Ch2 & 3 Review
Ch2 & 3 Review
1
• 3 basic atomic arrangements in metals:
– Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)
Models shown are known as hard-ball or hard-sphere
models
• a ~ 0.1 nm
1
• Number of atoms in BCC: 1 + 8 × = 2
8
2
– Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)
FCC Structure
1 1
• Number of atoms in FCC: 6 × + 8 × = 4
2 8
3
– Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
HCP Structure
1 1
• Number of atoms in HCP: 3 + 12 × + 2 × = 6
6 2
4
• Crystalline structure deformation
– Crystalline structure may deform (slip) under stress
5
• Slip system calculation
-- Miller indices for directions: [u v w]
[101]
[010] Body diagonal
Y
[100]
[111]
[110]
X [110]
6
• Slip system calculation (cont.)
-- Miller indices for planes: (h k l)
Note: (326) does NOT represent one plane but an infinite set of parallel
planes passing through lattice points. 7
Slip System
-- Combination of a slip plane and its direction of slip is known as
a slip system
-- Metals with 5 or more slip systems are ductile
-- Crystalline structure slip system example – FCC
8
• Non-crystalline (Amorphous) structure
– A comparison
• Crystalline structure: regular, repeating and densely packed
• Non-crystalline structure: random and loosely packed
Crystalline Non-crystalline
9
• Non-crystalline structure (cont.)
– Materials may change its structure under different
temperature
Organized structure
with lower energy
Glass-transition temperature
Melting temperature
10
• Grains and grain boundaries
– A mass of crystals form a grain in the process of solidification.
– Materials are usually made of many randomly oriented grains
– Surfaces that separate individual grains are called grain
boundaries
11
• Grains and grain boundaries (cont.)
– The formation of the grains
Solution:
13
-- Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
• 3 events take place consecuti-
vely during the heating process:
1. Recovery:
Occurs below recrystallization
temperature, stresses in the highly
deformed regions are relieved
2. Recrystallization:
Within a certain temperature range,
new equiaxed and strain-free grains
are formed to replace older grains
3. Grain growth:
Grains begin to grow in size and
exceed the original grain size when
temperature is raised further
14
– The process of stress-strain testing
Breaking
Stress (se)
Elastic
deformation
Strain (e)
15
– Stress calculation
• The formula
F
se =
A0
• Note:
– se = engineering stress, MPa
– F = applied force, N
– A0 = original area of the specimen, in2 or mm2
– Strain calculation
• The formula:
L − L0
e=
L0
• Note: it has no unit
– True strain-stress
• Engineering stress is based on the original cross-sectional
area, Ao, of the specimen
• Engineering stress does not represent the actual stress and
hence, we need true stress
• True stress
F
s=
A Actual (instantaneous) area
• True strain
L dL L
e = = ln
L L
0 L0
17
– True stress – true strain (cont.)
• Illustration: with the true stress and true strain, it is seen that the
material becomes stronger as it is strained
fracture
s True strain
UTS Engineering
strain
Y Plastic deformation
zone
Elastic
deformation zone
e
𝑑𝜎𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑛
⇒ =− = 𝑑𝜀𝑛
𝜎𝑛 𝐴𝑛
𝑑𝜎𝑛
⇒ = 𝜎𝑛
𝑑𝜀𝑛
𝑑𝜎𝑛 𝑛−1
= 𝐾𝑛𝜀𝑛 = 𝐾𝜀𝑛𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛 = 𝜀𝑛
𝑑𝜀𝑛 20
• Bauschinger effect
‒ When a metal is subjected to tension into the plastic range, the
yield stress in compression is lower than that in tension
21
• Compression test
– How to test the compression stress-strain
– The formula
F
se =
A0
h − h0
e=
h0
22
• Shearing test setup – torsion test
• Stress and strain
T
t=
2R 2t
R
g =
L
t = Gg
Isotropic materials:
G = E/(2+2v)
23
• Bending and testing of brittle materials
• The setup
dv
Rate of shear g =
dy
26
• Physical Property 2: Thermal Properties
– Specific heat (C): the quantity of heat energy required to
increase the temperature of a unit mass of the material by 1
degree
– Thermal conductivity (k): the capability to transfer heat
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑞 = −𝑘 − 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 1𝐷
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝒒 = −𝑘𝜵𝑇 − 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
27
• Physical Property 3: Electrical Properties
– Resistivity:
• How to compute the resistance:
L
R=
A
where, L is the length, A is the area, and is the resistivity of the
material.
• Resistivity is a measure of conductivity
weight %
30
– Review of phase diagram
• Globally – materials under stable conditions
Material compositions at
fixed temperature and
element combination
3% Fe-C constituent
change as
temperature varies
Step 1:
Find material formats
Step 2:
Lever rule
γ% = y/(x+y)
x y Fe3C% = x/(x+y)
*Derivation:
3%=γ% *(3%-x)+(1-γ%) *(3%+y)
=> γ%=y/(x+y)
33
• Three types of heat treatment:
– Quenching: rapid cooling to increase hardness
– Annealing: heating, holding and slow cooling to
restore original properties, increase ductility, reduce
harness and strength at crystal level
– Tempering: similar to annealing, focuses at
microstructure level (martensite to tempered martensite)
34
– A comparison: quenching, annealing and tempering
Annealing
Tempering
Quenching
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TcrQ1__fYU0
35
• Composites (cont.)
– Rule of Mixtures
𝑐: composite
Density calculation: 𝑚: matrix
𝑚𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑟 𝑟: reinforcement
𝑣: void
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑉𝑣
𝑚𝑐 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑟 𝜌𝑚 𝑉𝑚 + 𝜌𝑟 𝑉𝑟
𝜌𝑐 = = = = 𝑓𝑚 𝜌𝑚 + 𝑓𝑟 𝜌𝑟
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
36
• Composites (cont.)
– Rule of Mixtures
➢ Longitudinal elastic modulus: ➢ Transverse elastic modulus:
h h
sc sc
sc sc
tm/2 tm/2
tf tf
tm/2 tm/2
tc tc
Uniform strain because of perfect bound assumption. Uniform strain because of perfect bound assumption.
Parallel model) for longitudinal modulus: Series model for transverse modulus:
𝐸𝑐1 = 𝑉𝑟 𝐸𝑟1 + 𝑉𝑚 𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑟2 𝐸𝑚
𝐸𝑐2 =
𝐸𝑟1 , 𝐸𝑚 = longitudinal fiber and matrix moduli 𝑉𝑟 𝐸𝑚 + 𝑉𝑚 𝐸𝑟2
Check:
(a) True stress σ = 375 MPa = TS x (1 + e) = 325 MPa x (1 +
15.4%)
(b) True strain ε = 0.143 = ln (1 + e) = ln (1 + 15.4%)
39
Example 2: Calculation of Ultimate Tensile Strength
• Assume that a material has a true stress–true strain curve given by
s = 690 e 0.5 psi
Calculate the true ultimate tensile strength and the engineering UTS
of this material Metric and Imperial units, metric one
will be used in assignments and exams
• The necking strain for this material is e = n = 0.5
Hence,
P = (488)(0.606)( A0 ) = 295.7 A0 lb (2900 A0 kg)
P
UTS = = 296 psi MPa 40
A0
Example 3.1
Analyze the proportion of liquid and solid phases in the copper-nickel alloy
system with 50 wt% nickel and a temperature of 1260 °C:
Use lever rule:
% liquid = (62 – 50) / (62 – 36) x 100% = 46 %
% solid = (50-36) / (62 – 36) x 100% = 54 %
42