Machining

• 3 classifications:
– Cutting Most important
– Abrasive (grinding)
– Nontraditional
• In general . . . .
– removing material
– dimensions and shapes not otherwise attainable
– justifiable for small quantities
Machining 1
 Cutting
(turning, milling, drilling, . . . )
• Turning
– used for cylindrical and conical shapes
– workpiece is turning
– usually done on a lathe
– related processes
• boring -- usually turning on an internal surface
• facing -- face perpendicular to rotating axis
– primary cutting motion is rotational
– tool feeds parallel to axis of rotation

Machining 2
d = D1 - D2 / 2 inches
V cutting speed is found in a handbook
N (rpm) is set on the machine
N= (12V)/(D1)
fr =
CT = (L + A)/(fr N)
MRR = volume/time = ( D12 -  D22)L ignoring A
4L/ fr N
Sub in for N
MRR = 12Vfr (D12 - D22 ) = 12Vfr (D1 -D2)(D1+ D2)
(4D1) 2 2D1
= 12Vfrd (approximation)
Machining 3
• Milling
– used for prismatic shapes
– tool is turning
– usually done on a milling machine,
machining center

tool rotates Ns (rpm)

selected: V, ft , t
set on machine: Ns, fm
Ns= (12V)/(D)

Machining 4
• Milling Continued

w = width of cut

fm = ft Ns n

CT = L / fm

MRR = volume/time = L w t = w t fm
CT

Machining 5
Orthogonal Cutting
– edge of tool is perpendicular to cutting direction
– chip slides directly up the tool
– most machining is oblique cutting
– same basic mechanics as oblique
– assumption makes the system simpler to study
• forces on workpiece and tool
• tool wear
• friction forces
• work material response
• type of chip

Machining 6
Chip Formation
– workpiece only fractures at tip of tool
• allows chip to separate from parent material
– most of the work is done in the shear plane

Machining 7
 F A= Area of plane

s = F/A
F

F x

 = x/y
F

Machining 8
• Need to find the shear angle
• Chip thickness ratio:

Machining 9
• Example:
– rake angle of 10
– depth of cut .020”
– chip thickness .045”
– shear angle ?
– shear strain ?

Machining 10
• What is the shear strain?

Machining 11
• Very large strain values
– shear occurs over very narrow area
• small CD
– strains of 3-5+ are possible
– material undergoes great deformation
• Shear strains increase with
– decreasing shear angle
– decreasing rake angle (See Groover, p557)

Machining 12
Forces

Machining 13
Machining 14
Machining 15
given Fc, Ft, , , and , find F, N, Fs, Fn.

F=Fc sin  + Ft cos 

N=Fc cos  - Ft sin 

Fs=Fc cos  - Ft sin 

Fn=Fc sin  - Ft cos 

Also, =45+(-)/2

Machining 16
 F A= Area of plane

s = F/A
F

TOOL

As = t w / sin 

Machining 17
Orthogonal Cutting Example:
– Fc = 350 lbs
– Ft = 285 lbs
– w = .125
– shear stress?

Machining 18
• Friction Example:
– rake angle: 10
– shear angle: 25.4
– friction angle:
– coefficient of friction:

Machining 19
 Forces:
• need to consider: machine, tool, part deflection
• cutting force dependent on strength of material
• Fc also function of nose radius
– as tool wears forces go up
• Force magnitude on tool is approx. 1000 pounds
– over very small area (approx 1 mm)
– high stress at tool tip
• High thrust force will push tool away
– change dimensions of part

Machining 20
 Conclusions:
• high strain values
– lots of material deformation
– lots of energy input
• very high strain rates
– material properties important
• cutting forces decrease as rake angle increase
• coefficient of friction very high
– increases temperature
• stresses on tool VERY high

Machining 21
 Forces on Tool and Power Input
in Turning Operation
cutting
• Fc - cutting force
– largest force, largest velocity radial
– 99% of the power input
• Ff - feed force feed
– force in direction of tool feed
– slow rate, so little power
• Fr - radial force
– negligible velocity, little power

Machining 22
 Temperature Input
• energy dissipated is converted to heat
– adversely affects strength, hardness
– causes dimensional changes of part
– thermal damage to machined surface
• Primary sources of heat
– shear zone
– friction force
– dull tool wearing on machined surface
• Temp at tool face is a function of u
– speed has major influence
– little time for heat to dissipate
– tool is heat sink

