Lecture Notes of

Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Elhassen Ammr

DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW

Contents

5.1 – Conservation of Mass .................................................................................................................................. 2

5.2 – Conservation of Linear Momentum ( Euler Equations ) ....................................................................... 6
5.3 – Euler Equations along Streamline ............................................................................................................ 9
5.4 – Bernoulli Equation along Streamline .................................................................................................... 11
5.5 – Applications of Bernoulli Equation ........................................................................................................ 13
5.6 – Conservation of Linear Momentum ( Naiver – Stokes equations ) ................................................. 16
5.7 – Simple Exact Solutions of N-S Equations ............................................................................................... 21
5.7.1 – Couette flow ........................................................................................................................................ 21
5.7.2 – Poiseuille flow .................................................................................................................................... 22
5.7.3 – Fully developed laminar pipe flow ................................................................................................. 23
Exercise (5)........................................................................................................................................................... 27

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 5
Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow

In differential analyzing fluid motion, we seeking the point-by-point details of a flow pattern by
analyzing an infinitesimal region of the flow. To see what is happening in a flow in detail, we need
differential forms of the equations of motion.

5.1 – Conservation of Mass

The property fields are defined by continuous functions of the space coordinates and time. The
density and velocity fields were related through conservation of mass in integral form as given
by equation (5.1) and differential form. we shall derive the differential equation for conservation
of mass in Cartesian coordinates by applying conservation of mass to a differential control
volume.
The control volume chosen is an infinitesimal cube with sides of length dx,dy,dz as shown in Fig.
⃗ = 𝑢 𝑖̂ + 𝑣 𝑗̂ + 𝑤 𝑘̂
(5.1), and with density ρ and the velocity field 𝑉

Fig. (5.1) Differential control volume

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

𝜕
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = [ 𝜌𝑢 + (𝜌𝑢)𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 2

 𝜕
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝜌𝑢) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.1)
𝜕𝑥
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝜕
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = [ 𝜌𝑣 + (𝜌𝑣)𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦
𝜕
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝜌𝑣) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.2)
𝜕𝑦

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑧 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜌 𝑤 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

𝜕
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑧 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = [ 𝜌𝑤 + (𝜌𝑤)𝑑𝑧] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧
𝜕
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑧 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = (𝜌𝑤) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.3)
𝜕𝑧

The total net mass flow will be the sum of equations (5.1, 5.2 and 5.3) =
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
[ (𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣) + (𝜌𝑤)] 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

The net of rate of mass increase with time in the control volume is
𝜕𝜌
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.5)
𝜕𝑡

The conversation of mass principle states that The sum of the rate of mass accumulation in the
control volume and The net outflow rate of mass through the control surface equal to zero,
that is equating equations (5.4) and (5.5) :
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + [ (𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣) + (𝜌𝑤)] 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 0 (5.6)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Or eliminating the element volume dxdydz

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
+ (𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣) + (𝜌𝑤) = 0 (5.7)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Or in mathematical vector form as :

𝜕𝜌
⃗ =0
+ ∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑉 (5.8)
𝜕𝑡
Where the gradient operator is
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

The general continuity equation (5.8) in cylindrical polar coordinates is thus

𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
+ (𝑟𝜌𝑢𝑟 ) + (𝜌𝑢𝜃 ) + (𝜌𝑢𝑧 ) = 0 (5.9)
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
Steady and compressible flow
If the flow is compressible but steady, that is ; the 𝜕⁄𝜕𝑡 of any variable is equal to zero.
In Cartesian coordinates
Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 3
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
(𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣) + (𝜌𝑤) = 0 (5.10)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
In cylindrical coordinates
1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
(𝑟𝜌𝑢𝑟 ) + (𝜌𝑢𝜃 ) + (𝜌𝑢𝑧 ) = 0 (5.11)
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

Incompressible flow
If the flow is approximated as incompressible, density is not a function of time or space then
𝜕𝜌⁄𝜕𝑡 ≈ 0 regardless of whether the flow is steady or unsteady, and the density can be
slipped out of the divergence in equation (5.8) and divided out. The result

⃗ =0
∇∙𝑉 (5.12)

is valid for steady or unsteady incompressible flow. The two coordinate forms are
In Cartesian coordinates
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0 (5.13)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

In cylindrical coordinates
1 𝜕 1 𝜕𝑢𝜃 𝜕𝑢𝑧
(𝑟𝑢𝑟 ) + + =0 (5.14)
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

Example 5.1
Under what conditions does the velocity field
⃗ = (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 ) 𝑖̂ + (𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 ) 𝑗̂ + (𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 ) 𝑘̂
𝑉
where a1, b1 … etc. are constants represent an incompressible flow that conserves mass?
To be an incompressible flow must satisfy
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑎1
𝜕𝑣
𝑣 = 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑏2
𝜕𝑤
𝑤 = 𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜕𝑧 = 𝑐3

Then the condition for the flow field to be incompressible is

𝑎1 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐3 = 0

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 4

 Example 5.2

A piston compresses gas in a cylinder by

moving at constant speed V, as in Fig. Let the
gas density and length at t = 0 be ρ0 and L0,
respectively. Let the gas velocity vary linearly
from u = V at the piston face to u = 0 at x = L.
If the gas density varies only with time,
find an expression for ρ(t).

