EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
Introduction
Irrigation scheduling means the planning of timing and depth of future irrigations. The primary
objective is to apply irrigation water at the right period and in the right amount. If water deliveries are
untimely or not in the appropriate amount, irrigation efficiency decreases. Limited supply results in
yield reduction due to water stress. Too much water may not only result in deep percolation losses,
which may leach relevant nutrients out of the rooting zone but might decrease the yield as well.
Starting with a soil at field capacity, water is extracted by the crop at a rate equal to 𝐸𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝 . As the
water uptake progresses the readily available moisture is depleted and actual crop evapotranspiration
𝐸𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑡 starts to fall below the optimal level of 𝐸𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝 . At this point one should irrigate and refill the root
zone profile up to field capacity.
This gives the irrigation interval and amount of water to apply. Any delay results in restricted water
supply situation (𝐸𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑡 < 𝐸𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝 ) and increasing water stress, until at permanent wilting point the
crop will no longer recover resulting in total crop failure.

Definitions
Root zone depletion
Root zone depletion expresses the shortage of water in the root zone with respect to its maximum
water holding capacity i.e. the field capacity. Any surplus of water will be lost through deep
percolation. At field capacity the root zone depletion is 0 mm.
Maximum depletion
The maximum allowable root zone depletion is the maximum amount of water that a crop can extract
from the soil without suffering water stress, i.e. the readily available soil moisture (RAM). If the root
zone depletion is larger than RAM, the evapotranspiration drops below its potential level (𝐸𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑡 <
𝐸𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝 ) and water stress occurs.
Water application depth (𝑫𝑨 )
The practice in on-farm irrigation is to express the amount of irrigation water applied in equivalent
water depth (mm water). The depth is called the water application depth and denoted here as 𝐷𝐴 .
Soil water holding characteristics determines how much water can be applied. If the actual soil
moisture content at time 𝑖 is equal to 𝜃𝑖 , then the maximum water application depth is equal to the
root zone depletion. Indeed, irrigation should at maximum replenish soil moisture up to field capacity,
as surplus water will be lost through deep percolation below the root zone. For rooting depth Z:
DA = 10(θFC − θi )Z [mm]
where θFC and θi represent average values over the rooting depth (Z) of respectively the moisture content
(vol%) at field capacity and the actual moisture content (vol%).
For soil moisture content at time 𝑖 equal to maximum depletion level, i.e. RAM, the net and gross
application depths are respectively:
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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

𝑅𝐴𝑀 𝑝 × 𝑍 × 𝑆𝑎
𝐷𝐴,𝑛 = 𝑅𝐴𝑀 = 𝑝 × 𝑍 × 𝑆𝑎 (𝑛𝑒𝑡) 𝐷𝐴,𝑔 = = (𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠)
𝐸𝑎 𝐸𝑎
Where:
DA,n = the net application deoth (mm)
DA,g = the gross application depth (mm)
p = depletion factor (−)
Z = depth of root zone (m)
Sa = total available soil moisture (mm water⁄m soil depth )
Ea = irrigation application efficiency.
The subscript “a” indicates field level, but could also be taken at block level or even
scheme or project level
Application depths are normally adapted to the irrigation method. Indicative values for different irrigation
methods are given in the Table below
Table: Typical application depths for different irrigation methods
Irrigation method Application depth
Surface irrigation:
Basin irrigation 50 - 150 mm
Furrow irrigation 30 - 60 mm
Border strip irrigation 40 - 80 mm
Sprinkler irrigation 30 - 80 mm
Drip irrigation 10 - 30 mm

Water Application duration (WAD)

For the scheme management the application depth is useful, but what is of more interest to them is
the time required to create this particular application depth i.e. the water application duration
(WAD). Normally the application duration will be given per hectare per crop, but in the irrigation
schedule this will be finally be converted to the duration per field and/or farm and/or block. The
application duration is basically expressed in seconds [sec] but may ultimately be expressed in minutes
or in hours or in combination of both.
For a water application depth of 𝐷𝐴 𝑚𝑚 i.e. 10𝐷𝐴 𝑚3 ⁄ℎ𝑎 or 10,000 𝐷𝐴 𝑙 ⁄ℎ𝑎, an area of 𝐴𝑢 ℎ𝑎 and a
discharge (flow) of 𝑞𝑢 , 𝑙⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 , the volume of water (𝑉) to be supplied and the water application
duration (WAD) are respectively:
10000 𝐷𝐴 𝐴𝑢
𝑉 = 10 𝐷𝐴 𝐴𝑢 [𝑚3 ]; 𝑊𝐴𝐷 = [𝑠𝑒𝑐]
𝑞𝑢

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Unit flow (𝒒𝒖 )