Machining 23
• Continuous
Types of Chips
– occurs at higher speed, higher rake angles, ductile material
– chips tangle, safety problem and time consuming
– minimize with chip breakers
• Discontinuous
– occur when: brittle workpiece material, hard inclusions in material,
large depth of cut
• Build Up Edge |(BUE)
– material builds up on tool, breaks off, repeats
– changes tool geometry
– may embed on workpiece
– cutting fluid helps to eliminate

Machining 24
• What do we need from a tool?
– high hardness
• room temp
• high temp
– stiffness
– consistent life
– geometry
– inertness
– cheap

Machining 25
Tool Wear
– flank wear
– crater wear
– nose wear
– chipping
– fracture
• Flank Wear
– attributed to sliding of tool along machined surface
– abrasive, adhesive wear
– high temps changes tool properties
• Crater Wear
– temperature
– chemical affinity
• Chipping
– mechanical Shock
– thermal cycling (cracks >> chipping)
Machining 26
 Taylor Tool Life Equation

V Tn = C

V--cutting speed, fpm

Machining 27
Types of Tool Materials for Machining
• Tool Steels
– medium alloy steels
– poor properties above 500F
– inexpensive
• High Speed Steels
– general purpose, drills
– 18% W

Machining 28
• Carbides
– WC with cobalt binder
– made using powder metallurgy
– usually as an insert
• Ceramics
– high abrasion
– high hot hardness
– not good for interrupted cutting
– requires dry, or constant copious cutting fluids

Machining 29
• CBN
– usually a layer of CBN on a WC insert

• SiN Sialon
– good toughness, hot hardness
– thermal shock resistant

Machining 30
• Coated Tools
– TiN common coating
• gold color
– less friction
– usually on HSS and WC
– increases life 200 - 300%

Machining 31
• Cutting Fluids
– lubricant and coolant
– less friction, less wear
• longer life
• improve surface finish
– decreases cutting area
• less distortion
– wash chips
– decrease forces
– Must consider:
• workpiece: corrosive, staining
• machine: compatible
• operator: health and safety
• environment: degradation, disposal

Machining 32
 Surface Texture
• Importance
– friction, lubrication
– fatigue resistance
– aesthetics
– painted or coated surfaces
– sealing surfaces
– thermal and electrical contact resistance

Machining 33
 Terminology
• surface roughness:
– fine irregularities result of production process
• waviness:
– irregularity of greater spacing than roughness
– causes: deflections, vibration, runout, heat treatment
• lay:
– predominant direction of roughness
• flaw:
– unintentional, infrequent
– ex: cracks, inclusions, scratches
– not included in roughness measurement
– special note if needed

Machining 34
 Surface Finish
• Colloquial term
• generally not specifically tied to texture,
pattern, or numeric values
• “good” surface finish >> low roughness value

Machining 35
 Surface Roughness measurements

• Ra arithmetic average (AA in book)

y
i 1
i
Ra 
n
Machining 36
• Rq root mean square (rms)
– technically obsolete

y
i 1
i
2

• Rmax Rq 
– maximum peak to valley height n

Machining 37
Machining 38
•Machining Processes
• Turning
– applications: external cylindrical surfaces
(straight and contour),
threads
– cutting movement: workpiece rotates
– feed movement: tool feeds into workpiece
– typical machine: lathe (manual and CNC)
– tools: usually single point tool
– workholding: chuck, collet, centers
– notes: major process
Machining 39
• Boring
– applications: internal cylindrical surfaces
– cutting movement: same as turning
– feed movement: same as turning
– typical machine: lathe, CNC lathe, CNC mill
– tools: usually single point tool
mounted on boring bar
– workholding: same as turning
– notes:
• need a hole to start with
• rigidity of tool critical
• equations same as turning, except diameter gets
bigger

Machining 40
• Milling
– applications: prismatic surfaces, non-
circular surfaces, contours
– cutting movement: tool rotates
– feed movement: workpiece back and forth,
left and right tool moves up and down
– typical machine: horizontal mill, vertical mill
(manual and CNC) (refers to rotating tool axis)
– tools: Figure 25.6 and 25.7 plain milling
cutter end mill: ball end, square end form
cutter may use replaceable inserts (similar to
turning)

Machining 41
• Milling continued
– workholding: fixtures locating off of 3
surfaces,
standard vise up to
dedicated fixtures
– notes:
• CNC machine often will have automatic tool
changer stocked with several different tools
• many different shape options
• major process