The one-dimensional unsteady continuity equation reduces to

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑢
+ (𝜌𝑢) = + 𝜌 =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
Velocity vary linearly with x then u = Ax + B
At x = 0 u = V and at x = L u = 0 then B = V and A = -V/L then the velocity distribution
is
𝑥 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑉 (1 − 𝐿 ) → = −V/L
𝑑𝑥

Similarly for L linear relation L = L0 – Vt

Then
𝑑𝜌 𝑉 𝑑𝜌 𝑉
=−𝜌 → = − 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝜌 𝐿
Integrating
𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑡𝑉 𝑡 𝑉
∫𝜌 𝜌 = − ∫0 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫0 𝐿0 – Vt
𝑑𝑡
𝑜

ln(𝜌⁄𝜌𝑜 ) = ln(1 − 𝑉𝑡⁄𝐿𝑜 )

Then
𝐿0
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑜 ( 𝐿 )
0 – Vt

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 5

5.2 – Conservation of Linear Momentum ( Euler Equations )
The conservation of momentum states that the time rate of change of momentum of a system
in any direction is equal to the sum of forces acting on that direction . Recall that Newton’s
second law for momentum can be written as a finite system is given by

𝐷
∑𝐹 = ⃗)
(𝑚𝑉 (5.15)
𝐷𝑡

In general, there are different forces may be present in for a fluid in motion, can be categorized
as internal and external forces, we will consider two types of forces: body forces as internal
and the gravitational forces only will be considered. The external surface forces can be of
pressure forces and viscous forces.

∑ 𝐹 = ∑ 𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 + ∑ 𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (5.16)

The Euler's equation of motion represents a special case of a flow field in which the viscous
forces are neglected and only pressure forces will be considered.

Let us consider an elementary parallelopiped of fluid element as a control mass system in a

frame of rectangular cartesian coordinate axes as shown in Fig. ( 5.2 ). The forces acting on a
fluid element are the body forces and the surface forces.

Fig. (5.2) Schematic of pressure forces acting on a fluid element.

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 6

Let Bx, By, Bz be the components of body forces acting per unit mass of the fluid element along
the coordinate axes x, y and z respectively. The surface forces for an inviscid fluid will be the
pressure forces acting on different surfaces as shown in Fig. ( 5.2 ). Therefore, the net forces
acting on the fluid element along x, y and z directions can be written as :
In x – direction :
𝜕𝑃
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌 𝐵𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑃 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 − (𝑃 + 𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑃
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = (𝜌𝐵𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.17a)
𝜕𝑥

In y – direction :
𝜕𝑃
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌 𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 − (𝑃 + 𝑑𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑃
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = (𝜌𝐵𝑦 − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.17b)
𝜕𝑦

In z – direction :
𝜕𝑃
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 𝜌 𝐵𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − (𝑃 + 𝑑𝑧 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑃
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = (𝜌𝐵𝑧 − ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.17c)
𝜕𝑧

Since each component of the force can be expressed as the rate of change of momentum in the
respective directions, we have in x – direction :
𝜕𝑃 𝐷
(𝜌𝐵𝑥 − 𝜕𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = (𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑢) (5.18)
𝐷𝑡

the mass of a fluid element does not change with time, 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 is constant with time and can
be taken common. Therefore substituting in Newton's seconds law equation ( 5.15 ), we get
𝐷𝑢 1 𝜕𝑃
= 𝐵𝑥 − (5.19a)
𝐷𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑥

And in y and z directions

𝐷𝑣 1 𝜕𝑃
= 𝐵𝑦 − (5.19b)
𝐷𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑦

𝐷𝑤 1 𝜕𝑃
= 𝐵𝑧 − (5.19c)
𝐷𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑧

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 7

Expanding the material accelerations in Eqs (5.19a) to (5.19c) in terms of their respective
temporal and convective components, we get

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑃
+𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝐵𝑥 − (5.20a)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑃
+𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝐵𝑦 − (5.20b)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑃
+𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝐵𝑧 − (5.20c)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑧

Notes
The equations (5.20a, 5.20b, 5.20c) are valid for both incompressible and compressible flow.
By putting u = v = w = 0, as a special case, one can obtain the equation of hydrostatics .
Equations (5.20a, 5.20b and 5.20c) can be put into a single vector form as :
⃗
𝐷𝑉
⃗ −1∇
=𝐵 ⃗𝑃 (5.21)
𝐷𝑡 𝜌

Or
⃗
𝜕𝑉
⃗ . ∇) 𝑉
+ (𝑉 ⃗ −1∇
⃗ =𝐵 ⃗𝑃 (5.22)
𝜕𝑡 𝜌

Where
⃗ = 𝑢 𝑖̂ + 𝑣 𝑗̂ + 𝑢 𝑘̂
𝑉
⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐵
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗=
∇ 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + ̂
𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Euler's Equation in Cylindrical Polar Coordinate System are

In r direction
2
𝐷𝑢𝑟 𝑢𝜃 1 𝜕𝑃
− = 𝐵𝑟 − 𝜌 𝜕𝑟 (5.23a)
𝐷𝑡 𝑟

In θ direction

𝐷𝑢𝜃 𝑢𝑟 𝑢𝜃 1 𝜕𝑃
− = 𝐵𝜃 − 𝜌𝑟 𝜕𝜃 (5.23b)
𝐷𝑡 𝑟

In z direction
𝐷𝑢𝑧 1 𝜕𝑃
= 𝐵𝑧 − 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 (5.23c)
𝐷𝑡

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 8

 Example 5.3

Consider the steady, two-dimensional, incompressible velocity field.

⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ − 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂
𝑉
where A are constant. Evaluate the pressure for a fricitionless flow and the gravitational
force acting on negative z direction.

5.3 – Euler Equations along Streamline

Euler’s equation along a streamline is derived by applying Newton’s second law of motion to a
fluid element moving along a streamline. Considering gravity as the only body force component
acting vertically downward Fig. (5.3), the net external force acting on the fluid element along the
directions can be written as
𝜕𝑃
∑ 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑃 ∆𝐴 − (𝑃 + ∆𝑠 ) ∆𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔 ∆𝑠∆𝐴 cos 𝛼
𝜕𝑠

𝜕𝑃
∑ 𝐹𝑠 = − ∆𝑠∆𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔 ∆𝑠∆𝐴 cos 𝛼 (5.24)
𝜕𝑠

where ∆A is the cross-sectional area of the fluid element. By the application of Newton’s second
law of motion in s direction, we get
𝐷
∑ 𝐹 = 𝑑𝑚 ⃗ ) = 𝑑𝑚 𝑎𝑠
(𝑉
𝐷𝑡

𝜕𝑃 ⃗
𝐷𝑉
− ∆𝑠∆𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔 ∆𝑠∆𝐴 cos 𝛼 = 𝜌 ∆𝑠∆𝐴 (5.25)
𝜕𝑠 𝐷𝑡

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 9

 Fig. (5.3) Fluid particle moving along a streamline

From geometry we get

∆𝑧 𝑑𝑧
cos 𝛼 = lim =
∆𝑠→0 ∆𝑠 𝑑𝑠

Then equation ( 5.25 ) can be rewritten as

𝜕𝑃 𝑑𝑧 ⃗
𝐷𝑉
− − 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜌 (5.26)
𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝐷𝑡

Along any streamline V =V(s,t) , and the material or total acceleration of a fluid particle in the
streamwise direction is given by
⃗
𝐷𝑉 𝜕𝑉⃗ 𝜕𝑉⃗
𝐷𝑡
= 𝜕𝑡 + 𝑉⃗ 𝜕𝑠
(5.27)

Euler’s equation in the streamwise direction with the z axis directed vertically upward is then
𝜕𝑃 𝑑𝑧 ⃗
𝜕𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉
− − 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜌( ⃗
+𝑉 ) (5.28)
𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠

Then the Euler equation along stream line is

⃗
𝜕𝑉 𝜕⃗𝑉 1 𝜕𝑃 𝑑𝑧
+ ⃗𝑉 =− −𝑔
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝜌 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑠

This is the more popular form of Euler's equation because the velocity vector in a flow field is
always directed along the streamline.

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 10

5.4 – Bernoulli Equation along Streamline
For steady flow, then the velocity and pressure will be function of space only then Euler's
equation reduces to
⃗
⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = − 1 𝑑𝑃 − 𝑔 𝑑𝑧
𝑉 (5.29)
𝑑𝑠 𝜌 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Thus, after multiplying Eq. ( 5.9 ) by ds, and rearranging, we can write
𝑑𝑃
+ 𝑔𝑑𝑧 + 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 0 (5.30)
𝜌

Integration of this equation gives

𝑑𝑃 𝑉2
∫ + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (5.31)
𝜌 2

Before Eq. 5.31 can be applied, we must specify the relation between pressure and density. For
the special case of incompressible flow, ρ=constant, and Eq. 5.31 becomes the Bernoulli
equation,
𝑃 𝑉2
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (5.32)
𝜌 2

Restrictions: Steady flow, Incompressible flow. Inviscid flow and flow along a streamline.

The Bernoulli equation is probably the most famous, and abused, equation in all of fluid
mechanics. An alternate but equivalent form of the Bernoulli equation is
𝑃 𝑉2
+ + 𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (5.33)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

along a streamline.
𝑃
Pressure head: 𝜌𝑔

𝑉2
Velocity head:
2𝑔

Elevation head: z
The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the pressure head, the velocity head, and the
elevation head is constant along a streamline.

Also, it can be written in a pressure form

1
𝑃+ 𝜌𝑉 2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (5.34)
2
along a streamline.
Static pressure head: 𝑃
1
Dynamic pressure :2 𝜌𝑉 2

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 11

Hydrostatic pressure: 𝜌𝑔𝑧
1
Stagnation pressure: 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑉 2
2

(assuming elevation effects are negligible) where

P and V are the pressure and velocity of the fluid upstream of stagnation point. At stagnation
point, fluid velocity V becomes zero and all of the kinetic energy converts into a pressure rize.

Example 5.4

A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled with

water to a height of 5 m from the outlet tap. A tap
near the bottom of the tank is now opened, and
water flows out from the smooth and rounded
outlet. Determine the water velocity at the outlet.
This problem involves the conversion of flow,
kinetic and potential energies to each other
without involving any pumps, turbines and
components with large frictional losses, and thus it
is suitable for the use of the Bernoulli equation.
This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic and potential energies to each other
without involving any pumps, turbines and components with large frictional losses, and thus it
is suitable for the use of the Bernoulli equation.
𝑃1 1 2 𝑃2 1 2
+ 𝑉1 + 𝑍1 = + 𝑉 + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2

Substituting in
1 2
0 + 0 + 𝑍1 = 0 + 𝑉 +0
2𝑔 2
Therefore the velocity at the exist
𝑉22 = 2𝑔 𝑍1

Then
𝑉2 = √2𝑔 𝑍1 = √2 × 9.81 × 5 = 9.9 𝑚/𝑠

The velocity can be written as

𝑉 = √2𝑔 ℎ
The relation is called the Toricelli Equation.

