CHAPTER 2

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Objectives:

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

• Define what research is.

• Identify the different type of research.
• Identify the different types of methods of research.
• Learn different characteristics of a research.

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Research

According to Rajasekar et. al. (2006), research is a logical and systematic search for
new and useful information on a particular topic. It is an investigation of finding solutions
to scientific and social problems through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search
for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information
about matters. The information might be collected from different sources like experience,
human beings, books, journals, nature, etc. A research can lead to new contributions to
the existing knowledge. Only through research is it possible to make progress in a field.
Research is done with the help of study, experiment, observation, analysis, comparison
and reasoning. Research is in fact ubiquitous. More precisely, research seeks predictions
of events and explanations, relationships and theories for them.

When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers to a question,
you are implying that the process:

1. is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies ( research

approaches);
2. uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity
and reliability;
3. is designed to be unbiased and objective.

Philosophies mean approaches e.g. qualitative, quantitative and the academic discipline
in which you have been trained.
Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question.
Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability
and accuracy.
Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and
drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested
interest. (Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something).
Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called

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‘research’. However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies
from discipline to discipline and so the meaning of ‘research’ differs from one academic
discipline to another.
The difference between research and non-research activity is, in the way one finds
answers: the process must meet certain requirements to be called research. One can
identify these requirements by examining some definitions of research.

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search.

re is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again

search is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.

Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to

solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable.
Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of
data.

Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the difference between our casual
day- to- day generalization and the conclusions usually recognized as scientific method
lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of the latter.

Characteristics of Research:

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer

questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it
must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable,
empirical and critical.
• Controlled - in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept
of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors),
you set up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting
the relationship.

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 • Rigorous - you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to
find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the
degree of rigor varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and
within the social sciences.

• Systematic - this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an

investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be
taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.

• Valid and verifiable - this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the
basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

• Empirical - this means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard
evidence gathered from information collected from real life experiences or
observations.

• Critical - critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is
crucial to a research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and
free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be
able to withstand critical scrutiny.

For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.

Types of Research:

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

1. application of research study

2. objectives in undertaking the research
3. inquiry mode employed

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Research Application:

From the point of view of application, there are two broad categories of research:

− pure research and

− applied research.

Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are
intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application
at the present time or in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is
sought in order to add to the existing body of research methods.

Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation,
administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually
descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research. Applied research can
be carried out by academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic institution such
as a university will have a specific applied research program funded by an industrial
partner interested in that program.

Research Objectives:

From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as:

− descriptive
− correlational
− explanatory
− exploratory

Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,

phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about , say, living
condition of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.

Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a

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 relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.

Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between
two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to

investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility
study/pilot study).

In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

Research Inquiry Mode:

From the process adopted to find answer to research questions – the two
approaches are:

− Structured approach
− Unstructured approach

Structured approach:
The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research.
Here everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and
the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined. It is more
appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by
quantifying the variation. e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many
people hold a particular attitude?

Unstructured approach:
The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.
This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It is more
appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without
quantifying it.
Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude.

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 e.g., description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an
account of different opinions different people have about an issue, description of
working condition in a particular industry.

Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses.

In many studies you have to combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine / accommodation available
in a city and the extent of their popularity.

Types of cuisine is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails
description of the culture and cuisine.

The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the
number of people who visit restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other
indicators that reflect the extent of popularity.

Different researchers have categorised research into what suits their discipline or field of
research the best. Rajsekar, et. al. (2006) proposes two type of research (basic research
and applied research) as detailed below:

Basic Research

Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for occurrence of

a particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study
or investigations of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as
basic research. Basic researches sometimes may not lead to immediate use or
application. It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate interest.
But it is original or basic in character. It provides a systematic and deep insight into a
problem and facilitates extraction of scientific and logical explanation and conclusion on
it. It helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The outcomes of basic research form the
basis for many applied research. Researchers working on applied research have to
make use of the outcomes of basic research and explore the utility of them.

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 Research on improving a theory or a method is also referred as fundamental research.
For example, suppose a theory is applicable to a system provided the system satisfies
certain specific conditions. Modifying the theory to apply it to a general situation is a basic
research.

Applied Research

In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well known and
accepted theories and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies and
interdisciplinary research are essentially applied research. Applied research is helpful
for basic research. A research, the outcome of which has immediate application is also
termed as applied research. Such a research is of practical use to current activity. For
example, researches on social problems have immediate use. Applied research is
concerned with actual life research such as research on increasing efficiency of a
machine, increasing gain factor of production of a material, pollution control, preparing
vaccination for a disease, etc. Obviously, they have immediate potential applications.

