Review of Chapters 8 (part 2), 9 & 10

• Chips in metal cutting

− A continuous chip gives good surface finish and steady
cutting forces, but may be undesirable for automated
machinery
− A discontinuous chip is desirable for chip removal, but
cutting forces may fluctuate, affecting surface finish and
causing chatter
− A built-up-edge (BUE) chip generally results in poor surface
finish, but a thin stable edge can protect tool surfaces

2
• Tool wear (cont.)
– The causes of tool wear
o Abrasion: wearing caused by hard particles in the work material
gouging and removing small portions of the tool, a significant
cause of flank wear but also occurs in crater wear
o Adhesion: occurs when two metals are forced into contact under
high pressure and temperature between the chip and the tool rake
face, small particles of the tool are broken away
o Diffusion: exchange of atoms at the tool–chip boundary, causing
the tool surface to become depleted of the atoms responsible for
its hardness, so the tool surface becomes more susceptible to
abrasion and adhesion, a principal mechanism of crater wear
o Chemical reaction: high temperatures and clean surfaces at the
tool–chip interface can result in tool rake face oxidization.
o Plastic deformation: cutting forces on the cutting edge at high
temperature cause the edge to deform plastically, contributes
mainly to flank wear
3
– The most important part of the wear occurs on the relief
(flank) face of the tool
– It is due to (a) rubbing of the tool along the
machined surface and (b) high temperatures
– It can be described by Taylor tool life
equation
VT n = C
V = cutting speed;
T = time taken to develop a certain flank
wear;
n = an exponent that depends on tool and
workpiece materials and cutting conditions;
C = constant.

4
• Rotational axial machining processes
– Turning
Drilling
– Drilling
– Reaming

Turning

Reaming

• Turning
– Demo:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EsAxOnzEms
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HmP3Qy7n2eI
5
• Multifunction of lathes
– Lathes can be used for various rotational axis machining processes

Taper Contour Form

Facing
turning turning turning

Chamfering
Cutoff

Threading

Boring

Drilling Knurling 6
• Milling
− Workpiece fed past a rotating cylindrical tool

− Demo: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ef59DogwLrI

• Basic types of milling:

− Peripheral milling/plain milling
− Face milling 7
− Peripheral milling
o Tool axis parallel to the machined surface
o Cutting edges are on the outside periphery and two ends of the cutter
o Typical peripheral milling operations
Slotting Side milling

Straddle milling Form milling

Slab milling

8
8
− Peripheral milling (cont.)
o Up milling/conventional milling – milling against feed
o Down milling/climb milling – milling with feed

Up milling Down milling

o Up (down) milling results in chips from thin (thick) to thick (thin)
o Down milling causes shorter chip – tool life + from cutting time -
o Up (down) milling tends to lift (hold) the workpiece
9
 − Face milling
o Tool axis perpendicular to the machined surface
o Cutting edges are on the outside periphery of the cutter
o Typical peripheral milling operations
Conventional End
Partial face face milling milling
milling

Surface
Pocket milling
Profile milling
milling
• Cutting conditions in milling
− Cutting speed: 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑁𝑁𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑁𝑁: spindle rotational speed
𝐷𝐷: outside diameter of the cutter

− Feed rate: 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 = 𝑁𝑁𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓

𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡 : number of teeth on the cutter
𝑓𝑓: chip load (feed) per cut tooth

− Material removal rate: 𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟

𝑤𝑤: cutting width
𝑑𝑑: cutting depth

11
• Cutting conditions in milling (cont.)
− Total milling time
o Slab milling

 Approach distance to fully engage the cutter: 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑑𝑑 𝐷𝐷 − 𝑑𝑑

𝐿𝐿+𝐴𝐴
 Total engage time of the cutter: 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 =
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟
12
− Total milling time
o Face milling with centered cutter

 Approach distance to fully engage the cutter:

𝐴𝐴 = 0.5 𝐷𝐷 − 𝐷𝐷2 − 𝑤𝑤 2

𝐿𝐿+𝐴𝐴
 Total engage time of the cutter: 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 =
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟
13
− Total milling time (cont.)
o Face milling with offset cutter

 Approach distance to fully engage the cutter: 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑤𝑤 𝐷𝐷 − 𝑤𝑤

𝐿𝐿+𝐴𝐴
 Total engage time of the cutter: 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 =
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟

14
• Broaching
− Utilize a multiple-tooth tool to take multiple cuts by moving
the tool linearly relative to the work along the tool axis