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 12

 Example 5.5

A light plane flies at 150 km/hr in standard air at an altitude of 1000 m determine the
stagnation pressure at the leading edge of the wing. At a certain point close to the wing, the
air speed relative to the wing is 60 m/s. Compute the pressure at this point

Flow is unsteady when is observed from a fixed frame that is the observer on the earth, but
from the observer on the wing the flow is steady
At Z = 1000m, in standard air ( the properties can be determined using relations at section
2.6 (example 2.2) the temperature is 281 K, and the speed of sound 336 m/s, the pressure
and density will be P = 8.96 x 104 Pa and 1.12 kg/m3 respectively
hence at point B the Mach number is
𝑉𝐵 60
𝑀𝑎𝐵 = = = 0.178 The Ma less than 0.3 the flow is incompressible
𝑐 336
The Bernoulli equation is applied for steady, incompressible, frictionless along streamline is
𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 1 2 𝑃𝐴 1 2 𝑃𝐵 1 2
+ 𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑍𝑎𝑖𝑟 = + 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑍𝐴 = + 𝑉 + 𝑍𝐵
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝐵

Since point A is stagnation point VA = 0 then

1 2 1.12
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 8.96 × 104 + × (150000⁄3600)2 = 90.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎
2 2

The pressure at point B can be calculated

1 2
1.12
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝜌(𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑉𝐵2 ) = 8.96 × 104 + [(150000⁄3600)2 − 602 ] = 88.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎
2 2

5.5 – Applications of Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation can be applied between any two points on a streamline provided that the
other three restrictions are satisfied. The result is
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑍1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑍2 (5.35)
2 2

There are many practical applications of Bernoulli’s equation. We shall consider the applications
for flow measurements in pipes. Various flow meters are governed by the Bernoulli and

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 13

continuity equations. Three commonly used types of flow meters are illustrated: the orifice
meter, the nozzle meter, and the Venturi meter as shown in Fig. (5.4).

The operation of each is based on the same physical principles that is an increase in velocity
causes a decrease in pressure.

We assume the flow is horizontal z1 = z2, steady, inviscid, and incompressible between points
(1) and (2). The Bernoulli equation becomes:
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉22 (5.36)
2 2

Fig. (5.4) Flow measuring instruments

Equation of Continuity :
𝐴
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 → 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 (5.37)
1

Substituting in the Bernoulli’s equation :

1 𝐴 2 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌 (𝐴2 ) 𝑉22 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉22 (5.38)
2 1 2

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 14

 2(𝑃1 −𝑃2 ) 2(𝑃1 −𝑃2 )
𝑉22 = 𝐴 2
𝑉22 = 𝑑 4 (5.39)
𝜌(1−( 2 ) ) 𝜌(1−( 2 ) )
𝐴1 𝑑1

then V2
1 2(𝑃 −𝑃 )
2
𝑉2 = √ 𝑑2 4
(5.40)
𝜌(1−( ) )
𝑑1

And the flow rate is

1 2(𝑃 −𝑃 )
2
𝑄 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 = 𝐴2 √ 𝑑2 4
(5.41)
𝜌(1−( ) )
𝑑1

The flow calculated is an ideal flow rate, it can be modified to a real flow rate by introducing the
discharge coefficient Cd which take into consideration the friction and losses and defined as
the ratio between the ideal and real flow rates and it calculated experimentally, then Eq. 5.41
can be written to real fluids as

2(𝑃 −𝑃 )
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑉2 𝐴2 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 √ 1 2
𝑑2 4
(5.42)
𝜌(1−( ) )
𝑑1

Example 5.6

A Venturi meter equipped with a differential pressure gage is used to measure the flow rate
of water at 15°C (ρ = 999.1 kg/m3) through a 5-cm-diameter horizontal pipe. The diameter of
the Venturi neck is 3 cm, and the measured pressure drop is 5 kPa. Taking the discharge
coefficient to be 0.98, determine the volume flow rate of water and the average velocity
through the pipe.

Using the relation 6.26

2(𝑃 −𝑃 )
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑉𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑡 √ 1 2
𝑑 4
𝜌(1−( 𝑡 ) )
𝑑1

𝐴𝑡 = 𝜋 𝑑𝑡2 ⁄4 = 𝜋 0.032 ⁄4 = 7.069 × 10−4 𝑚2

2(5×103 )
𝑄 = 0.98 × 7.069 × 10−4 √ 3 4
=
999.1(1−( ) )
5

0.00235 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
The average velocity will be Q/A1 = 1.2 m/s

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 15

5.6 – Conservation of Linear Momentum ( Naiver – Stokes
equations )
To derive the differential form of the momentum equation, we shall apply Newton’s second law
to an infinitesimal fluid particle of mass dm. Recall that Newton’s second law for a finite system
is given by
𝐷
∑𝐹 = ⃗)
(𝑚𝑉 (5.15)
𝐷𝑡

Let us consider an elementary cubical of fluid element as a control mass system in a frame of
rectangular Cartesian coordinate axes. The forces acting on a fluid element are the body forces
and the surface forces. Having obtained an expression for the acceleration of a fluid element of
mass dm = ρ dx dy dz, moving in a velocity field, for incompressible flow: we can write Newton’s
second law as the vector equation,

⃗
𝐷𝑉
∑𝐹 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.43)
𝐷𝑡

There are types of forces: body forces and surface forces.