Other Types of Research

Other types of research include action research (fact findings to improve the
quality of action in the social world), explanatory research (searching explanations for
events and phenomena, for example finding answer to the question why are the things
like what they are?), exploratory research (getting more information on a topic) and
comparative research (obtaining similarities and differences between events, methods,
techniques, etc.). Within each research group, there are classifications of other research
categories.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

The basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or even both.
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Here a
process is expressed or described in terms of one or more quantities. Qualitative

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research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving quality. It is non-numerical,
descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words. Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and
describe the situation. We measure and weigh things in the study of substance or
structure. Can we measure or weigh patterns? We cannot measure or weigh patterns.
But to study patterns we must map a configuration of relationships. That is, structures
involve quantities whereas patterns involve qualities. If one wishes to investigate why
certain data are random then it is a qualitative research. If the aim is to study how random
the data is, what is the mean, variance and distribution function then it becomes
quantitative. There has been widespread debate in recent years within many of the social
sciences regarding the relative merits of quantitative and qualitative strategies for
research. The positions taken by individual researchers vary considerably, from those
who see the two strategies as entirely separate and based on alternative views of the
world, to those who are happy to mix these strategies within their research projects. In
exploring the distinctions between qualitative and quantitative forms of research one
needs to consider the different ontological and epistemological questions as well as
positivism, interpretivism and critical paradigms.

Research Methodology and Research Method

Research Methods and Research Methodology are two terms that are often
confused as one and the same. Strictly speaking they are not so and they show
differences between them. One of the primary differences between them is that research
methods are the methods by which you conduct research into a subject or a topic. On
the other hand research methodology explains the methods by which you may proceed
with your research. Research methods involve conduct of experiments, tests, surveys
and the like. On the other hand research methodology involves the learning of the
various techniques that can be used in the conduct of research and in the conduct of
tests, experiments, surveys and critical studies. This is the technical difference between
the two terms, namely, research methods and research methodology.

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 Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of
studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which
researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are
called research methodology. It is also defined as the study of methods by which
knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan of research.

Research methods are the various procedures, schemes, algorithms, etc. used in
research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as
research methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They
include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical
approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to
a problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations based on
collected facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They
accept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments.

In short it can be said that research methods aim at finding solutions to research
problems. On the other hand research methodology aims at the employment of the
correct procedures to find out solutions. It is thus interesting to note that research
methodology paves the way for research methods to be conducted properly. Research
methodology is the beginning whereas research methods are the end of any scientific
or non-scientific research.
Let us take for example a subject or a topic, namely, ‘employment of figures of
speech in English literature’. In this topic if we are to conduct research, then the research
methods that are involved are study of various works of the different poets and the
understanding of the employment of figures of speech in their works. On the other hand
research methodology pertaining to the topic mentioned above involves the study about
the tools of research, collation of various manuscripts related to the topic, techniques
involved in the critical edition of these manuscripts and the like.

If the subject into which you conduct a research is a scientific subject or topic then
the research methods include experiments, tests, study of various other results of

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different experiments performed earlier in relation to the topic or the subject and the like.
On the other hand research methodology pertaining to the scientific topic involves the
techniques regarding how to go about conducting the research, the tools of research,
advanced techniques that can be used in the conduct of the experiments and the like.
Any student or research candidate is supposed to be good at both research methods
and research methodology if he or she is to succeed in his or her attempt at conducting
research into a subject.

Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used
for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods
the researchers use in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods
which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem
are termed as research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied
research, is to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the
unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a solution
possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three
groups:

1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the
collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already available
are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;

2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;

3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy
of the results obtained.
Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as
the analytical tools of research.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may

be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study

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the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research
problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not
only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only
need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the
mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular
research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques,
are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why.
Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques
and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means
that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the
same may differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a
building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate
why and on what basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows
and ventilators, uses particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in
research the scientist has to expose the research decisions to evaluation before they
are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects
and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.

From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many
dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology.
The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when
we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also
consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and
explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using
others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher
himself or by others.

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 Research Methodology

Research methodology is a collective term for the structured process of conducting

research. There are many different methodologies used in various types of research and
the term is usually considered to include research design, data gathering and data
analysis. Research methodology seeks to inform: Why a research study has been
undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the
hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been collected and what particular
method has been adopted, why particular technique of analysing data has been used and
a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research
methodology concerning a research problem or study.

Research methodologies can be quantitative (for example, measuring the number of

times someone does something under certain conditions) or qualitative (for example,
asking people how they feel about a certain situation). Ideally, comprehensive research
should try to incorporate both qualitative and quantitative methodologies but this is not
always possible, usually due to time and financial constraints. Research methodologies
are generally used in academic research to test hypotheses or theories. A good design
should ensure the research is valid, i.e. it clearly tests the hypothesis and not extraneous
variables, and that the research is reliable, i.e. it yields consistent results every time.