Machining 42
• Drilling
– applications: holes typically up to 1”,
up to 3”
– cutting movement: tool rotates
– feed movement: tool goes down into
workpiece
– typical machine: drill press,
vertical machining center
– tools: twist drills, insert drills
– workholding: same as milling
– notes: followed by reaming if
more accuracy required

Machining 43
• Broaching
– applications:splines, ‘square’ holes
– cutting movement: linear tool motion through
hole
– feed movement:
– typical machine: broaching machine
– tools: custom broach
– workholding: fixture
– notes: very economical for high
production

Machining 44
• Grinding
– applications: surfaces requiring low
surface roughness (16 ui)
– cutting movement: tool rotates
– feed movement: planar: same as milling
cylindrical: same as turning
– typical machine: surface or cylindrical grinder
– tools: grinding wheel (abrasive
particles in a bonding matrix)
• each particle acts as a cutting tool, when it dulls the
forces go up resulting in fracture or pull out
– workholding: same as milling less
substantial due to lower
forces

Machining 45
Manufacturing Process Control
• Manual process
– continuous human judgment and interaction for
its operations
• Hard automated process
– highly specialized machine capable of
producing maximum volumetric rates, within
tightest tolerances and producing minimal
defects
– ex. transfer line
• Computer Controlled Processes
– computer and its associated software to enhance
adaptability, volumetric rate and tolerance
range
– ex. Machine tools,Machining
robots, material handling 46
Manufacturing Process Control
manual hard computer
control
production
capability
skill requirements
lead times
tolerances
capital costs
flexibility

Machining 47
• computer control of position
– 1947 John Parsons, not MIT, computer coupled
to jig borer and controlled by punchcards

• NC
– first generation 1950’s
• hardwired controllers
• control position, but not path
– second generation of NC 1960s
• machine built for NC-- more durable and accurate
– third generation of NC 1970s
• CNC
• computer took on many control functions
• computer programs could be stored and edited in
memory
• machine interface
Machining 48
What does a NC machine consist of?

Machine

DPU CLU

DPU: data processing unit

Machining 49
• What does a NC machine consist of?
– CLU control loops unit
• interpolator that supplies motion commands
• velocity control, where feed control is required
• auxiliary function control, such as coolant, spindle
– DPU data processing unit
• data input: tape reader, magnetic tape reader, RS-
232 port
• decoding circuits for describing data
• transmits commands to CLU, then waits for finished
command
• IF CNC:
– graphical display
– on-line part programming
– machine monitoring

Machining 50
 Flow of CNC Processing
• Develop the part drawing
• Decide which machine will produce the part
• choose the tooling
• Decide on the machining sequence
• Do math calculations for coordinates
• Calculate the spindle speeds and feedrates
• Write the CNC program
• Prepare setup sheets and tool lists
• Verify and edit the program
• Run the program

Machining 51
• Axes specification
– NC machines have 2 to 6 axes
– all are orthogonal
– linear and revolute movement

– Z is collinear with main machine spindle

– Revolute motion

Machining 52
• Programming
– can be done manually or computer assisted
• PC based: MasterCam, TekSoft
• workstation: ProEngineer, Uniqraphics
• machine based:
• Sequence number N
– solely used for block identification
• Preparatory functions G
common ones:
00 Rapid positioning, point to point
01 linear positioning, controlled feed rate
02 circular interpolation, CW 2D
03 circular interpolation, CCW 2D
70 inch
71 metric
94 feedrate - length/minute
95 feedrate - length/revolution
Machining 53
• Dimensional words
– used to identify coordinates or degrees
• Feedrate F
– magnitude of the velocity along tool path
• Speed
– spindle speed or cutting speed
• Tool No.
– specifies tool no.
– specifies storage location for automatic tool
changer, tool diameter, and length
compensation specs
• Miscellaneous Function
example:
00 program stop
03 spindle on CW
Machining 54
N10 G90 G70 S300 M03 absolute positioning; inch units;
spindle speed 300 fpm,
turn spindle on
N20 G00 X3 Y4 rapid move to: X = 3, Y = 4
N30 G01 Z-.5 cutting move to:Z = -.5 (lower tool to
cut)
N40 Y7 cutting move to: Y = 7
N50 X6 Y10 cutting move to: X = 6, Y= 10
N60 Y5 cutting move to: Y = 5
N70 G02 X5 Y4 R1 circular interpolation move to:
X = 5, Y = 4, with radius of 1
N80 G01 X3 cutting move to: X = 3
N90 G00 Z1 rapid move to lift tool from work piece
N100 M05 turn off spindle

Machining 55