∑ 𝐹 = ∑ 𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 + ∑ 𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (5.44)

Where the body forces per unit mass are are

,
⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂
∑ 𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝐵 (5.45)

The surface forces are due to the stresses on the sides of the control surface. Can be written as
In x direction as shown in Fig. ( 5.5 )

𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑥

∑ 𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟.𝑥 = 𝑑𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟.𝑥 = ( + + ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.46a)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Similarly in y and z directions

𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑦
∑ 𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟.𝑦 = 𝑑𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟.𝑥 = ( + + ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.47b)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑧

∑ 𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟.𝑧 = 𝑑𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟.𝑥 = ( + + ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (5.48c)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 16

 Fig. ( 5.5 ) Elemental cartesian fixed control volume showing the surface forces in the x
direction only.

For Newtonian fluid the shear stress is proportional to the rate of strain, and for continuous
incompressible flow where the continuity equation is satisfied then :
∂u 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0 (5.13)
∂x 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Considering Stokes' viscosity law: shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain so that, the
stress tensor can be given by Stock's law of viscosity for shear and normal stresses, assuming
rotational equilibrium
𝜎𝑥𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 (5.49)

then for normal stresses :

𝜕𝑢
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇 𝜀̇𝑥𝑥 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇 (5.50a)
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑣
𝜎𝑦𝑦 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇 𝜀̇𝑦𝑦 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇 (5.50b)
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑤
𝜎𝑧𝑧 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇 𝜀̇𝑧𝑧 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇 (5.50c)
𝜕𝑧

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 17

then for tangential or shear stresses :
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜎𝑥𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 = 𝜇 𝜀̇𝑥𝑦 = 𝜇 ( + ) (5.51a)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜎𝑥𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧𝑥 = 𝜇 𝜀̇𝑥𝑧 = 𝜇 ( + ) (5.51b)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
𝜎𝑧𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦𝑧 = 𝜇 𝜀̇𝑧𝑦 = 𝜇 ( + ) (5.51c)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Substituting the forces in each direction, and using the martial derivative for the acceleration
and dividing by element volume dx dy dz, we get

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑥

𝜌( +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ) = 𝜌𝐵𝑥 + ( + + ) (5.52a)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑦

𝜌( +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ) = 𝜌 𝐵𝑦 + ( + + ) (5.52b)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑧𝑧

𝜌 ( +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ) = 𝜌𝐵𝑧 + ( + + ) (5.52c)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Then substituting the Stocks law of viscosity relations ( 5.50 And 5. 51 ) in the momentum
equations and continuity equation we get
In x direction
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜌( +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑃 𝜕 ∂u 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
= 𝜌𝐵𝑥 − + 𝜇 [2 ( ) + ( + )+ ( + )]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 ∂x 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝜌( +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ) = 𝜌𝐵𝑥 − 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜇 [𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

0
𝜕 ⏞∂u 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
( + + )]
𝜕𝑥 ∂x 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Then
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝜌( +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ) = 𝜌𝐵𝑥 − 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜇 [𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 ] (5.53a)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 18

Similarly in y and z direction

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣
𝜌( +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ) = 𝜌𝐵𝑦 − 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜇 [𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 ] (5.53b)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑤 𝜕2 𝑤 𝜕2 𝑤
𝜌( +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ) = 𝜌𝐵𝑧 − 𝜕𝑧 + 𝜇 [ 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + ] (5.53c)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2

Finally, we combine the three components into one vector equation; the result is the Navier–
Stokes equation for incompressible flow with constant viscosity.
⃗
𝐷𝑉
𝜌 ⃗ 𝑃 − 𝜌𝐵
= −∇ ⃗ + 𝜇 ∇2 𝑉
⃗ (5.54)
𝐷𝑡

Considering the body force only, the gravitational force and acting in negative y direction, then
the Navier–Stokes equation for incompressible flow with constant viscosity.

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
+𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− +𝜇 [ 2
+ 2
+ ] (5.55a)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣
+𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = −𝑔 − +𝜗 [ 2
+ 2
+ ] (5.55b)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑤 𝜕2 𝑤 𝜕2 𝑤
+𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− +𝜇 [ + + ] (5.55c)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

For a Newtonian incompressible fluid in cylindrical coordinates

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 19

 Example 5.7
Consider the steady, two-dimensional, incompressible velocity field.
⃗ = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑖̂ + (−𝑎𝑦 + 𝑐𝑥 ) 𝑗̂
𝑉
where a, b and c are constants. Calculate the pressure as a function of x and y
First we check whether the given velocity field satisfies the two dimensional, incompressible
continuity equation:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =𝑎−𝑎 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Thus, continuity is indeed satisfied by the given velocity field. If continuity were not
satisfied, we would stop our analysis—the given velocity field would not be physically
possible, and we could not calculate a pressure field.
Next, we consider the y-component of the Navier–Stokes equation for the flow neglecting
the gravity force :
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣
𝜌 (𝑢 +𝑣 ) = − 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜇 [𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 2𝑣 𝜕 2𝑣
𝑢 = 𝑎𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐𝑏 . 𝑣 = 𝑎2 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑐𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑃
Then = − 𝜌(𝑐𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑦)
𝜕𝑦