Part of the research methodology is concerned with the how the research is
conducted. This is called the study design and typically involves research conducted
using questionnaires, interviews, observation and/or experiments. The term research
methodology, which prescribes the research method to use, usually encompasses the
procedures followed to analyze and interpret the data gathered. These often use a range
of sophisticated statistical analyses of the data to identify correlations or statistical
significance in the results.

Objective, representative research can be difficult to conduct because tests can

normally only be conducted on a small sample (e.g. you cannot test a drug on every

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person in the world so a sample needs to be used in research). This means that
researchers need to have a very detailed understanding of the types and limitations of
research methodologies which they are using.

In simple terms research methodology is used to give a clear cut idea on what the
researcher is carrying out his or her research. In order to plan in a right point of time and
to advance the research work, research methodology makes the right platform to the
researcher to mapping out the research work in relevance to make solid plans. More over
research methodology guides the researcher to involve and to be active in his or her
particular field of enquiry. Most of the time, the aim of the research and the research
topic won’t be same at all time it varies from its objectives and flow of the research, but
by adopting a suitable methodology this can be achieved.

Right from selecting the topic and carrying out the research, the research
methodology drives the researcher in the right track. The entire research plan is based
on the concept of right research methodology. More over through the research
methodology the external environment constitutes the research by giving an in-depth
idea on setting the right research objective, followed by literature point of view, based on
that chosen analysis through interviews or questionnaires findings will be obtained and
finally concluded message by this research.
The research methodology constitutes the internal environment by understanding
and identifying the right type of research, strategy, philosophy, time horizon,
approaches, followed by right procedures and techniques based on his or her research
work. Additionally, the research methodology acts as the nerve center because the entire
research is bounded by it and to perform a good research work, the internal and external
environment has to follow the right research methodology process.

The system of collecting data for research projects is known as research

methodology. The data may be collected for either theoretical or practical research for
example management research may be strategically conceptualized along with
operational planning methods and change management. Some important factors in

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research methodology include validity of research data, ethics and the reliability of most
of your work is finished by the time you finish the analysis of your data. This is followed
by research design, which may be either experimental or quasi-experimental. The last
two stages are data analysis and finally writing the research paper, which is organised
carefully into graphs and tables so that only important relevant data is shown.

Importance of Research Methodology in Research

It is necessary for a researcher to design a research methodology for the problem

chosen. One should note that even if the research method considered for two problems
are same the research methodology may be different. It is important for the researcher
to know not only the research methods necessary for the research under taken but also
the methodology. For example, a researcher not only needs to know how to calculate
mean, variance and distribution function for a set of data, how to find a solution of a
physical system described by mathematical model, how to determine the roots of
algebraic equations and how to apply a particular method but also need to know (i) which
is a suitable method for the chosen problem?, (ii) what is the order of accuracy of the
result of a method?, (iii) what is the efficiency of the method? And so on. Considerations
of these aspects constitute a research methodology. More precisely, research methods
help us get a solution to a problem. On the other hand, research methodology is
concerned with the explanation of the following:

(1) Why is a particular research study undertaken?

(2) How did one formulate a research problem?
(3) What types of data were collected?
(4) What particular method has been used?
(5) Why was a particular technique of analysis of data used?
The study of research methods gives training to apply them to a problem. The
study of research methodology provides us the necessary training in choosing research
methods, materials, scientific tools and training in techniques relevant for the problem
chosen.

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 Research methodology includes a philosophically coherent collection of theories,
concepts or ideas as they relate to a particular discipline or field of inquiry. Methodology
refers to more than a simple set of methods; rather it refers to the rationale and the
philosophical assumptions that underlie a particular study relative to the scientific
method. This is why scholarly literature often includes a section on the methodology of
the researchers. This section does more than outline the researchers’ methods (for
example, “we conducted a survey of 50 people over a two-week period and subjected the
results to statistical analysis”, etc.); it might explain what the researchers’ ontological or
epistemological views are. Researchers acknowledge the need for rigor, logic, and
coherence in their research methodologies, which are subject to peer review.

Types of Research Methodologies

Traditionally, research methodologies are broadly classified into qualitative and

quantitative thereby creating a huge divide amongst researchers, especially in social
sciences (Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005). The difference between these two methods
has been prominent in many research methods publications (Howe, 1988; Neuman,
1997). For instance, Myers (2009, p. 8) distinguishes that qualitative research is an in-
depth study of social and cultural phenomena and focuses on text whereas quantitative
research investigates general trends across population and focuses on numbers.
Likewise, Miles and Huberman (1994) maintain that qualitative research focuses on in-
depth examination of research issues while Harrison (2001) argues that quantitative
design provides broad understanding of issues under investigation.

