Commercial Diving

(A Clients Point of View)

Phil Keating BSc (Hons)

 the problem of pressure underwater was not fully understood and the designs were
impractical.

1-2.4.4 Salvage of the HMS Royal George.

eral types of diving dress were being used in actual

remains of the sunken warship, HMS Royal George.

William

operation was an ideal opportunity to formally test

and evaluate the various types of apparatus. Wary
of the Deane apparatus because of the possibility of

Siebe dress be adopted for future operations.

government historian noted that “of the seasoned

Figure 1-2. Assyrian Frieze (900 B.C.). divers, not a man escaped the repeated attacks
Figure 1-1. Early Impractical Breathing Device. Figure 1-2. Assyrian Frieze (900 B.C.). Figure 1-3. Engraving of Halley’s Figure 1-4. Lethbridge’s Diving Suit.
Figure 1-1. Early Impractical Breathing Device. of rheumatism
Diving Bell.
and cold.” The divers had been Figure 1-5. Siebe’s First
This 1511 design shows the diver’s head encased
This 1511 design shows the diver’s head encased Enclosed Diving Dress and
in a leather bag with a breathing tube extending to Helmet.
in a leather bag with a breathing tube extending to
the surface. the surface.
not realize the implications of the observation.
What appeared to be rheumatism
minutes. was instead a symptom of a far more serious
1-2 U.S. Navy Diving Manual—Volume 1
physiological problem that, within a few years, was to become of great importance
1-2 U.S. Navy Diving Manual—Volume 1
to the diving profession.
all had the same basic limitation as the diving bell—the diver had little freedom
1-2.5 Caissons.
inventors were working to improve the diving bell by increasing its size and
operated pump capable of delivering air under pressure was developed.

of chambers 1-2.4.2 Deane’s

large enough Patented
to permit severalDiving Dress.
men to Several
engage men
in dry produced
work on the a successful apparatus at

footings or constructing tunnel sections where long periods of work were required.
These dry chambers were known as caissons, a French word meaning “big boxes”
( ). Dress, consisting of a heavy suit for protection from the cold, a helmet with viewing

Exhausted or surplus air passed out from under the edge of the helmet and posed

Figure 1-6. French Caisson.

1-2.4.3 Siebe’s Improved Divingover

Dress.
the work site and
dress has been given to lowered to the bottom by

system (

Figure 1-8. MK 12 and MK V. Modern day sat divers

-3. Engraving of Halley’s Figure 1-4. Lethbridge’s Diving Suit. CHAPTER 1—History of Diving
1-4 1-5 Diving Manual—Volume 1
U.S. Navy
ell.
 Commercial Diving
• Saturation diving depth records
• The diving depth record for off shore diving was achieved in 1988 by a
team of professional divers of the Comex S.A. industrial deep-sea diving
company performing pipe line connection exercises at a depth of 534
meters (1752 ft) of sea water (MSW) in the Mediterranean Sea
during a record scientific dive.

• In 1992 Comex diver Theo Mavrostomos, achieved a record of 701

MSW (2300 ft) in an on shore hyperbaric chamber. He took 43 days
to complete the scientific record dive, where a hydrogen-helium-oxygen
gas mixture was used as breathing gas
New Depth Record Record Working Dive
2300ft 1752ft
OFFSHORE INJURY, ILL HEALTH
AND INCIDENT STATISTICS
2009/2010

HID STATISTICS REPORT

HSR 2010 - 1

Date of Issue: December 2010 Health and Safety Executive

 65 – 69 0 2 2
Not recorded 1 3 4
TOTAL 0 50 110 160

TABLE 9 – SEVERITY OF INJURY AND WORK PROCESS ENVIRONMENT – 2009/10

SEVERITY OF IN JURY
WORK PROCESS ENVIRONMENT ALL INJURIES
FATAL MAJOR OVER-3-DAY
DECK OPERATIONS 13 31 44
DRILLING 8 11 19
MANAGEMENT 6 15 21
PRODUCTION 7 13 20
MAINTENANCE / CONSTRUCTION 15 38 53
OFFSHORE DIVING* 1 2 3
TOTAL 0 50 110 160
* HSE Offshore Division retains responsibility for all aspects of offshore diving and inshore diving. Statistics stated are for offshore diving and diving support activities only.