− Broaching can be used to machine internal and external

surfaces: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAJx-6SLdP0
• Sawing
– A slit is cut into the workpiece by a tool with a series of
narrowly spaced teeth
– A wide variety of sizes, tooth forms, tooth spacing, and
blade thicknesses and widths are available
– Types of saws
• Hacksaws have straight blades and reciprocating motions
• Circular saws are used for cutting off
• Band saws have continuous, long, flexible blades and have a
continuous cutting action

Hacksaw Circular saw Band saw

• Machining economics
− Optimizing cutting speed
o Cycle time per part:

𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 + 𝑇𝑇ℎ +
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝

𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 : machining time

𝑇𝑇ℎ : part handling time for loading, unloading and adjustment
𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 : tool change time
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 : number of pieces cut in one tool life

17
− Optimizing cutting speed (cont.)
o Cycle time:
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣 1/𝑛𝑛−1 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = + 𝑇𝑇ℎ +
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶 1/𝑛𝑛

o Maximum production rate – lowest 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 :

𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐
=0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛 1
⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐶𝐶
1 − 𝑛𝑛 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡

o Corresponding tool life:

1
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = − 1 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡
𝑛𝑛

18
− Optimizing cutting speed (cont.)
o Cost of machining time = 𝐶𝐶0 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝐶0 : cost rate for the operator and machine

o Cost of part handling time = 𝐶𝐶0 𝑇𝑇ℎ

o Cost of tool change time = 𝐶𝐶0 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 /𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝

o Tooling cost per part = 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 /𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝

𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 : cost of one cutting tool

o Total cost per part:

𝐶𝐶0 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡
𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶0 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 + 𝐶𝐶0 𝑇𝑇ℎ + +
𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝

19
− Optimizing cutting speed (cont.)
o Total cost per part:
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝐶𝐶0 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣 1/𝑛𝑛−1 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶0 + 𝐶𝐶0 𝑇𝑇ℎ +
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶 1/𝑛𝑛

o Minimum cost per part:

𝑑𝑑𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐
=0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶0
⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐶𝐶
1 − 𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶0 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡

o Corresponding tool life:

1 𝐶𝐶0 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −1
𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶0

20
• Grinding
– Grinding is the finishing process that can achieve
high dimension accuracy and surface finish
– Grinding wheels are made of abrasives
– Abrasives are small, hard particle having sharp edges and
irregular shapes
– Abrasives remove small amounts of material from surfaces
through cutting processes that produce tiny chips

21
• Grinding (cont.)
− Characteristic: very high speed and small cut size
− Principal features of grinding

Chip longitudinal shape

Chip cross section

Infeed (depth of cut) Width of grinding path 22
• Grinding (cont.)
Spindle rotation
speed N (rpm)

− Wheel speed: 𝑣𝑣 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

− Material removal rate: 𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
23
• Grinding (cont.)

− Surface finish in grinding

o Approximation of chip length: 𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 ≈ 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝑤𝑤 ′
o Grain aspect ratio: 𝑟𝑟𝑔𝑔 = ~[10, 20]
𝑡𝑡
o Number of chips formed per unit time: 𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝐶𝐶: number of active grits (cutting teeth) per unit area on the outside
periphery of the grinding wheel.
24
• Grinding (cont.)
− Force and energy in grinding
o Specific energy (to removed material):
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣
𝑈𝑈 =
𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 : cutting force to drive the work past the wheel
o Cutting force on a single grain:
0.25
𝑟𝑟𝑔𝑔 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 0.5 𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹′𝑐𝑐 = 𝐾𝐾1
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐷𝐷
𝐾𝐾1 : constant depending on material strength and grain sharpness
− Typical grain action in grinding
Cutting efficiency ↓

Cutting Plowing Rubbing

• Grinding (cont.)
− Temperature in grinding

o Cutting efficiency ↓, then working temperature ↑

o Much of heat remains in ground surface, instead of chips

o High temperature leads to work surface damage, softening and

residual stress

o Surface temperature:

0.5
𝑟𝑟𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝐾2 𝑑𝑑0.75 𝐷𝐷0.25
𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤

𝐾𝐾2 : constant
26
• Other mechanical abrasive processes
− Honing
o Finish bores of internal combustion engines, bearings, hydraulic
cylinders and gun barrels
o Surface roughness of 0.12 μm or slightly better
o Characteristic cross-hatched surface to retain lubrication during
component operation, contributing function and service life