As ascertained by reputable research methodologies researchers above, we can

conclude that there are two main types of research methodology, 1- Quantitative
methodology, 2- Qualitative methodology.1- Quantitative research methodology is the
type by which you test the significance of your hypothesis, in other words you answer
the words: How much? Is there a relationship? Quantitative research methods tend to
be systematic and use numbers. However, 2- Qualitative methodology is the type by
which you are depending on your observations and descriptions. It is subjectively and

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descriptive, no facts. This kind of method is used to assess knowledge’s, attitudes,
behaviors, and opinions of people depending on the topic of your research.
Researchers in this type of method use his opinion and experiences which are not
allowed to be used in quantitative method at all.

Given this distinction, purists uphold that research questions are usually oriented
towards quantitative or qualitative direction and as such these two methodologies should
not go hand-in- hand (Howe, 1988; Smith and Heshusius, 1986). Consequently, Myers
(2009) supports the purists’ view of separating the two research philosophies by citing
examples of research techniques under the two main categories in his recent publication
on ‘Qualitative Research in Business and Management’. Thus, qualitative research
methods include action research, case study, ethnography, grounded research,
semiotics, discourse analysis, hermeneutics and narrative while quantitative research
methods encompass surveys, simulation, mathematical modelling, laboratory
experiments, statistical analysis, econometric and structured equations modelling
(Myers, 2009, p.8).

From the purists’ perspective, the disparity between the qualitative and quantitative
paradigms emanates from the fact that epistemological, ontological and axiological
hypotheses of research issues are usually qualitative or quantitative in nature
(Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998).

However, pragmatic researchers debunk the dichotomy between purists’ belief of

qualitative and quantitative methodologies but rather engage in arguments that reveal
similarities between the two and promote triangulation (Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005;
Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998; Newman and Benz, 1998). In this respect, mixing
qualitative with quantitative methods provides opportunity to corroborate results from
diverse methods of studying a given phenomenon in a more rigorous manner (Neuman,
1997). Though the pragmatic researchers argue that mono-method research is a danger
to the advancement of social sciences and wonder how stakeholders may develop
confidence in findings from singular methods, they support the fact that the choice of

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research methods must reflect the research questions being addressed (Onwuegbuzie
and Leech, 2005; Sechrest and Sadani, 1995). In the mist of this debate, researchers,
particularly the inexperienced ones may find it difficult to select the appropriate
methodologies for a given study.

The basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or even both.
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Here a
process is expressed or described in terms of one or more quantities. Qualitative
research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving quality. It is non-numerical,
descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words. Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and
describe the situation. We measure and weigh things in the study of substance or
structure. Can we measure or weigh patterns? We cannot measure or weigh patterns.
But to study patterns we must map a configuration of relationships. That is, structures
involve quantities whereas patterns involve qualities. If one wishes to investigate why
certain data are random then it is a qualitative research. If the aim is to study how random
the data is, what is the mean, variance and distribution function then it becomes
quantitative. Explaining how digestion of food takes place in our body is a qualitative
description. It does not involve any numbers or data and quantities. Determination of
exact amount of a particular compound present in a volume is essentially quantitative
analysis.

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodology

The above description of the types of research methodologies brings to light the fact
that there are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the
qualitative approach. The former involves the generation of data in quantitative form
which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative
research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena
relating to or involving quality or kind. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed

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to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is
also qualitative research.

Reviewing these definitions of what is meant by quantitative versus qualitative

research helps identify the reasons for the primarily separate use of each method and the
continuing debate among researchers concerning the relative value of each approach.
The arguments can be complicated and often are philosophical; however, they
essentially make the following kinds of distinctions.

The word qualitative implies an emphasis on processes and meanings that are not
rigorously examined or measured (if measured at all), in terms of quantity, amount,
intensity, or frequency. Qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed nature of
reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied, and the
situational constraints that shape inquiry. In contrast, quantitative studies emphasize the
measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables, not processes.
Inquiry is purported to be within a value-free framework

While it may be somewhat naive to delineate the differences between qualitative and
quantitative research so definitively, it is helpful to begin to understand the nature of the
debate by understanding commonly held divisions and basic definitions. Simply put, the
terms ‘qualitative’ and ‘quantitative’ should refer to the type of data generated in the
research process. Quantitative research produces data in the form of numbers while
qualitative research tends to produce data that are stated in prose or textual forms. In
order to produce different types of data, qualitative and quantitative research tend to
employ different methods.
Using the terminology from Hentschel’s (1999) Research Methodology-Data
Framework (Figure 3.1 below) non-contextual methods—applied across the population
universe, often a country or region—are designed to achieve breadth in coverage and
analysis. Typically, the random sample survey produces quantifiable data that can be
statistically analysed with the main aim of measuring, aggregating, modelling and
predicting behaviour and relations. Contextual methods in contrast are applied to a

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specific locality, case or social setting and sacrifice breadth of population coverage and
statistical generalisability in order to explore issues in depth (Booth et al, 1998).
Contextual research includes ethnographic techniques, such as participant observation,
interviews and participatory tools that are often group-based and visual. Using open-
ended questions these methods are designed to capture judgements and perceptions
and allow complex analyses of often non-quantifiable cause-and-effect processes.