TABLE 11 – ILL HEALTH INCIDENTS

APRIL 1998 – 17
MARCH 2010

DESCRIPTION 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 TOTAL
Decompression
3 2 1 5 4 1 2 8 2 1 29
illness
Barotrauma 1 1 1 3
Cramp 1
1 2
repetitive
Beat knee 1 1 1 3
Inflamation of
1 1 1 2 1 6
tendons
Hand-arm
1 2 4 3 10
vibration
Occupational
4 2 5 2 1 3 17
dermatitis
Chickenpox 6 7 10 6 13 6 8 6 9 4 7 4 86
Food poisoning 1* 1 3 2** 1 8
Malaria 1 1
Meningitis 1 1 1 3
Rubella 1 1 2
Mumps 1 1 6 1 1 10
Scarlet fever 1 1
Measles 1 1
Legionellosis 1 1
TOTAL 16 15 20 131 19 13 11 18 21 6 21 10 183
* This incident resulted in twelve people being affected
** One incident involved 21 workers, the other incident affected 16 workers
 TABLE 12 – DANGEROUS OCCURRENCES BY TYPE
2009/10

TYPE DESCRIPTION NUMBER

01 Failure of lifting machinery etc. 38
02 Failure of pressure systems. 1
05 Electrical short circuit or overload. 13
08 Radiation. 5
09 Malfunction of breathing apparatus. 4
10 Diving operations. 15
11 Collapse of scaffolding. 0
13 Well operations. (See Table 12(a)) 24*
14 Pipelines and pipeline works. 0
73 Release of hydrocarbon. 187
74 Fire or explosion other than hydrocarbon. 28
75 Release or escape of a dangerous substance other than
9
hydrocarbon.
76 Collapses. 0
77 Failure of equipment required to maintain a floating
installation on station.
Objects dropped on an installation, attendant vessel or 102
into water.
Weather damage.
78 Collision between a vessel or aircraft and an installation. 5
79 Possible collision offshore. 0
80 Subsidence or collapse of seabed. 1
81 Loss of stability or buoyancy. 1
82 Evacuation of an installation. 1
83 Falls into water. 0
TOTAL 434
* Excludes one well incident that occurred in the Falkland Islands. HSE currently acts on behalf of the Falkland
Islands Government in the regulation of offshore activities in island waters.
 548 MALES 353 FEMALES

25.0 37.5 50.0

0 12.5
21 23
STUDENT

BASIC 20 23

SPECIALITY 13 11

RESCUE 10 11
Category Title

DIVEMASTER 15 11
INSTRUCTOR 16 10 ACCIDENT % BY
CAVE/TECH 3 7 QUALIFICATION

SCIENTIFIC1 7
COMMERCIAL11
MILITARY11

SOURCE P.A.D.I (2010)

