Basic Electronics - Transistors

After having a good knowledge on the working of the diode, which is a single PN junction, let
us try to connect two PN junctions which make a new component called Transistor.
A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow
and acts as a switch or gate for signals.

Why Do We Need Transistors?

Suppose that you have a FM receiver which grabs the signal you want. The received signal will
obviously be weak due to the disturbances it would face during its journey. Now if this signal is
read as it is, you cannot get a fair output. Hence we need to amplify the
signal. Amplification means increasing the signal strength.
This is just an instance. Amplification is needed wherever the signal strength has to be
increased. This is done by a transistor. A transistor also acts as a switch to choose between
available options. It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the signals.

Constructional Details of a Transistor

The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two diodes
back to back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three terminals are drawn out of the three
semiconductor materials present in it. This type of connection offers two types of transistors.
They are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between two Ptypes and the other is a
P-type material between two N-types respectively.
The construction of transistors is as shown in the following figure which explains the idea
discussed above.

The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter, Base and Collector terminals.
They have their functionality as discussed below.

Emitter

 The left hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.
  This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a
number of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes.
 As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
 This is simply indicated with the letter E.

Base

 The middle material in the above figure is the Base.

 This is thin and lightly doped.
 Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
 This is indicated by the letter B.

Collector

 The right side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
 Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
 This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
 This is indicated by the letter C.
The symbols of PNP and NPN transistors are as shown below.

The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor. As the collector of a

transistor has to dissipate much greater power, it is made large. Due to the specific functions of
emitter and collector, they are not interchangeable. Hence the terminals are always to be kept
in mind while using a transistor.
In a Practical transistor, there is a notch present near the emitter lead for identification. The PNP
and NPN transistors can be differentiated using a Multimeter. The following figure shows how
different practical transistors look like.
We have so far discussed the constructional details of a transistor, but to understand the
operation of a transistor, first we need to know about the biasing.

Transistor Biasing

As we know that a transistor is a combination of two diodes, we have two junctions here. As
one junction is between the emitter and base, that is called as Emitter-Base junction and
likewise, the other is Collector-Base junction.
Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function of
both the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc supply. The
figure below shows how a transistor is biased.
By having a look at the above figure, it is understood that
 The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given positive
supply to make the circuit Forward bias.
 The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given negative
supply to make the circuit Reverse bias.
By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the emitter
resistance is very small. The collector base junction is reverse biased and its resistance is a bit
higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter junction whereas a high reverse bias has
to be applied at the collector junction.
The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as the Conventional
Current, is the movement of hole current which is opposite to the electron current.

Operation PNP Transistor

The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in
which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-type
material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There a very
low percent of holes recombine with free electrons of N-region. This provides very low current
which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base junction, to
constitute collector current IC, which is the hole current.
As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal fills the
space in the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current flows
through the emitter, where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is replaced by a
hole by moving towards the emitter junction. This constitutes emitter current IE.
Hence we can understand that −

 The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.

 The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Operation NPN Transistor

The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in
which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in the N-
type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There
a very low percent of electrons recombine with free holes of P-region. This provides very low
current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base
junction, to constitute the collector current IC.
As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of the
battery, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter region. This
flow slowly increases and the electron current flows through the transistor.
Hence we can understand that −

 The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.

 The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Advantages

There are many advantages of a transistor such as −

 High voltage gain.

 Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
 Most suitable for low power applications.
 Smaller and lighter in weight.
 Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.
 No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
 Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.
There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications due to
lower power dissipation. They have lower input impedance and they are temperature dependent.
 Basic Electronics - Transistor Configurations

A Transistor has 3 terminals, the emitter, the base and the collector. Using these 3 terminals the
transistor can be connected in a circuit with one terminal common to both input and output in a
3 different possible configurations.
The three types of configurations are Common Base, Common Emitter and Common
Collector configurations. In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector junction is reverse biased.

Common Base CBCB Configuration

The name itself implies that the Base terminal is taken as common terminal for both input and
output of the transistor. The common base connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as
shown in the following figure.

For the sake of understanding, let us consider NPN transistor in CB configuration. When the
emitter voltage is applied, as it is forward biased, the electrons from the negative terminal repel
the emitter electrons and current flows through the emitter and base to the collector to
contribute collector current. The collector voltage VCB is kept constant throughout this.
In the CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and the output current is the
collector current IC.
Current Amplification Factor α
The ratio of change in collector current ΔIC to the change in emitter current ΔIE when collector
voltage VCB is kept constant, is called as Current amplification factor. It is denoted by α.
 Expression for Collector current

With the idea above, let us try to draw some expression for collector current. Along with the
emitter current flowing, there is some amount of base current IB which flows through the base
terminal due to electron hole recombination. As collector-base junction is reverse biased, there
is another current which is flown due to minority charge carriers. This is the leakage current
which can be understood as Ileakage. This is due to minority charge carriers and hence very small.
The emitter current that reaches the collector terminal is
αIE
Total collector current
IC=αIE+Ileakage
If the emitter-base voltage VEB = 0, even then, there flows a small leakage current, which can be
termed as ICBO collector−base current with output open collector
The collector current therefore can be expressed as

Hence the above derived is the expression for collector current. The value of collector current
depends on base current and leakage current along with the current amplification factor of that
transistor in use.
Characteristics of CB configuration

 This configuration provides voltage gain but no current gain.