Figure 3.1: The Research Methodology

Framework Source: Hentschel
(1999)

There has been widespread debate in recent years within many of the social
sciences regarding the relative merits of quantitative and qualitative strategies for
research. The positions taken by individual researchers vary considerably, from those
who see the two strategies as entirely separate and based on alternative views of the
world, to those who are happy to mix these strategies within their research projects. For
example, Bryman (1988) argued for a `best of both worlds' approach and suggested that
qualitative and quantitative approaches should be combined. Hughes (1997),

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nevertheless, warns that such technicist solutions underestimate the politics of
legitimacy that are associated with choice of methods. In particular, quantitative
approaches have been seen as more scientific and `objective'.

Qualitative Research Methodology

When it comes to dealing with large sample size, quantitative research reaffirms the
axiom "bigger is better." Yet when it comes to dealing with smaller, more focused
samples, qualitative research proves that "size doesn't matter." Qualitative research is a
highly subjective research discipline, designed to look beyond the percentages to gain
an understanding of feelings, impressions and viewpoints.

The qualitative paradigm is based on interpretivism (Altheide and Johnson, 1994;

Kuzel and Like, 1991; Secker et al., 1995) and constructivism (Guba and Lincoln, 1994).
Ontologically speaking, there are multiple realities or multiple truths based on one’s
construction of reality. Reality is socially constructed (Berger and Luckmann, 1966) and
so is constantly changing. On an epistemological level, there is no access to reality
independent of our minds, no external referent by which to compare claims of truth
(Smith, 1983). The investigator and the object of study are interactively linked so that
findings are mutually created within the context of the situation which shapes the inquiry
(Guba and Lincoln, 1994; Denzin and Lincoln, 1994).

Gaining such insight into the hearts and minds of the people is best acquired through
the use of smaller, highly targeted samples. Expert moderators, unencumbered by the
strict time and structure constraints of a quantitative survey, use a multitude of
techniques to obtain in-depth information. Interviews are lengthy, oftentimes as long as
four hours, allowing the moderator to elicit extremely candid, highly complex responses.
The result is rich, in-depth data laden with insight unobtainable from quantitative research
techniques.

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 Good, sound qualitative research has much strength. It's flexible, highly-focused, and
designed to be completed quickly because the results are seen or heard first-hand,
readers relates to the findings easily. Qualitative research is not without its weaknesses
and limitations. Misuse or misunderstanding the capabilities of qualitative research is
commonplace. Researchers often fall in love with the data- rich results and assume that
the results are projectable. This assumption is incorrect. Because the analysis is
subjective and deals with a sample size, projectability is not possible. Another common
misconception is the expectation that qualitative research will always produce definitive
conclusions. In reality, the results will not provide researchers with definitive conclusions,
but only with enough information to establish a firm basis for decision making.

Trained researchers are essential to the success of qualitative research. Placed in

the hands of untrained researchers, a qualitative research study's chance of success is
vastly diminished. When you are ready to pull the trigger on your research study and
can't decide which methodology to choose, just remember your axioms. When you want
"strength in numbers," choose quantitative research. When "size doesn't matter,"
qualitative research is your best bet.

Qualitative Research - Key Characteristics

Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a
qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the setting.

The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or
taken for granted.

Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to
provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is
an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their
lives.

Qualitative researchers attend to the experience as a whole, not as separate

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variables. The aim of qualitative research is to understand experience as unified.

Qualitative methods are appropriate to the above statements. There is no one

general method. For many qualitative researchers, the process entails appraisal about
what was studied.
Ely et al add the following from Sherman and Webb (1988) to their definition:
Qualitative implies a direct concern with experience as it is `lived' or `felt' or `undergone'
... Qualitative research, then, has the aim of understanding experience as nearly as
possible as its participants feel it or live it.

Qualitative Research - Strengths and Limitations

Strengths

• Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider's view

of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such
as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic enquiries.

• Qualitative descriptions can play the important role of suggesting possible

relationships, causes, effects and dynamic processes.

• Because statistics are not used, but rather qualitative research uses a more
descriptive, narrative style, this research might be of particular benefit to the
practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports in order to examine forms
of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

• Qualitative research adds flesh and blood to social analysis.

Limitations

• The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the

subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult
to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity.

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 • Contexts, situations, events, conditions and interactions cannot be replicated to any
extent nor can generalisations be made to a wider context than the one studied with
any confidence.

• The time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation is lengthy.

• Researcher's presence has a profound effect on the subjects of study.

• Issues of anonymity and confidentiality present problems when selecting

findings.
• The viewpoints of both researcher and participants have to be identified and
elucidated because of issues of bias.

