compute the resistance:
L
R=
A
where, L is the length, A is the area, and  is the resistivity of the
material.
• Resistivity is a measure of conductivity

– The electric conductivity:

• The formula
𝐽: magnitude of current density
𝐽 1
=
𝐸 𝜌 𝐸: magnitude of electric field
28
Note that the unit is (-m)-1.
– Structure of Alloys
• An alloy is composed of two or more chemical elements,
at least one of which is a metal
• To describe alloys we have solute and solvent
• Solute is the minor element that is added to the solvent,
which is the major element

Substitutional solid solution Interstitial solid solution

• No chemical reaction between components 29

• Phase diagram
– A phase diagram is a graphic representation of a metal
alloy system as a function of composition and temperature
– An example: copper and nickel alloy phase system

weight %

30
– Review of phase diagram
• Globally – materials under stable conditions

Material compositions at
fixed temperature and
element combination

Iron–iron-carbide (Fe-C) phase diagram

31
– Review of phase diagram (cont.)
• Locally – dynamic analysis for one element combination

3% Fe-C constituent
change as
temperature varies

Only several material

formats exist

Fe-C phase diagram 32

– Review of phase diagram (cont.)
• Calculate material composition – lever rule

Step 1:
Find material formats

Step 2:
Lever rule
γ% = y/(x+y)

x y Fe3C% = x/(x+y)

*Derivation:
3%=γ% *(3%-x)+(1-γ%) *(3%+y)

=> γ%=y/(x+y)

33
• Three types of heat treatment:
– Quenching: rapid cooling to increase hardness
– Annealing: heating, holding and slow cooling to
restore original properties, increase ductility, reduce
harness and strength at crystal level
– Tempering: similar to annealing, focuses at
microstructure level (martensite to tempered martensite)

Quenching Annealing Tempering

34
– A comparison: quenching, annealing and tempering

Annealing

Tempering

Quenching

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TcrQ1__fYU0
35
• Composites (cont.)
– Rule of Mixtures
𝑐: composite
Density calculation: 𝑚: matrix
𝑚𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑟 𝑟: reinforcement
𝑣: void
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑉𝑣

𝑚𝑐 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑟 𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 + 𝜌𝑟 𝑉𝑟
𝜌𝑐 = = = = 𝑓𝑚 𝜌𝑚 + 𝑓𝑟 𝜌𝑟
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐

36
 • Composites (cont.)
– Rule of Mixtures
➢ Longitudinal elastic modulus: ➢ Transverse elastic modulus:

h h
sc sc
sc sc

tm/2 tm/2
tf tf
tm/2 tm/2
tc tc

Uniform strain because of perfect bound assumption. Uniform strain because of perfect bound assumption.

Parallel model) for longitudinal modulus: Series model for transverse modulus:
𝐸𝑐1 = 𝑉𝑟 𝐸𝑟1 + 𝑉𝑚 𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑟2 𝐸𝑚
𝐸𝑐2 =
𝐸𝑟1 , 𝐸𝑚 = longitudinal fiber and matrix moduli 𝑉𝑟 𝐸𝑚 + 𝑉𝑚 𝐸𝑟2

𝐸𝑟2 , 𝐸𝑚 = transverse fiber and matrix moduli

37
Example 1.1
A tensile test specimen has a starting gage length = 50 mm and a
cross-section area = 200 mm2, the specimen yield under a load of
32,000 N (0.2% offset) at a gage length = 50.2 mm. The maximum
load of 65,000 is reached at a gage length of 57.7 mm just before
necking. Final fracture occurs at a gage length of 63.5 mm.
Determine (a) yield strength, (b) modulus of elasticity, (c) tensile
strength, (d) engineering strain at maximum load, and (e) percent
elongation
(a) Yield strength Y = 32,000 N / 200 mm2 = 160 MPa
(b) Engineering strain e = (50.2 mm – 50 mm) / 50 mm x
100% – 0.2% = 0.2% => Modulus = 160 MPa / 0.002 =
80 GPa
(c) Tensile strength TS = 65,000 N / 200 mm2 = 325 MPa
(d) Engineering strain e = (57.7 mm – 50 mm) / 50 mm x
100% = 15.4%
(e) Percent elongation EL = (63.5 mm – 50 mm) / 50 mm x
100% = 27% 38
Example 1.2
Set up in 1.1, determine (a) true stress and (b) true strain at
maximum load.
(a) Volume conservation to find cross-section area at maximum
load A = A0L0/L = 200 mm2 x 50 mm / 57.7 mm = 173.3 mm2
=> true stress σ = 65,000 N / 173.3 mm2 = 375 MPa
(b) Ture strain ε = ln (L/L0) = 0.143

Check:
(a) True stress σ = 375 MPa = TS x (1 + e) = 325 MPa x (1 +
15.4%)
(b) True strain ε = 0.143 = ln (1 + e) = ln (1 + 15.4%)

39
Example 2: Calculation of Ultimate Tensile Strength
• Assume that a material has a true stress–true strain curve given by
s = 690 e 0.5 psi
Calculate the true ultimate tensile strength and the engineering UTS
of this material Metric and Imperial units, metric one
will be used in assignments and exams
• The necking strain for this material is e = n = 0.5

• True ultimate tensile strength is s = Knn = 690(0.5)0.5 = 488 psi

• The true area at the onset of necking is obtained from

𝐴0
ln = 𝑛 = 0.5 ⇒ 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘 = 𝐴0 𝒆−0.5 ⇒ 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘 = 𝜎𝐴0 𝒆−0.5
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘

Hence,
P = (488)(0.606)( A0 ) = 295.7 A0 lb (2900 A0 kg)
P
UTS = = 296 psi MPa 40
A0
Example 3.1

Analyze compositions of the liquid and solid phases in the copper-nickel

alloy system with 50 wt% nickel and a temperature of 1260 °C:
Use the horizontal line at 1260 °C to identify liquid and solid phases
composition. The liquid phase has 36 wt% nickel and the solid phase has 62
wt% of nickel.
41
Example 3.2

Analyze the proportion of liquid and solid phases in the copper-nickel alloy
system with 50 wt% nickel and a temperature of 1260 °C:
Use lever rule:
% liquid = (62 – 50) / (62 – 36) x 100% = 46 %
% solid = (50-36) / (62 – 36) x 100% = 54 %
42