Value Title
WRECK

WINDFARM

INLAND DIVE

NWERU
Recompression Chambers
 Approved Uses:
Current Diseases Approved for Treatment
Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy: A Committee Report
Ed. Camporesi EC. UHMS, Kensington MD, 1996
Decompression Sickness
Gas Embolism
Carbon Monoxide and Smoke Inhalation
Gas Gangrene
Selected Aerobic and Anaerobic Soft
Tissue Infections
Radiation Injury
Exceptional Blood Loss Anaemia
Crush Injury and Other Acute Traumatic
Peripheral Ischaemias
Skin Grafts and Flaps
Healing of Selected Problem Wounds
Thermal Burns
Decompression Sickness (DCS). A diver’s blood
and tissues absorb additional nitrogen (or
helium) from the lungs when at depth. If a diver
ascends too fast this excess gas will separate
from solution and form bubbles. These bubbles
produce mechanical and biochemical effects
that lead to a condition known as decompres-
sion sickness.
Signs of DCS
- Skin may show a blotchy rash
- Paralysis, muscle weakness
- Difficulty urinating
- Confusion, personality changes, bizarre behavior
- Amnesia, tremors
- Staggering
- Coughing up bloody, frothy sputum
- Collapse or unconsciousness
Note: Symptoms and signs usually appear within 15 minutes to 12 hours after surfacing; but in
severe cases, symptoms may appear before surfacing or immediately afterwards. Delayed
occurrence of symptoms is rare, but it does occur, especially if air travel follows diving.
Symptoms of DCS
- Unusual fatigue
- Skin itch
- Pain in joints and / or muscles of the arms, legs or torso
- Dizziness, vertigo, ringing in the ears
- Numbness, tingling and paralysis
- Shortness of breath
23yr old female with facial burns
from flaming petrol and tar

12 hrs after the injury

 Diagnosis Arterial Treatment of Arterial Gas Embolism
Gas Embolism or
Decompression
or Serious Decompression Sickness
Sickness Consider use of

capabilities available Yes and Table 6 in

accordance with
within 10 min.
paragraph 20-2.3
(Note 3)
(Note 4)
Pulse No
present? No

Yes
NOTES:
Compress to 60
feet Commence
oxygen breathing consulted before committing to a
at 60 feet Treatment Table 4 or 7.
2. Treatment Table 6A may be
extended if necessary at 60 and/or
30 feet.
Unchanged Complete
No Treatment
3. Cardiac arrest requires early
or worsening
severe symptoms on Table 6
(Note 5) chance of resuscitation
consultation with a Diving Medical
Yes possible (see paragraph 20-2.3).

Compression on 4. Recompression chamber must be

Complete 30 min
air to depth of period breathing air
or treatment gas on 5. Assessment of patient must be
improvement not to Table 6A (Note 7)
exceed 165 fsw made within 20 minutes. If the
stricken diver remains pulseless
after 20 minutes, termination of
Remain at resuscitation may be considered.
treatment depth More time
Yes needed at depth of
not to exceed 6. Additional time may be required
120 min. total relief (Note 1)
according to paragraph 20-5.6.
7 Enter Treatment Table 6A at depth
No
Decompress
on Table 4 Decompression
to 60 feet to 60 feet not to
exceed 3 ft/min
Complete Treatment
Table 6A (Note 2)

Life threatening Complete

symptoms and No Table 4
more time needed (Note 1)
at 60 feet
(Note 1)

Yes
Remain at 60 ft Decompress
at least 12 hours on Table 7
(Note 6) (Note 1)

Figure 20-1. Treatment of Arterial Gas Embolism or Serious Decompression Sickness.

CHAPTER 20—Diagnosis and Treatment of Decompression Sickness and Arterial Gas Embolism 20-37
 Treatment of Symptom Recurrence
Recurrence During Treatment Recurrence Following Treatment

Diagnosis: Diagnosis:
Recurrence Recurrence
During Following
Treatment Treatment

Symptom Diver on oxygen

onset 60 feet
No compress to
Treat according
to Fig. 20-1
or deeper? 60 feet

Yes
Complete three
20 min. oxygen
Deeper breathing periods
recompression No at 60 feet
needed?
(Note 1)

Yes Continue and/or

Symptoms Yes Decompress
extend Current
relieved? on Table 6
Table

No

Compress
to depth of Deeper
relief (165 feet
Yes recompression
maximum) with needed?
patient off O2 NOTES:

should be consulted No
before committing to a
Treatment Table 4 or 7. Life
2. Treatment Table 6 may threatening
symptoms or Decompress
be extended up to more time needed on Table 6
two additional oxygen at 60 feet? No Extended
breathing periods at 30 (Note 2)
Remain at depth
:30 min. on air or and/or 60 feet.
3. Additional time may be
Yes
treatment gas if
available required according to
Remain at
paragraph 20-5.6. Decompress
60 feet at least
12 hours (Note 1 on Table 7
(Note 1)
and Note 3)
Enter Treatment
More time Table 6A at
needed at No treatment depth
treatment depth? and decompress
(Note 1) accordingly

Yes Yes

Symptoms
Decompress Complete
to 60 feet
still present & No Table 4
more time needed
on Table 4 at 60 feet? (Note 1)
(Note 1)

Figure 20-3. Treatment of Symptom Recurrence.