Quantitative Research Methodology

Strength in numbers characterizes the many advantages of quantitative research. A

numbers-based research discipline, quantitative research statistically measures
attitudes, behavior, and performance and provides results in percentages that are easier
to interpret. Utilizing a series of tests and techniques, quantitative research will often
yield data that's projectable to a larger population. Because it is so deeply rooted in
numbers and statistics, quantitative research has the ability to effectively translate data
into easily quantifiable charts and graphs. Real-world examples have shown the
effectiveness of quantitative research in measuring awareness, establishing profiles,
and determining future needs.

The quantitative paradigm is based on positivism. Science is characterized by

empirical research; all phenomena can be reduced to empirical indicators which
represent the truth. The ontological position of the quantitative paradigm is that there is
only one truth, an objective reality that exists independent of human perception.
Epistemologically, the investigator and investigated are independent entities. Therefore,
the investigator is capable of studying a phenomenon without influencing it or being
influenced by it; “inquiry takes place as through a one way mirror” (Guba and Lincoln,

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1994: 110).

Quantitative research consists of those studies in which the data concerned can be
analysed in terms of numbers. Quantitative research is based more directly on its original
plans and its results are more readily analysed and interpreted. Quantitative research is,
as the term suggests, concerned with the collection and analysis of data in numeric form.
It tends to emphasize relatively large- scale and representative sets of data, and is often,
falsely in our view, presented or perceived as being about the gathering of `facts'.

However, quantitative research does have its limitations. Large samples are
required, and the logistical difficulties inherent in gathering a sufficiently large sample can
sabotage the study before it even gets off the ground. Larger samples also tend to be
more expensive. Quantitative research, by virtue of its short (usually 20 minute)
interviews and rigid structure, is not the most flexible method of research and, when
handled improperly, is especially vulnerable to statistical error. The misuse of sampling
and weighting can completely undermine the accuracy, validity, and projectability of a
quantitative research study.

Quantitative Research - Key Characteristics

Control: This is the most important element because it enables the scientist to identify
the causes of his or her observations. Experiments are conducted in an attempt to
answer certain questions. They represent attempts to identify why something happens,
what causes some event, or under what conditions an event does occur. Control is
necessary in order to provide unambiguous answers to such questions. To answer
questions in education and social science we have to eliminate the simultaneous
influence of many variables to isolate the cause of an effect. Controlled inquiry is
absolutely essential to this because without it the cause of an effect could not be isolated.

Operational Definition: This means that terms must be defined by the steps or
operations used to measure them. Such a procedure is necessary to eliminate any
confusion in meaning and communication. Consider the statement `Anxiety causes

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students to score poorly in tests'. One might ask, `What is meant by anxiety?' Stating
that anxiety refers to being tense or some other such term only adds to the confusion.
However, stating that anxiety refers to a score over a criterion level on an anxiety scale
enables others to realise what you mean by anxiety. Stating an operational definition
forces one to identify the empirical referents, or terms. In this manner, ambiguity is
minimised. Again, introversion may be defined as a score on a particular personality
scale, hunger as so many hours since last fed, and social class as defined by occupation.

Replication: To be replicable, the data obtained in an experiment must be reliable; that

is, the same result must be found if the study is repeated. If observations are not
repeatable, our descriptions and explanations are thought to be unreliable.

Hypothesis Testing: The systematic creation of a hypothesis and subjecting it to an

empirical test.

Quantitative Research - Strengths and Limitations

Strengths

• Precision - through quantitative and reliable measurement

• Control - through sampling and design
• Ability to produce causality statements, through the use of controlled
experiments
• Statistical techniques allow for sophisticated analyses
• Replicable

Limitations

• Because of the complexity of human experience it is difficult to rule out or control

all the variables;
• Because of human agency people do not all respond in the same ways as inert
matter in the physical sciences;
• Its mechanistic ethos tends to exclude notions of freedom, choice and moral
responsibility;

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 • Quantification can become an end in itself.
• It fails to take account of people's unique ability to interpret their experiences,
construct their own meanings and act on these.
• It leads to the assumption that facts are true and the same for all people all of the
time.
• Quantitative research often produces banal and trivial findings of little
consequence due to the restriction on and the controlling of variables.
• It is not totally objective because the researcher is subjectively involved in the
very choice of a problem as worthy of investigation and in the interpretation of
the results.
• The type of research and the format of research findings are limitations as well.

Research Methodology Used

The most important component of any research is the research methodology and the
resulting research method that is systematically applied to conduct the research, analyze
and report the findings and draw a conclusion to answer the research question thus
solving the research problem. To decide on the research methodology to use in this
research, two critical questions were required to be considered:

1. What type of data was going to be collected for the research?, and;

2. The format in which the research findings were going to be analyzed and
reported?

Apart from the above major two questions, there are other factors to consider when
deciding which research methodology to use. Some of them are:

• Research Questions: What exactly are you trying to find out? Focus on the
`exactly' as this can lead you either into the quantitative or qualitative direction.