Integrating with respect to y to get the pressure field

𝑦2
𝑃(𝑥. 𝑦) = − 𝜌 (𝑐𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎2 ) + 𝑓(𝑥)
2

𝜕𝑃
Differentiate with respect to x gives = 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝜕𝑥

To find the function we consider the x-momentum equation

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝜌 (𝑢 𝜕𝑥
+𝑣 𝜕𝑦
) = − 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜇 [𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 ]

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑎(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) . 𝑣 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕𝑃
Then = − 𝜌(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑥)
𝜕𝑥
Comparing the pressures in x direction we get
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − 𝜌(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑥)

𝑥2
Integrating to get f(x) gives 𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝜌 (𝑎𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎2 )+𝐾
2
Where K is arbitrary constant
Then the pressure field is given by

𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑃(𝑥. 𝑦) = − 𝜌 (𝑎𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 )+𝐾
2 2

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 20

5.7 – Simple Exact Solutions of N-S Equations
Inviscid flows do not satisfy the no-slip condition. To look at fully viscous no-slip conditions, we
must solve the complete Navier-Stokes equation. We look here at three cases:
(1) flow between parallel plates due to a moving upper wall,
(2) flow between parallel plates due to pressure gradient, and
(3) Fully developed laminar pipe flow.

5.7.1 – Couette flow

Consider two-dimensional incompressible plane viscous flow between parallel plates a distance
2h apart, as shown in Fig. (5.5). We assume that the plates are very wide and very long, so that
the flow is essentially one dimensional axial flow axial, that is , 𝑢 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 0
The present case is shown in Fig. (5.5), where the upper plate moves at velocity V but there
is no pressure gradient. Neglect gravity effects.

Fig. (5.6) Coutte Flow

the continuity equation will be

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
+ = +0=0 (5.56)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Then 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑦)
Thus there is a single nonzero axial velocity component that varies only across the channel. The
flow is said to be fully developed (far downstream of the entrance). Substitute into the x
component of the Navier-Stokes momentum equation
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝜌 (𝑢 +𝑣 ) = − 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜇 [𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 ] (5.57)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

The equation reduced to

𝜕2 𝑢
𝜌(0 + 0) = 0 + 𝜇 [0 + ]
𝜕𝑦 2

Then
𝑑2𝑢
=0 (5.58)
𝑑𝑦 2

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 21

Integrating twice we can get the velocity profile
𝑢(𝑦) = 𝐶1 𝑦 + 𝐶2 (5.59)

The two constants are found by applying the no-slip condition at the upper and lower plates:
𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = ℎ 𝑢=𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = −ℎ 𝑢=0 (5.60)

Substituting in the velocity distribution we get

𝑉 = 𝐶1 ℎ + 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 = −𝐶1 ℎ + 𝐶2 (5.61)

Solving equations (5.61), we get the constants

𝑉 𝑉
𝐶1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 = (5.62)
2ℎ 2

Substituting the constants in (5.59), the velocity profile will be

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑦
𝑢(𝑦) = 𝑦+ = (ℎ + 1) (5.63)
2ℎ 2 2
This is Couette flow due to a moving wall: a linear velocity profile with no slip at each wall

5.7.2 – Poiseuille flow

Consider two-dimensional incompressible plane viscous flow between parallel plates a distance
2h apart, as shown in Fig. (5.6). We assume that the plates are very wide and very long, so that
the flow is essentially one dimensional axial flow axial, that is , 𝑢 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 0
Then 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑦)

The x-momentum equation changes only because the pressure is variable:

𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑢
=𝜇 (5.64)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2

the y- momentum equations lead to

𝜕𝑃
=0 (5.65)
𝜕𝑦

Then the pressure P = f(x) only.

Then the momentum equation rewritten as

𝑑2𝑢 1 𝑑𝑃
= (5.66)
𝑑𝑦 2 𝜇 𝑑𝑥

Integrating twice we can get the velocity profile

1 𝑑𝑃
𝑢(𝑦) = 𝑦 2 + 𝐶1 𝑦 + 𝐶2 (5.67)
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 22

 Fig. (5.6) Flow between two fixed parallel plates

The constants can be found from the no‐slip boundary condition at the walls:
𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = ∓ℎ 𝑢=0 (5.68)

Substituting we get the constants

ℎ2 𝑑𝑃
0= + 𝐶1 ℎ + 𝐶2 (5.69)
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥
ℎ2 𝑑𝑃
0= − 𝐶1 ℎ + 𝐶2 (5.70)
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥

Then
ℎ2 𝑑𝑃
𝐶1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 = − (5.71)
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥

The velocity profile will be

1 𝑑𝑃
𝑢(𝑦) = (𝑦 2 − ℎ2 ) (5.72)
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥

The flow forms a Poiseuille parabola of constant negative curvature. The maximum velocity
occurs at the centerline y = 0.
−ℎ2 𝑑𝑃
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (5.73)
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥

5.7.3 – Fully developed laminar pipe flow

This is one of the most useful exact solutions to the Navier‐Stokes equation: fully‐developed
incompressible flow in straight circular pipe of radius R.
Fully‐developed flow: refers to the flow in a region far enough from the entrance that the flow is
purely axial. As a result, the velocity distribution in the tube is fixed (not changing along the
tube). Neglecting gravity effects and assuming axial symmetry, i.e.,
𝜕
=0 . 𝑢𝜃 = 𝑢𝑟 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑟)
𝜕𝜃

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 23

It means that the flow proceeds straight down the pipe without radial motion. The r‐momentum
equation in cylindrical coordinates simplifies to
𝜕𝑃
=0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 𝑓(𝑧) (5.74)
𝜕𝑟

The z‐momentum equation in cylindrical coordinates, reduces to:

𝜇 𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑧 𝑑𝑃 𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑧 𝑟 𝑑𝑃
𝑟 𝑑𝑟
(𝑟 𝑑𝑟
)= 𝑑𝑧
→
𝑑𝑟
(𝑟 𝑑𝑟
)=𝜇 𝑑𝑧
(5.75)

This equation is linear and can be integrated twice:

𝑟 2 𝑑𝑃
𝑢𝑧 (𝑟) = + 𝐶1 ln 𝑟 + 𝐶2 (5.76)
4𝜇 𝑑𝑧

Applying, the no‐slip boundary condition at the wall and finite velocity at the centerline, gives
us:
𝑅 2 𝑑𝑃
𝐶2 = − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶1 =0 (5.77)
4𝜇 𝑑𝑧

The final solution for fully‐developed Hagen‐Poiseuille flow is:

1 𝑑𝑃
𝑢𝑧 (𝑟) = − (𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 ) (5.78)
4𝜇 𝑑𝑧

The velocity profile is a paraboloid with a maximum at the centerline

−𝑅 2 𝑑𝑃
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (5.79)
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥

Thus, from Eqs. (5.78) and (5.79), the velocity can also be expressed of the maximum point
velocity as
𝑟2
𝑢𝑧 (𝑟) = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 − 2) (5.80)
𝑅

The volumetric rate of flow Q through any cross section of radius R is obtained by
𝑄 = ∫𝐴 𝑢 𝑑𝐴 (5.81)

𝑅 1 𝑑𝑃 𝜋𝑅 4 𝑑𝑃
𝑄 = − ∫0 (𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = − (5.82)
4𝜇 𝑑𝑧 8𝜇 𝑑𝑧

The average velocity can be calculated by

𝑄 𝑄 𝑅 2 𝑑𝑃
𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = − (5.83)
𝐴 𝜋𝑅 2 8𝜇 𝑑𝑧

Calculating the pressure drop

2 8𝜇 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿
− ∫1 𝑑𝑃 = ∫0 𝑑𝑧 (5.84)
𝑅2

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 24

 8𝜇𝐿 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒 32𝜇 𝐿 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = ∆𝑃 = = (5.85)
𝑅2 𝐷2

Which can be rearranging by introducing the Reynolds number which is defined by

𝜌 𝐷 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = (5.86)
𝜇
Then
32𝜇𝐿 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝜌 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒 64 𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒 2
∆𝑃 = = (5.87)
𝐷2 𝜌 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝐷 2

Where the friction factor introduced and defined for laminar flow as
64
𝑓= (5.88)
𝑅𝑒𝐷

Then the pressure drop is

𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒 2
∆𝑃 = 𝑓 (5.89)
𝐷 2
In the analysis of piping systems, pressure losses are commonly expressed in terms of the
equivalent fluid column height, called the head loss hL.
∆𝑃 𝐿 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒 2
ℎ𝐿 = = 𝑓 (5.90)
𝜌𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔
The head loss hL represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be raised by a pump in
order to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe.
Once the pressure loss (or head loss) is known, the required pumping power to overcome the
pressure loss is determined from
𝑊̇ = 𝑄 ∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄ℎ𝐿 (5.91)

Example 5.8

SAE 10 oil at 20°C flows between parallel

plates 8 mm apart, as in Fig. A mercury
manometer, with wall pressure taps 1 m
apart, registers a 6-cm height, as shown.
Estimate the flow rate of oil for this
condition.
Both plates are stationary, it is a Poiseuille
flow
The average velocity can be determined using velocity profile Eq. 5.45 and 5.46
2 ℎ2 𝑑𝑃
𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = h = 4 mm
3 3𝜇 𝑑𝑥