CHAPTER 20—Diagnosis and Treatment of Decompression Sickness and Arterial Gas Embolism 20-39
 of CNS Oxygen Toxicity, allow 15 minutes after the additional 20 minutes of oxygen breathing is required
reaction has entirely subsided and resume schedule at prior to ascent.
point of interruption (see paragraph 20-7.11.1.1)

Treatment Table 5 Depth/Time Profile

0

15

30
Depth Ascent Rate
(FSW) 1 Ft/Min.
45
Descent Rate
20 Ft/Min. Ascent Rate
1 Ft/Min.
60
3 20 5 20 30 5 20 5 30

Time at Depth (minutes) Total Elapsed Time:

135 Minutes
2 Hours 15 Minutes
(Not Including Descent Time)

Figure 20-4. Treatment Table 5.

 point of interruption (see paragraph 20-7.11.1.1).
5. Table 6 can be lengthened up to 2 additional 25-minute
periods at 60 feet (20 minutes on oxygen and 5 minutes
on air), or up to 2 additional 75-minute periods at 30 feet
(15 minutes on air and 60 minutes on oxygen), or both.

Treatment Table 6 Depth/Time Profile

0

15

Depth 30
(fsw)
Ascent Rate
1 Ft/Min.
45 Ascent Rate
Descent Rate
20 Ft/Min. 1 Ft/Min.
60
3 20 5 20 5 20 5 30 15 60 15 60 30

Time at Depth (minutes) Total Elapsed Time:

285 Minutes
4 Hours 45 Minutes
(Not Including Descent Time)

Figure 20-5. Treatment Table 6.

Rapid Ascent Incident
 Health and Safety
Executive

Differential pressure hazards in diving

Prepared by QinetiQ
for the Health and Safety Executive 2009

RR761
Research Report
Basic formula
Force = Pressure x Area
The example below calculates the force acting on an object blocking a 0.3 m
diameter pipe connecting two bodies of water with a difference in level of 3.5 m.

F = D x density x A
Where:
F = Force (kgf) (kgf is kilogramme force)
D = Difference in level (m)
density = 1025 kg ·m-3 for sea water
or = 1000 kg · m-3 for fresh water
A = Area (m2) ( x (d/2)2 (approx. 0.79 x d x d) where d is diameter in m)

2
10 x 1025 x (0.4 x 0.4)
Force = 3.5 x 1025 x x (0.3/2) = 254 kgf
Figure 6.1: Force due to differential pressure calculation = 1.640 tonnes
Note: To estimate the force due to differential pressure across an opening into a gaseous void substitute D with the
DELTA P
 Introduction:
summarise important elements:

that may be helpful to persons involved with hiring, organising or controlling

diving operations conducted by specialist diving contractors.

Diving is a potentially hazardous activity in any environment.

Notwithstanding the above statement, when a good level of planning and

preparation are applied and strict controls implemented to supplement the
information and procedures set out at the planning stage, the risks can be
mitigated and the majority of underwater activity can be completed safely,
successfully and economically.
The Diving at Work Regulations 1997 (DWR) came into force in
1998:

•Supported by five Approved Codes of Practice (ACOP’s) covering:

•Commercial Diving Projects Offshore
•Commercial Diving Projects Inland / Inshore. (L104)
•Scientific and Archaeological Diving Projects.
•Media Diving Projects.
•Recreational Diving Projects
•Military and Police Diving Projects