• Are we interested in making standardized and systematic comparisons or

do we really want to study this phenomenon or situation in detail?

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 • The Literature: How have other researchers dealt with this topic? To what extent
do you wish to align your own research with standard approaches to the topic?

• Practical Considerations: Issues of time, money, availability of samples and

data, familiarity with the subject under study, access to situations, gaining co-
operation.

• Knowledge payoff: Will we learn more about this topic using quantitative or
qualitative approaches? Which approach will produce more useful knowledge?
Which will do more good?

• Style: Some people prefer one to the other. This may involve paradigm and
philosophical issues or different images about what a good piece of research
looks like.

The question of whether to use quantitative research methodology or qualitative

research methodology is commonly asked, especially by beginning researchers. Often,
they are putting the methods cart' before the `content horse'. The best advice in those
cases is to step back from questions of method, and give further consideration to the
purposes and research questions, bearing in mind that the way questions are asked
influences what needs to be done to answer them. But when that has been done, and
the question still remains, the above factors help in making the decision. Of course, a
reasonable decision in any study might be to combine the two approaches.
Given the above, Qualitative Research Methodology seemed the most appropriate
research methodology to use in this research. The logic behind using this research
methodology is as above and the justification is as follows:

Type of Data: the data, which is in the form of information will be collected from research
papers, journal articles, web sites, and web blogs using the Internet. The data collected
in the form of information is textual, and thus can be analysed using the qualitative
research methodology.

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Format of Research Findings: again to answer the research questions, percentages
and statistics could not be used as research was asking “how” and “what” questions
which needed descriptive answer in textual format, and thus the use qualitative research
methodology was required.

Research Questions: what “exactly” I was trying to find out could be best answered
with qualitative data in the form of research papers and journal articles with the
qualitative research methodology. To fill the knowledge gap, information was required to
be collated, analysed, and conclusions drawn. Percentage and statistics of quantitative
research methodology would make no sense.

Study in Detail: to adequately solve the research problem, the situation or phenomena,
cloud computing with mobile phones opportunities and issues for developing countries
needed to be studied in detail. Qualitative research methodology is most appropriate in
such situations. A quantitative comparison or systematic standardization would not
suffice.

Existing Similar Literature: though there were not much research that existed on the
similar topic to this research, other researchers on cloud computing had done qualitative
research as well. There is comprehensive literature around that suggests the use of
qualitative research methodology in information systems (Myers, 2009). Cloud
computing aligns itself to the field of information systems.

Practical Considerations: as this research looked at opportunities and issues of cloud

computing with mobile phones in developing countries, time constraints and funding
issues would not permit primary investigation and data collection from all developing
countries. However, secondary data in qualitative format was readily available and could
be easily accessed via the Internet for this research.

Knowledge Acquisition: not much would be learnt through this research from
quantitative analysis. We could say that the usage of mobile cloud computing will increase
by 100% in the next 5 years using quantitative research methodology. But that is not

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good enough. We want to know “why” and “how”, we want to know more, we want to
know everything possible – that is the reason for doing research, “to know as much as
possible”. Qualitative research methodology is the key to know as much as possible.

Availability of Secondary Data: probably another important criterion that made this
research use qualitative research methodology would be the abundance of secondary
data that was available at the click of a mouse. As pointed out by Argyrous (2009),
“secondary data are an abundant resource for researchers” as the Internet has made vast
amount of data available. He also lists the advantages of savings on cost and time,
access to quality data that has been tested, access to difficult populations and availability
of longitudinal data.

Subject under Study: the researcher is intimately involved in research on cloud

computing since it became the buzz word within the IT Industry. He started off by writing
research papers on understanding cloud computing, after a series of other research
publications on the same topic, found a knowledge gap and narrowed it down to this
research dissertation.

Quantitative Research Methodology: however, there are several sections, percentage

and statistics provided with the assistance of quantitative analysis to strengthen the case
of mobile cloud computing for developing countries.

Research Method

Research methods are a variety of techniques that people use when studying a given
phenomenon. They are planned, scientific, and value-neutral. What that means is that
good research methods don't "just happen." Instead, they are deliberately employed in a
way that is designed to maximize the accuracy of the results. Research methods are
concerned with use of any of the following: theoretical methods, numerical techniques,
experimental techniques and other relevant data and tools necessary for the research
study. It is not necessary that every theory, technique and information in the topic of
research is useful for a particular problem. A researcher has to identify and select

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materials which are useful to his research study.