 Being VCB constant, with a small increase in the Emitter-base voltage VEB, Emitter
current IE gets increased.
 Emitter Current IE is independent of Collector voltage VCB.
 Collector Voltage VCB can affect the collector current IC only at low voltages, when
VEB is kept constant.
 The input resistance ri is the ratio of change in emitter-base voltage ΔVEB to the change
in emitter current ΔIE at constant collector base voltage VCB.

 As the input resistance is of very low value, a small value of V EB is enough to produce a
large current flow of emitter current IE.
 The output resistance ro is the ratio of change in the collector base voltage ΔVCB to the
change in collector current ΔIC at constant emitter current IE.

 As the output resistance is of very high value, a large change in VCB produces a very little
change in collector current IC.
 This Configuration provides good stability against increase in temperature.
 The CB configuration is used for high frequency applications.

Common Emitter CECE Configuration

The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal is taken as common terminal for both input
and output of the transistor. The common emitter connection for both NPN and PNP transistors
is as shown in the following figure.
Just as in CB configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is
reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input current is the
base current IB and the output current is the collector current IC here.
Base Current Amplification factor β The ratio of change in collector current ΔIC to the
change in base current ΔIB is known as Base Current Amplification Factor. It is denoted by β

Relation between β and α

Let us try to derive the relation between base current amplification factor and emitter current
amplification factor.
We can write

Dividing by ΔIE
From the above equation, it is evident that, as α approaches 1, β reaches infinity.
Hence, the current gain in Common Emitter connection is very high. This is the reason this
circuit connection is mostly used in all transistor applications.

Expression for Collector Current

In the Common Emitter configuration, IB is the input current and IC is the output current.
We know
If base circuit is open, i.e. if IB = 0,
The collector emitter current with base open is ICEO

Substituting the value of this in the previous equation, we get

Hence the equation for collector current is obtained.

Knee Voltage

In CE configuration, by keeping the base current IB constant, if VCE is varied, IC increases

nearly to 1v of VCE and stays constant thereafter. This value of VCE up to which collector
current IC changes with VCE is called the Knee Voltage. The transistors while operating in CE
configuration, they are operated above this knee voltage.

Characteristics of CE Configuration
  This configuration provides good current gain and voltage gain.
 Keeping VCE constant, with a small increase in VBE the base current IB increases rapidly
than in CB configurations.
 For any value of VCE above knee voltage, IC is approximately equal to βIB.
 The input resistance ri is the ratio of change in base emitter voltage ΔVBE to the change
in base current ΔIB at constant collector emitter voltage VCE.

 As the input resistance is of very low value, a small value of VBE is enough to produce a
large current flow of base current IB.
 The output resistance ro is the ratio of change in collector emitter voltage ΔVCE to the
change in collector current ΔIC at constant IB.

 As the output resistance of CE circuit is less than that of CB circuit.

 This configuration is usually used for bias stabilization methods and audio frequency
applications.

Common Collector CC Configuration

The name itself implies that the Collector terminal is taken as common terminal for both input
and output of the transistor. The common collector connection for both NPN and PNP
transistors is as shown in the following figure.
Just as in CB and CE configurations, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector
junction is reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input
current is the base current IB and the output current is the emitter current IE here.
Current Amplification Factor γ
The ratio of change in emitter current ΔIE to the change in base current ΔIB is known
as Current Amplification factor in common collector CC configuration. It is denoted by γ.

 The current gain in CC configuration is same as in CE configuration.

 The voltage gain in CC configuration is always less than 1.

Relation between γ and α

Let us try to draw some relation between γ and α

Dividing by ΔIE

Expression for collector current

We know

The above is the expression for collector current.

Characteristics of CC Configuration

 This configuration provides current gain but no voltage gain.

 In CC configuration, the input resistance is high and the output resistance is low.
 The voltage gain provided by this circuit is less than 1.
 The sum of collector current and base current equals emitter current.
 The input and output signals are in phase.
 This configuration works as non-inverting amplifier output.
 This circuit is mostly used for impedance matching. That means, to drive a low
impedance load from a high impedance source.