Each of which gives advice on meeting the requirements of The

Diving at Work Regulations 1997 (referred to as the Diving
Regulations) for the appropriate diving project.
The ACOP for Inland / Inshore Diving Operations applies when
the activity occurs;

(a) Inshore within United Kingdom territorial waters adjacent to

Great Britain (generally 12 nautical miles from the low water
mark).
(b) Inland in Great Britain including docks, harbours, rivers,
culverts, canals, lakes, ponds and reservoirs.

new offshore ACoP:

For the purposes of this presentation all references will be

based on the assumption that the works fall under the category
of the Inland/Inshore ACOP.
The Regulations:
Regulation 4 states that;

“Every person who to any extent is responsible for, has

control over or is engaged in a diving project or whose acts
and omissions could adversely affect the health and safety of
persons engaged in a such a project, shall take such measures
as is reasonable for a person in his position to take to ensure
that these regulations are complied with.”
In a coastal or marine construction environment this could
include:

•The employer,
•A port or harbour master,
•Vessel master,
•Main contractor,
•Designer,
•Specialist service supplier
•Any operator instructed to use plant or equipment in support of
the diving or associated operation.

Whilst the level of responsibility will vary from person to person, all should
retain an interest in the diving operation and will need maintain an element of
liaison with the chosen diving contractor and their appointed personnel.
Insurances:

The provision of an in date Employers Liability Compulsory

Insurance (ELCI) certificate, specifically including clear reference
to the coverage of diving operations is a mandatory requirement
and sight of a valid certificate should be expected at both the
pricing stage and immediately prior to commencement of work on
site.

Where the chosen diving contractor fails to provide a valid

insurance cover and a claim results, the employer - the individual
or client commissioning the works - is likely to find they and their
insurers are liable for the deficiency.
Responsibilities:

The employer who requests the work must ensure that:

(1) The appointed contractor is competent to carry out

the proposed work.

(2) The proposed work site is safe and any known

hazards, underwater restrictions or associated
operational information is made known to the
diving contractor.

(3) That other appropriate facilities or persons will be

made available
to the appointed diving supervisor should an emergency
situation necessitate.
The competent diving contractor:
carrying out the works must ensure that:

(1) A detailed diving project plan is prepared and all risks fully
assessed

(2) Details of the plan are made known to anyone directly or

indirectly
involved in the diving operation or its support activities.

(3) That an adequate number of personnel, diving and essential

support are available, that sufficient plant and equipment is
available and adequate
arrangements for first aid or emergency medical support are in
place.
4) That the immediate area of the dive site is safe to conduct
diving operations and adequate arrangements for the access and
recovery of
the diver even in an emergency are in place.

(5) That the supervisor or supervisors are appointed in writing

and details
of the appointment are available on site for inspection.

(6) That accurate records are maintained and all other

appropriate
regulations are adhered too.
The appointed diving supervisor: in addition to being
confirmed in writing by the contractor and properly qualified to
carry out the task must ensure that:

(1) Everyone involved in or required to support the diving

operation are fully briefed and aware of the diving plan and any
emergency arrangements that are applicable.

(2) That all information, local conditions, weather, tide, current

or similar used in assessing the risks on the site remain valid
during the period of the dive.

(3) That adequate records are kept and persons involved in the
support of or working close to the dive site are fully apprised of
progress as the operation progresses.
Team Size:
Number of personnel in a diving team?

Whilst Regulation 6 and the ACOP indicate the minimum team size
to be four, Supervisor, diver, stand-by diver and tender, the Diving
Project Plan in addition to detailing the scope of the task and
associated risks, should address the requirement for diving team
numbers and justify the team size necessary for a particular task.

Basic underwater tasks in controlled circumstances can be safely

completed using a four man diving team, however as both the
complexity in terms of tools, equipment use and depth of the dive
increase so to is the likely need for additional members of the dive
team
Diving Project Plan: (DPP)
Emergency Arrangements:
Consistent with other H&S legislation the DPP is intended to “... so
far as reasonably practical,” identify the hazards and risks existing
on or at a site and detail how these will be controlled.