The function of the research method is to provide for the collection of relevant
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. The design of research
method, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves the consideration of the
following: 1). Objectives of the Research Study; 2). Method of Data Collection to be
Adopted; 3). Source of Data or Information; 4). Tool for Data Collection; and 5). Data
Analysis - Qualitative and Quantitative

The goal of the research method is to produce new knowledge, or deepen

understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms:

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been
clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data
collection method and selection of subjects. It should draw definitive conclusions only
with extreme caution. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often
concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist.

Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available

literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with
consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches
through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot
studies. The Internet allows for research methods that are more interactive in nature. For
example, RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with up- to-date information; major
search engine search results may be sent by email to researchers by services such as
Google Alerts; comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy periods of time
by services such as Google Trends; and websites may be created to attract worldwide
feedback on any subject.

The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by

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themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the
results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when"
something occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many".

Social exploratory research "seeks to find out how people get along in the setting
under question, what meanings they give to their actions, and what issues concern them.
The goal is to learn 'what is going on here?' and to investigate social phenomena without
explicit expectations." This methodology is also at times referred to as a grounded theory
approach to qualitative research or interpretive research, and is an attempt to unearth a
theory from the data itself rather than from a predisposed hypothesis.

Babbie (1989) identifies three purposes of social science research. The purposes
are exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. Exploratory research is used when
problems are in a preliminary stage. Exploratory research is used when the topic or issue
is new and when data is difficult to collect. Exploratory research is flexible and can
address research questions of all types (what, why, how). Exploratory research is often
used to generate formal hypotheses. Shields & Tajalli (2006) link exploratory research
with the conceptual framework working hypothesis.

Skeptics, however, have questioned the usefulness and necessity of exploratory

research in situations where priori analysis could be conducted instead

Constructive Research

Constructive research is perhaps the most common computer science research

method. This type of approach demands a form of validation that doesn’t need to be
quite as empirically based as in other types of research like exploratory research.
Nevertheless the conclusions have to be objectively argued and defined. This may
involve evaluating the “construct” being developed analytically against some predefined
criteria or performing some benchmark tests with the prototype. The term “construct” is
often used in this context to refer to the new contribution being developed. Construct can
be a new theory, algorithm, model, software, or a framework

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Empirical Research

Empirical research is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect

observation or experience. Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations
or experiences) can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively. Through quantifying the
evidence or making sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer empirical
questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the evidence collected
(usually called data). Research design varies by field and by the question being
investigated. Many researchers combine qualitative and quantitative forms of analysis
to better answer questions which cannot be studied in laboratory settings, particularly in
the social sciences and in education.

In some fields, quantitative research may begin with a research question (e.g., "Does
listening to vocal music during the learning of a word list have an effect on later memory
for these words?") which is tested through experimentation in a lab. Usually, a
researcher has a certain theory regarding the topic under investigation. Based on this
theory some statements, or hypotheses, will be proposed (e.g., "Listening to vocal music
has a negative effect on learning a word list."). From these hypotheses predictions about
specific events are derived (e.g., "People who study a word list while listening to vocal
music will remember fewer words on a later memory test than people who study a word
list in silence."). These predictions can then be tested with a suitable experiment.
Depending on the outcomes of the experiment, the theory on which the hypotheses and
predictions were based will be supported or not.

Many researchers and research literature have been found to interchange references
and mix definitions and meanings of research methodology, research methods, research
design, and research approach. I have attempted to separate them according to my
understanding.

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Types of Research Methods

As the academic field of Information Systems has developed, IS researchers have

become increasingly interested in the nature of the discipline, its publication outlets, and
its accomplishments. Some have suggested that such self-reflection is beneficial; by
understanding our past accomplishments, the community can better direct its future
efforts in the most productive manner (Alavi & Carlson, 1992).

Myers and Liu (2009) surveyed all the research articles in the AIS basket of six top
journals over a ten year period, from 1998 to 2007.Within this category they classified
articles as using the following research methods: survey, case study, laboratory
experiment, field experiment, or action research.

They describe the five research methods as follows:

Survey: Studies employing this research method gather data through the form of
questionnaires, which can be paper-based or web-based.

Case study: Studies employing this research method undertake data collection at one
or several sites, usually over a period of time; data is usually obtained from “multiple
sources of evidence” including interviews and documents. (Yin, 1994)

Laboratory experiment: Studies undertaking laboratory experiments aim for control

over the independent variables being measured. Participants and/or groups are usually
subject to randomly assigned treatments.

Field experiment: As opposed to the controlled environment of a laboratory experiment,

field experiments are conducted within a naturally-occurring system. As such,
researchers often do not have control over variables under measurement.

Action research: Studies using action research aim to solve a practical problem in the
research setting while also contributing to knowledge about the phenomenon. Action
research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working

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with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice".

Video links:

What is research?
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k27EdAnaho
A
Types of research
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3hjEHVxAOO
s

Reference:

• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333015
026_Chapter_3_-
_Research_Methodology_and_Research_Metho
d

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