The factor relating application duration and application depth is the unit flow (𝑞𝑢 ) i.e. the flow received
at the inlet of the unit, whether this is a field, a farm or a block of fields, having the same crops. Unit
flow is expressed in liters per second [l/sec].
Water application time (𝒕𝒊 ) and Irrigation interval (INT)
The scheme management will be interested to know when to irrigate (𝑡𝑖 ). The water application timing
depends on the choice one makes; water application can be related directly to soil moisture content,
which results in different intervals; but very often water application is done at fixed intervals and soil
moisture content will then vary.
The time between successive water applications is called the irrigation interval (INT) and is measured
from the start of one water application to the start of the next water application and therefore includes
the water application duration (WAD). The irrigation interval is basically expressed in seconds [sec],
but ultimately (in the schedule) will be expressed in hours or in days or in both.
For optimum water supply, the soil moisture should not be depleted below its maximum depletion i.e.
RAM, or the soil moisture content at the end of the interval 𝑖, 𝜃𝑖 should not drop below 𝜃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 . Thus,
the water application time here is determined by soil moisture. There are several other ways for timing
water applications, and these will be discussed in more detail hereafter.
The net irrigation requirement when combined with soil water characteristics enables to specify when
to irrigate. The maximum interval between successive water applications can be calculated as follows:
− if, after the previous water application (at time (𝑖 − 1)) soil moisture content was equal to 𝜃𝑖−1
(which not necessarily was equal to field capacity 𝜃𝐹𝐶 ) and
− - For In being the average net irrigation requirement over interval 𝑖, the maximum duration in
days is:
10 ( θi−1 − θi
INTi =
In
If θi = θcritical = θFC − p(θFC − θWP) i. e. maximum depletion, and
θi−1 = θFC i. e. maximmum water applicaton depth:
10 p ( θFC − θWP)Z p Sa Z RAM
INTi = = =
In In In
Example
You have been given the following:
Actual soil moisture content θi = 17.5 vol%,
Net irrigation requirement: In = 65 mm⁄decade .
Soil = Sandy loam soil
Moisture content at field capacity , θFC = 21 vol%
Moisture content at Wilting point , θWP = 9 vol%

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Crop = Maize
Depth of root zone = 0.8m,
Depletion factor p = 0.50.
(i) calculate the net application depth which replenish the soil up to field capacity.
(ii) What is the maximum interval between successive water applications.
Solution
DA = DA = 10(θFC − θi )Z [mm] = 10 × (21 − 17.5) × 0.8 = 28 mm
RAM = 𝑝 × 𝑍 × 𝑆𝑎 = 0.50 × (21 − 9) × 10 × (0.8) = 48 mm
RAM
INT = = 48⁄65 = 0.74 decade = 7.4 days.
In
The net application depth is 28 mm. For the given net application requirement and soil type, the
maximum irrigation interval is 7 days.

Real time scheduling

Plant observation
This is the probably the oldest method of irrigation scheduling. The crop will be irrigated, when
individual plants start showing visible signs indicating that they are beginning to experience water
stress. The signs range from color changes and leaf curling to wilting during the afternoon.
The method is easy and requires no data gathering or computations but has the disadvantage that by
the time plants show symptoms of stress they have already suffered some growth and yield reduction.
More modern methods involve monitoring certain plant physiological states, such as stomatal closure
using porometers, leaf water status using pressure bombs and leaf temperature using infrared
radiation. These methods are not used on a routine basis.
Soil moisture meters
Notable among these instruments are tensiometers, resistance blocks and neutron meters. The
principle of these instruments is that they measure certain physical characteristics of the soil, which
depend on its moisture contents. A calibration curve is then used to determine the corresponding soil
moisture contents. When the reading indicates critical soil moisture content the crop should be
irrigated. The disadvantages of the method include sensor breakdowns or malfunction and the fact
that the method does not give the amount of water to apply at each irrigation.
Tensiometers
Tensiometers consist of porous cup connected by tube to a pressure gauge. Both cup and tube contain
air-free boiled water. The cup is embedded to a required depth within the soil and maintained in water
and temperature equilibrium with the soil. This allows the suction, with which water is being held in
the soil, to be registered by pressure gauge. The disadvantage of tensiometers is that they are reliable
only up to about 0.7 bars. They are also very difficult to maintain in constant working state as any
disruption of equilibrium with the soil causes errors in the readings.
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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Electric resistance blocks