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 25

 For SAE 10W oil, take ρ = 870 kg/m3 and µ = 0.104 kg/m s. The manometer reads

for ∆x = L = 1m

The flow rate per unit width is

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 26

 Exercise (5)
1. Explain the meaning of the inviscid and incompressible flow?
2. Deduce Euler equations from the Naiver Stokes equations?
3. Integrate the Euler equation to produce the Bernoulli equation?
4. Express the Bernoulli equation using (a) energies, (b) pressures, and (c) heads.
5. Write down the Bernoulli equation, explain the significance of each term, and state the
assumptions made in its derivation. How to modify this equation to account for frictional
losses?
6. What is stagnation pressure? Explain how it can be measured.
7. Define pressure head, velocity head, and elevation head for a fluid stream and express
them for a fluid stream whose pressure is P, velocity is V, and elevation is z.
8. The expression 𝑉 ⃗ = 10𝑥 𝑖̂ + 10𝑦 𝑗̂ is said to represent the velocity for a two-
dimensional (planar) incompressible flow. Check to see if the continuity equation is
satisfied.
9. Does the velocity field given by :
1 1
𝑢𝑟 = 4 (1 − 2 ) cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝜃 = −4 (1 + 2 ) sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
represents a possible flow?
10. The u velocity component of a steady, two-dimensional, incompressible flow field is u =
ax + by, where a and b are constants. Velocity component v is unknown. Generate an
expression for v as a function of x and y.
11. Consider the following steady, three-dimensional velocity field in Cartesian coordinates:
⃗ = (𝑎𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑏) 𝑖̂ + 𝑐𝑦 3 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑥𝑦 𝑘̂
𝑉
where a, b, c, and d are constants. Under what conditions is this flow field
incompressible?
12. Two velocity components of a steady, incompressible flow field are known:
𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑥𝑧 − 𝑎𝑦𝑧 2
where a, b, and c are constants. Velocity component w is missing. Generate an expression
for w as a function of x, y, and z.
13. Consider a one-dimensional radial flow in the rθ plane, given by ur =f ( r ) and uθ = 0.
Determine the conditions on f ( r ) required for the flow to be incompressible.

14. Consider the steady, two-dimensional, incompressible velocity field, V

where a, b, and c are constants. Calculate the pressure as a function of x and y.

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 27

 15. Write the simplified equations needed to find the steady-state velocity and pressure
distributions between the two plates. Neglect any z variation of the distributions and
any gravity effects. Do not neglect v(x, y)

16. A pipe 50m long and 10cm in diameter connects two large tanks. The fluid surface in one tank
is 1 metre higher then the surface of fluid in another one. The fluid flows freely between the
tanks under the action of gravity with the mean velocity 1m/s. Neglecting all losses except
friction in the pipe calculate the friction coefficient.

17. In fully-developed flow of a liquid of relative density 0.8 in a horizontal pipe of diameter
4mm, the head loss over a 40mm length of the pipe is measured and found to be 120mm,
when the mass flow rate is 1.5 x 10-2 kg/s. Determine the dynamic and kinematic
viscosities of the liquid.
18. Oil of specific density 0.9 and kinematic viscosity 0:00033m2=s is pumped over a distance
of 1.5 km through a 75mm diameter tube at a rate of 25 x 103 kg/h.
i. Calculate the required pumping power assuming 70% pump efficiency
ii. Calculate the shear stress at the tube walls
19. Consider steady, incompressible, laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid in the narrow gap
between two infinite parallel plates. The top plate is moving at speed V, and the bottom
plate is stationary. The distance between these two plates is h, and gravity acts in the
negative z-direction (into the page). There is no applied pressure other than hydrostatic
pressure due to gravity. Calculate the velocity and pressure fields, and estimate the shear
force per unit area acting on the bottom plate.

20. A wide moving belt passes through a container of a viscous liquid. The belt moves
vertically upward with a constant velocity Vo as illustrated in the figure. Because of viscous
forces the belt picks up a film of fluid of thickness h. Gravity tends to make the fluid drain
down the belt. Assume that the flow is laminar, steady, and fully developed. Use the

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 28

 Navier- Stokes equations to determine an expression for the average velocity of the fluid
film as it is dragged up the belt.

21. An incompressible frictionless flow field is given by

where A=2 s−1 and B=2 s−1, and the coordinates are measured in meters. Find the
magnitude and direction of the acceleration of a fluid particle at point (x,y)=(2,2). Find
the pressure gradient at the same point, if g = −g j and the fluid is water.

22. A velocity field in a fluid with density of 1000 kg=m3 is given by

where A=2 s−2 and B=1 s−2, x and y are in meters, and t is in seconds. Body forces are
negligible. Evaluate ∇p at point (x,y)=(1,1) at t =1 s.
23. Air flows steadily at low speed through a horizontal nozzle, discharging to atmosphere.
The area at the nozzle inlet is 0.1m2. At the nozzle exit, the area is 0.02 m2. Determine
the gage pressure required at the nozzle inlet to produce an outlet speed of 50 m/s.

24. A vertical Venturi meter carries water and has inlet and throat diameters of 150 mm and
75 mm respectively. The pressure connection at the throat is 150 mm above that at the
inlet.
 Can you apply the Bernoulli equation to this flow? Justify your answer. How do you
account for frictional losses in the real Venturi meter?
 If the actual rate of flow is 40 liters/s and the coefficient of discharge is 0.97 calculate
the pressure difference between inlet and throat.

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 29

 25. A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal water pipe, as shown in the
figure to measure static and stagnation (static and dynamic) pressures. For the indicated
water column heights, determine the velocity at the centre of the pipe.

26. A siphon is used to move water from one tank to another. If the siphon pipe has a
diameter of 20mm, estimate the discharge rate if the outlet of the pipe is 750mm below
the water surface in the higher tank.
27. Water flows at a rate of 0.05 m3/s downward in a vertical pipe, of diameter 0.15m,
through a gradual contraction, and thence into a vertical pipe, of diameter 0.1m. Stating
all your assumptions, calculate the difference of static heads between 2 points 0.6m
apart, one above and the other below the contraction section.
28. A Pitot-static tube is place in an air ow (ρ = 1:3kg/m3). A connected manometer shows
pressure difference 20mm of water. What's is velocity of the flow?

Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Elhassen Ammr 30