Honing
machine
Resulted surface

27
• Other mechanical abrasive processes (cont.)
− Lapping
o Achieve extreme accuracy and smoothness in optical lenses,
metallic bearing surfaces, gages, etc.
o Utilize lapping compound (fluid suspension of very small abrasive
particles) for processing
o Laps are soft, porous, and made of cast iron, copper, leather or cloth

o Unconventional combined mechanisms Harder laps

 Rolling and sliding of abrasive particles
 Particles imbedded in the lap for cutting
Softer laps 28
• Other mechanical abrasive processes (cont.)
− Superfinishing
o Similar tool and setup to honing

o Shorter stroke (~5 mm)

o Higher frequencies (~25 Hz)
o Lower pressures (≤0.28 MPa)
o Lower workpiece speed (~15 m/min)
o Generally smaller grit sizes
o Mirror-like finishes with surface roughness of around 0.025 μm
o Applied to flat and external cylindrical surfaces
29
• Chemical-mechanical polishing
– Uses a suspension of abrasive particles in a water-based
solution with a controlled corrosion

– Removes material from the workpiece through combined

abrasion and corrosion effects
– Major application of this process is the polishing of silicon
wafers in the semiconductor industry
30
• Electropolishing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0XUS9bRSihM

• Magnet polishing
 Abrasives controlled by
magnetic fields
 Demo:
https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=M1OXh26hogQ
31
• Electrical-Discharge Machining (EDM)
– Based on the erosion of metals by spark discharges. At
the point of contact, a small portion of the metal eroded
away and leave a small crater
– When the potential difference is high, the dielectric breaks
down and a transient spark discharges through the fluid

Demo: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L1D5DLWWMp8 32
• EDM (cont.)
− The System has an electrode and a workpiece, connected to
a DC power supply and placed in a dielectric fluid
− Can be used on any material that is an electrical conductor

(a) Schematic the EDM machine; (b) Examples of cavities produced by EDM; (c) A spiral cavity produced by EDM
using a slowly rotating electrode similar to a screw thread; and (d) Holes in a fuel-injection nozzle made by EDM.
• Overview of IC Processing
o Fabrication of silicon chips/dies
 Millimeter chip size
 Nanometer chip feature

o Packaging of chips
 Connect IC to outside components
 Protect IC from damage

34
• Process Sequence
o Overview for processing steps in IC production
Silicon ingot Silicon wafer IC fabrication on wafer
Planar
Machining
processing

Cutting
Packaged chip Chip/die

Packaging

35
• Crystal Growing
o IC chips are built by single crystal silicon – uniform properties
o Czochralski process to grow single crystal
 Molten silicon is doped before pulling
 First pull rapidly to initiate solidification
and cause the neck
 Then reduce pulling speed for crystal grow

36 36
• Manufacturing of Wafers
o Wafer preparation – flat polishing

• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to oxidize wafer surface

• Abrasive SiO2 particles to remove oxidized layers (~ 0.025 mm)
with contaminants
37
• IC Chip Number Estimation

o Assuming square chips:

2.25
𝐷𝐷𝑤𝑤
𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐 = 0.34
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐
𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐 : estimated chip number
𝐷𝐷𝑤𝑤 : diameter of the processable area of
the wafer, assumed circular
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 : side dimension of the square chip

Rectangular/square chips
on a circular wafer

38
• Integrating the Fabrication Steps
o Example – processing of an n-channel metal oxide
semiconductor (NMOS) logic device
Lithography Thermal Etching Thermal
+ CVD oxidation of Si3N4 oxidation

CVD + ion Lithography Doping Protection

implantation + etching deposit

Gate Drain and

source (n-type)
39
• Packaging
o Design of IC packages
 Number of input/output terminals from Rent’s rule
𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 : required terminal number
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 : number of internal circuits / logic gates
𝐶𝐶 and 𝑚𝑚: parameters depending on circuit types and design

Typical values of 𝐶𝐶 and 𝑚𝑚

IC type 𝐶𝐶 𝑚𝑚
Microprocessor (CPU) 0.89 0.45
Gate array 1.9 0.50
Static RAM 6.9 0.12
Dynamic Ram 7.8 0.07

40
• Packaging
o Processing steps in IC packaging
 Wafer testing: use probes to test each chip and mark faulted ones before
chips are cut from the whole wafer
 Chip separation: use highly aligned and automatic diamond saw machine
to cut chips, individual chips are held in place by adhesive tapes during
the step for following chip handling
 Die bonding: attach individual chips to package substrate
 Ceramic packaging: eutectic die bonding, vapor deposition and heat
 Plastic packaging: epoxy die bonding, epoxy curing around chips
 Wire bonding: connect chips with electrical leads by thermocompression,
thermosonic or ultrasonic means
 Package sealing: complete whole chip packaging
 Final testing: measure IC performance and identify packaging damage
under target working condition (heat, shock, etc.)