Electric resistance blocks are usually made of gypsum (plaster of Paris) with two electrodes embedded.
The block is buried at a required depth in the soil, where its water content equilibrates with the soil.
Resistance to electricity flow between the electrodes is a function of the water content of the block
and surrounding soil. Resistance blocks are sensitive to wider range of moisture contents than
tensiometers, but tend to deteriorate with time, especially in saline soils.
Neutron moisture probes
Neutron moisture probes uses a neutron scattering system to monitor soil moisture contents. It gives
an easy method of measuring soil moisture. However, the equipment is expensive and can be
hazardous if not handled with the recommended caution. The method is more widely used in
agricultural research studies and cannot be recommended for individual small farmers, both for its
cost and skill required in handling the equipment
Cumulative pan evaporation
This method is based on the cumulated pan evaporation (𝐸𝑝𝑎𝑛 ) starting from the last irrigation. It is
based on the fact that 𝐸𝑝𝑎𝑛 is an estimate of 𝐸𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝 .
In a sense it is a version of the soil water budget method, because the value of cumulative 𝐸𝑝𝑎𝑛 , at
which water should be applied, is related to available soil moisture. When the value of cumulative
𝐸𝑝𝑎𝑛 is reached, the available water has been depleted to a level where irrigation is necessary.
The disadvantage of the method is that additions to soil moisture storage from precipitation or shallow
ground water table are not considered. It is therefore most appropriate at locations, where these
additions do not occur during the irrigation season.
Soil water budget
This is the most complex, but in most cases, the most accurate of all the methods. Irrigation timing and
depth of irrigation water are determined on the basis of the soil water balance. Information on the
weather (𝐸𝑇0 and rainfall), the crop and the soil are required. The disadvantage is the large amount of
data, which must be processed.
Water is added to the soil moisture in the profile by rainfall, irrigation or capillary rise from ground
water table. Water is extracted from the soil moisture in the profile by evapotranspiration, run-off and
deep percolation. If the soil water content drops below a critical value, the crop should be irrigated.
The (net) volume of water to be given should be maximal equal to the amount required to bring the
rooting zone back to field capacity.

Practical irrigation schedules

Irrigation schedules where the application depth and the irrigation interval varies constantly over the
season may create real problems in practice. Not only it requires considerable skill from the irrigators
and from the farmers, but it also creates peak water demands at certain times while at other times
water requirements will be below average.

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

Many systems cannot deal with such a situation, the more so as water availability may be constant
because of restriction. Also water supply may not be under the direct control of the scheme
management. For gravity irrigation under restricted water supply, rotational supply is practised,
indicating not only fixed intervals, but also fixed volumes. Under less restricted water supply and
different irrigation methods other options are possible and are discussed below.
Variable interval(s), fixed amount(s)
In this case a fixed application depth (𝐷𝐴 ) is selected and the interval length has to be adjusted to the
(net) irrigation requirements. The flexibility in the timing of the successive applications then will
determine in how far over – or under irrigation will occur.
Fixed interval(s), variable amount(s)
The application depth can be determined to conform to the deficit at the end of each fixed interval
(θFC − θi ). In as far as soil moisture depletion exceed readily available moisture (𝜃𝑖 > 𝜃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ), water
stress will occur, resulting in yield reduction.

Adjustments of irrigation schedules to environment

Various weather conditions
When planning a practical irrigation schedule in climates with highly variable rainfall, alternative
schedules might have to be developed for the different weather conditions. A schedule should not
result in (excessive) deep percolation losses in rainy years or in crop stress in dry years.
Different soil types
An irrigation schedule designed for a given crop on one soil type might not always be valid on the other
soil types. Since the readily and total available soil moisture varies from one soil to another, an
irrigation schedule valid for one soil type, might result in deep percolation losses and crop stress on
another soil type.

Deficit irrigation
Often water availability – actual water supply – is limited and below irrigation requirements. There is
no enough water to replenish soil moisture up to field capacity and to irrigate before all the readily
available soil moisture (RAM) is depleted. Consequently the crop will experience water stress, to a
degree depending on its growth stage, its sensitivity to water stress and the seriousness of the soil
moisture deficit.
The following are strategies to reduce water stress and yield reductions:
− Fill the soil profile up to field capacity over the maximum root depth + some 20 – 30 cm for
capillary rise. This should be done prior to sowing or at the initial stage when water availability
is still relatively high and crop water requirements relatively low.
− Make the irrigation interval as long as possible, even inducing slight water stress as this
enhances root development by the young plant, looking for water (“growing after water”). To

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 EECQ 4141: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering I

enhance rapid and deep root growth a water deficit during the early growth periods can be
advantageous for some crops (maize).
− For some crops the sensitivity to water stress during a sensitive period is less pronounced,
when water deficit has been experienced during a preceding period (For instant maize, which
is less sensitive to water stress during flowering when water stress has been experienced during
the vegetative period).
Methods of dealing with short water supply at block or scheme level, such as crop selection, change
of planting date, selection of drought resistant varieties, staggered sowing/planting and fixation of
water allowances per individual block will not be discussed here.