In addition the DPP will look specifically at the range of support

equipment that will be necessary to cover all foreseeable
eventualities on the dive site.

The DPP should make clear reference to the working methods that
will be used and detail the control measures that will be
implemented for dealing with water flows, underwater currents, low
visibility, weather conditions, vessel movements, use of tools as well
as specifying any special precautions that may be required to
ensure liaison between the dive team and others vessels operating
in the area.
In particular, the need to address the method of recovering the
diver after completing the work or in an emergency situation
when he may be unconscious. Entry tends to be quite simple
but having completed an element of work the ability to climb a
vertical ladder may be seriously impaired and some other form
of controlled recovery may be necessary.

The DPP will be used to brief the divers and any other persons
involved in the diving operation and a copy of the plan should be
available to any interested party.

Checklists are commonly used as part of a DPP to ensure all

aspects of the duties of the employer, contractor, diving
supervisor and divers have not been omitted. A sample
checklist has been appended to this document for use by
employers checking that all aspects of the planning have been
completed.
Equipment: All commercial diving work should be carried using
equipment that is routinely maintained and certificated as part of
planned maintenance system and suitable for the work in hand

Whilst DWR 1997 does not specifically exclude the use of Self
Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus (SCUBA), the need
to provide communications between the diver and the surface as
well as the requirements for an independent air supply reserve
tend to reduce the scope for use of SCUBA and actively
encourages the diving contractor to adopt a Surface Supplied
Diving Equipment (SSDE) spread.
In addition to the benefits of having a larger reserve of
air provided from the surface, SSDE provides the
working diver with modern lightweight air helmets
which can afford a high degree of head protection
whilst working in the water.

The proposed use of SCUBA equipment in most

commercial diving environments, other than in benign
conditions such as a swimming pools or tanks should
be very carefully monitored. Should a contractor
propose the use of SCUBA as his intended primary
equipment, an employer should seek guidance from an
independent specialist before sanctioning the diving
operation.
Emergency Arrangements:
Consistent with other H&S legislation the DPP is intended to “... so
far as reasonably practical,” identify the hazards and risks existing
on or at a site and detail how these will be controlled.
In addition the DPP will look specifically at the range of support
equipment that will be necessary to cover all foreseeable
eventualities on the dive site.

The DPP should make clear reference to the working methods that
will be used and detail the control measures that will be
implemented for dealing with water flows, underwater currents, low
visibility, weather conditions, vessel movements, use of tools as well
as specifying any special precautions that may be required to
ensure liaison between the dive team and others vessels operating
in the area.
recompression chamber should be in accordance with the
decompression procedures selected as part of the diving project plan.

111 I n a d d i t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g m i n i m u m s t a n d a r d s s h o u l d a l s o b e
applied:

(a) for dives with no planned in-water decompression and that are
less than 10 metres the diving contractor should identify the
nearest suitable operational two-person, two-compartment
chamber. Under no circumstances should this be more than
6 hours travelling distance from the dive site;

(b) for dives over 10 and up to 50 metres with either:

- no planned in-water decompression; or

- with planned in-water decompression of up to 20 minutes,

a suitable two-person, two-compartment chamber should be no

more than 2 hours travelling distance from the dive site;

(c) for dives with planned in-water decompression greater than

20 minutes a suitable, operational, two-person, two-compartment
chamber should be provided for immediate use at the site of the
diving project. The diver should be able to leave the water quickly
and easily and be pressurised within the chamber to the
appropriate recompression pressure as defined by the time in the
decompression schedule being used. The controls of a surface
compression chamber should only be operated by persons
competent to do so. Such competence will be achieved by a
combination of training and experience. The degree of supervision
provided should reflect the experience of the operator.

112 In all cases where the recompression chamber is not located on

the site, the diving project plan should include arrangements to ensure
Questions? phil@hsse.co.uk