Transistor Regions of Operation

 The DC supply is provided for the operation of a transistor. This DC supply is given to
the two PN junctions of a transistor which influences the actions of majority carriers in
these emitter and collector junctions.
 The junctions are forward biased and reverse biased based on our
requirement. Forward biased is the condition where a positive voltage is applied to the
p-type and negative voltage is applied to the n-type material. Reverse biased is the
 condition where a positive voltage is applied to the n-type and negative voltage is
applied to the p-type material.
 Transistor biasing
 The supply of suitable external dc voltage is called as biasing. Either forward or reverse
biasing is done to the emitter and collector junctions of the transistor. These biasing
methods make the transistor circuit to work in four kinds of regions such as Active
region, Saturation region, Cutoff region and Inverse active
region seldomusedseldomused. This is understood by having a look at the following
table.
EMITTER JUNCTION COLLECTOR JUNCTION REGION OF OPERATION

Forward biased Forward biased Saturation region

Forward biased Reverse biased Active region

Reverse biased Forward biased Inverse active region

Reverse biased Reverse biased Cutoff region

Among these regions, Inverse active region, which is just the inverse of active region, is not
suitable for any applications and hence not used.

Active region

This is the region in which transistors have many applications. This is also called as linear
region. A transistor while in this region, acts better as an Amplifier.
This region lies between saturation and cutoff. The transistor operates in active region
when the emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is reverse biased. In
the active state, collector current is β times the base current, i.e.,
IC=βIB
where,
IC = collector current
β = current amplification factor
IB = base current
Saturation region
This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as a closed switch. The transistor
has the effect of its collector and Emitter being shorted. The collector and Emitter
currents are maximum in this mode of operation.
The figure below shows a transistor working in saturation region.
 The transistor operates in saturation region when both the emitter and collector
junctions are forward biased. As it is understood that, in the saturation region the
transistor tends to behave as a closed switch, we can say that,
IC=IE

Where IC = collector current and IE = emitter current.

Cutoff region
This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as an open switch. The transistor
has the effect of its collector and base being opened. The collector, emitter and base
currents are all zero in this mode of operation.
The following figure shows a transistor working in cutoff region.
 The transistor operates in cutoff region when both the emitter and collector junctions are
reverse biased. As in cutoff region, the collector current, emitter current and base
currents are nil, we can write as
IC=IE=IB=0
Where IC = collector current, IE = emitter current, and IB = base current.
Transistor Load Line Analysis

Till now we have discussed different regions of operation for a transistor. But among all these
regions, we have found that the transistor operates well in active region and hence it is also
called as linear region. The outputs of the transistor are the collector current and collector
voltages.

Output Characteristics

When the output characteristics of a transistor are considered, the curve looks as below for
different input values.

In the above figure, the output characteristics are drawn between collector current IC and
collector voltage VCE for different values of base current IB. These are considered here for
different input values to obtain different output curves.

Operating point

When a value for the maximum possible collector current is considered, that point will be
present on the Y-axis, which is nothing but the saturation point. As well, when a value for the
maximum possible collector emitter voltage is considered, that point will be present on the X-
axis, which is the cutoff point.
When a line is drawn joining these two points, such a line can be called as Load line. This is
called so as it symbolizes the output at the load. This line, when drawn over the output
characteristic curve, makes contact at a point called as Operating point.
This operating point is also called as quiescent point or simply Q-point. There can be many
such intersecting points, but the Q-point is selected in such a way that irrespective of AC signal
swing, the transistor remains in active region. This can be better understood through the figure
below.

The load line has to be drawn in order to obtain the Q-point. A transistor acts as a good
amplifier when it is in active region and when it is made to operate at Q-point, faithful
amplification is achieved.
Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete portions of input signal by
increasing the signal strength. This is done when AC signal is applied at its input. This is
discussed in AMPLIFIERS tutorial.

DC Load line

When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is applied at its input, the load line drawn at
such condition, can be understood as DC condition. Here there will be no amplification as the
signal is absent. The circuit will be as shown below.
The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will be
VCE=VCC−ICRC
As VCC and RC are fixed values, the above one is a first degree equation and hence will be a
straight line on the output characteristics. This line is called as D.C. Load line. The figure
below shows the DC load line.
To obtain the load line, the two end points of the straight line are to be determined. Let those
two points be A and B.

To obtain A

When collector emitter voltage VCE = 0, the collector current is maximum and is equal to
VCC/RC. This gives the maximum value of VCE. This is shown as

This gives the point A (OA = VCC/RC) on collector current axis, shown in the above figure.

To obtain B

When the collector current IC = 0, then collector emitter voltage is maximum and will be equal
to the VCC. This gives the maximum value of IC. This is shown as

This gives the point B, which means (OB = VCC) on the collector emitter voltage axis shown in
the above figure.
Hence we got both the saturation and cutoff point determined and learnt that the load line is a
straight line. So, a DC load line can be drawn.
The importance of this operating point is further understood when an AC signal is given at the
input. This will be discussed in AMPLIFIERS tutorial.