41
• Yield in IC Processing
o Simple probability model of final yield of good ICs
𝑌𝑌 = 𝑌𝑌1 𝑌𝑌2 … 𝑌𝑌𝑛𝑛
𝑌𝑌: final yield
𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖 : yield of processing step 𝑖𝑖
𝑛𝑛: total step number, can be large (hundreds of) and difficult to collect

o Final yield model based on processing phases

𝑌𝑌 = 𝑌𝑌𝑐𝑐 𝑌𝑌𝑠𝑠 𝑌𝑌𝑤𝑤 𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚 𝑌𝑌𝑡𝑡
𝑌𝑌𝑐𝑐 : yield of single crystal from raw material, typically 50%
𝑌𝑌𝑠𝑠 : yield of wafer slicing, typically 50%, but waste silicon can be recycled
𝑌𝑌𝑤𝑤 : produced wafers excluding testing and broken ones, typically 70%
𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚 : yield of multiprobe-test, ranging from 10% to 90% or more
𝑌𝑌𝑡𝑡 : final tests yield, ranging from 90% to 95%
42
• Yield in IC Processing (cont.)
o Final yield model based on processing phases
𝑌𝑌 = 𝑌𝑌𝑐𝑐 𝑌𝑌𝑠𝑠 𝑌𝑌𝑤𝑤 𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚 𝑌𝑌𝑡𝑡

 Multiprobe test yield 𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚

 Area defects: affect major areas or entire surfaces of the wafer, mostly
caused by incorrect process parameters and can be improved
 Point defects: occur in localized areas and affect only one or several ICs,
commonly caused by dust particles and dislocations in crystal structures

 Bose-Einstein statistics: assume negligible area defects and uniformly

distributed point defects, good for highly integrated chips
1
𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚 =
1 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴: area processed
𝐷𝐷: density of point defects, can be from previous experience
43
Example 1
In a turning operation on gray cast iron (specific cutting force 1500
N/mm2), side cutting edge angle = 0, cutting speed = 85 m/min, feed = 0.2
mm/rev, depth of cut = 5.0 mm, and the lathe mechanical efficiency = 85%.
Determine how much power the lathe draws in performing this operation.

Solution:
Chip area with 0 side cutting edge angle:
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑏𝑏𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 = 5.0𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 0.2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1.0𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
Cutting force:
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 = 𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴 = 1500𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 × 1.0𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 = 1500𝑁𝑁
Cutting power:
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣 = 1500𝑁𝑁 × 85𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 2.125𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Lathe power:
𝑃𝑃 2.125𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 = = = 2.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝜂𝜂 85% 44
Example 2
A turning operation is performed on a cylindrical work part whose
diameter = 120 mm and length = 450 mm. Cutting speed = 2.0 m/s, side
cutting edge angle = 0, feed = 0.25 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 2.2 mm.
Determine
(a) Cutting time;
(b) Material removal rate.

Solution:
(a) Feed:
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑁𝑁 =
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Cutting time:
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 450𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 𝜋𝜋 × 120𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 = = = ≈ 339.3𝑠𝑠 = 5.655𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣 0.25𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 2𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
45
Example 2 (cont.)
Solution:
(b) Material removal rate with 0 side cutting edge angle:
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑏𝑏𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 = 2.2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 0.25𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 2.0𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 = 1100𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠

Alternative approach:
∆𝑉𝑉 𝜋𝜋 𝐷𝐷 2 − 𝐷𝐷 − 2𝑑𝑑 2
𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣/4 𝐷𝐷 2 − 𝐷𝐷 − 2𝑑𝑑 2
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣
𝑄𝑄 = = =
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 𝐿𝐿𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 4𝐷𝐷
Link among material removal rate, cutting time, and total removed material
2 2
120𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 120𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 2 × 2.2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 0.25𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 2.0𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
⇒ 𝑄𝑄 =
4 × 120𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

⇒ 𝑄𝑄 ≈ 1079.83𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠
Slight discrepancy due to constant cutting speed estimation of turning.

46
Example 3
A peripheral milling operation is performed on a rectangular workpiece
that is 320 mm long by 60 mm wide by 56 mm thick. The 65-mm-diameter
milling cutter has 4 teeth, is 80 mm wide, and overhangs the work on either
side by 10 mm. The operation reduce the thickness of the piece to 50 mm.
Cutting speed = 0.50 m/s and chip load = 0.24 mm/tooth. Determine
(a) Machine time;
(b) Material removal rate.

Solution:
(a) Feed:
𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣 4 × 0.24𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 0.5𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 = 𝑁𝑁𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓 = = ≈ 2.35𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 × 65𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Approach distance:
𝐴𝐴 = 56𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 65𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 56𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≈ 18.8𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
47
Example 3 (cont.)
Solution:
(a) Machine time:
𝐿𝐿 + 𝐴𝐴 320𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 18.8𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 = ≈ ≈ 2.4𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 2.35𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠

(b) Material removal rate:

𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 ≈ 60𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 56𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 2.35𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 = 846𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠

∆𝑉𝑉
*Can note directly utilize 𝑄𝑄 = due to partial
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚
engagement in the approach distance.

48
Example 4
Determine the values of C and n in the Taylor equation using two data
points: (1) v = 160 m/min, T = 5 min; and (2) v = 100 m/min, T = 41 min

Solution:
Use unit system m and min.
Taylor tool life equation:
𝑣𝑣𝑇𝑇 𝑛𝑛 = 𝐶𝐶
Use the data points:
𝑛𝑛
160 × 5 = 𝐶𝐶, 100 × 41 𝑛𝑛 = 𝐶𝐶
𝑛𝑛
5 100
⇒ =
41 160
100 5
⇒ 𝑛𝑛 = ln / ln ≈ 0.223
160 41
𝐶𝐶 ≈ 160 × 5 0.223 ≈ 229
49
Example 5
A turning operation is performed with Taylor tool life parameters n = 0.125
and C = 70 (m/min). Work part length = 500 mm and diameter = 100 mm.
Feed = 0.25 mm/rev. Handling time per piece = 5.0 min, and tool change
time = 2.0 min. Cost of machine and operator = $30/hr, and tooling cost =
$3 per cutting edge. Determine
(a) Cutting speed for maximum production rate;
(b) Tool life at maximum production rate;
(c) Cycle time at maximum production rate;
(d) Cutting speed for minimum cost.

Solution:
Use unit system m and min.
(a)
𝑛𝑛 0.125
𝑛𝑛 1 0.125 1
𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐶𝐶 = 70 × × ≈ 50.33𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
1 − 𝑛𝑛 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 1 − 0.125 2
Example 5 (cont.)
Solution:
(b)
1 1
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = − 1 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 = − 1 × 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 14𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑛 0.125
(c)
1/𝑛𝑛−1
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = + 𝑇𝑇ℎ +
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶 1/𝑛𝑛
*Feed per revolution.
1
𝜋𝜋 × 0.1 × 0.5 2 50.330.125−1 × 𝜋𝜋 × 0.1 × 0.5
⇒ 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 ≈ +5+ 1 ≈ 19.27𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
0.00025 × 50.33
0.00025 × 700.125
(d)
𝑛𝑛 0.125
𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶0 0.125 0.5
𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐶𝐶 = 70 × × ≈ 42.32𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
1 − 𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶0 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 1 − 0.125 0.5 × 2 + 3
51
Example 6
A 200-mm-diameter silicon wafer has a processable area of diameter = 190
mm. The microprocessor chips to be fabricated on the wafer surface are
square with 18 mm on a side. However, for each chip, the processable area
is only 17 mm by 17 mm. The density of internal circuits within each
chip’s processable area is 500 circuits per mm2. Determine
(a) How many chips can be placed on the wafer;
(b) How many internal circuits can be placed on each chip;
(c) How many input/output terminals are essential using Rent’s law;
(d) Use Bose-Einstein yield computation to estimate the Multiprobe test
yield 𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚 if the density of point defects is 0.002 defects/cm2.

Solution:
(a)
2.25 2.25
𝐷𝐷𝑤𝑤 190𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐 = 0.34 = 0.34 ≈ 68 (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 18𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Example 6 (cont.)
Solution:
(b)
2
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 17𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 500/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 = 144500
(c)
𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0.89 × 1445000.45 ≈ 187 (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢)
(d)
1 1
𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚 = = 2 ≈ 63.8%
1 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 190𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
1 + 𝜋𝜋 × 0.002/𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚2
2

53