Final Thesis For Addisu Birhanu

BAHIR DAR UNIVERTY
COLLEGE OF AGRICUTLURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCES
GRADUATE PROGRAM IN SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
ASSESSMENT OF HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST METHODS ON

THE EFFECT OF BREAD WHEAT SEED (Triticuam astivum L.) LOSSES,
IN WENBERMA DISTRICT, NORTH WESTERN ETHIOPIA
M.Sc. Thesis Research report
By
Addisu Birhanu Gelaw
June 2021
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF AGRICUTLURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCES
GRADUATE PROGRAM IN SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
ASSESSMENT OF HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST METHODS ON

THE EFFECT OF BREAD WHEAT SEED (Triticuam astivum L.) LOSSES,
IN WENBERMA DISTRICT, NORTH WESTERN ETHIOPIA
M.Sc. Thesis Research report
By
Addisu Birhanu Gelaw
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.Sc.) IN SEED SCIENCE AND TECHONOLOGY
June 2021
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

THESIS APPROVAL SHEET
As member of the Board of Examiners of the M.Sc. Thesis Open Defense Examination, We
certify that we have read, and evaluated the Thesis prepared by Addisu Birhanu entiteled
Assessment of Harvesting and post-harvest Methods on The Effect of Bread wheat seed
(Triticuam astivum L.) Losses, in Wenberma district, North western Ethiopia , We hereby

certify that, the thesis is accepted for fulfilling the requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Sciences (Seed Science and Technology).
Board of Examiners
_______________ _______________ _______________
Name of External Examiner Signature Date
____________________ _____________ _______________
Name of Internal Examiner Signature Date
____________________ _________________ _______________
Name of Chairman Signature Date
i
DECLARATION
This is to certify that entitled “Assessment of Harvesting and Post-Harvest Methods on

The effect of bread wheat seed (Triticum astivum L.) Losses, in wenberma district, north
western Ethiopia, Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of Master of Science in Seed Science and Technology to the Graduate Program of
College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University by Mr. Addisu
Birhanu, (ID: BDU1100671) is an authentic work carried out by him under our guidance.
The matter embodied in this project work has not been submitted earlier for award of any
degree or diploma to the best of our knowledge and belief.
Name of the Student

Addisu Birhanu
Signature and date _____________________
Name of the Advisors

1) Tesfaye Melak (PhD) (Major advisor)
Signature and date_____________________
2) Dereje Ayalew (PhD) (Co-adviser)
Signature and date___________________
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank my major adviser, Dr. Tesfaye Melak his unreserved and intensive guidance to me
great pleasure to express for their constant guidance, support, motivation and tireless help
during the implementation and write up of my thesis research. And also I benefitted the most
not only from his passion, skill, and knowledge on post-harvest loss reduction, but also from
his life philosophy outside academics and research to be successful in the future. I would like
to express gratitude my Co adviser Dr. Dereje Ayalew from his life philosophy outside
academics and research to be successful in the future the preparation of any and this thesis.
I would be highly indebted to Bahir Dar University for giving me the chance to pursue this
postgraduate Education, and also for creating conducive learning environment and providing
residence and internet facilities during my stay and at the Job seeker position.
Furthermore, it is unfair to forget acknowledgement of Wenbermaworeda Agriculture and

Rural Transformation staffs Mr. Tadele Yitayh (leaders of the staff) and Melikamu (wereda
seed multiplication Expert) for their unforgettable help in questioner preparing by giving
sufficient amount of paper for record the respondent answer by giving pertinent information
about the study area.Thanks for respondents for giving relevant information based on my
question procedures and also my appreciation going to Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE)
Experts and laboratory Expert Mr. Solomon by helping me by giving germination dish, Seed
for Sample test and supporting any confusion idea for me and also Bahir Dar University and
Environmental Science plant Science laboratory Assistance to help me during physical purity
test Mr.Abrham, Bekele and Zemenu by giving necessary equipments and time for help me in
case of Physical Laboratory Experiment.
At the last but not the least; I am grateful thanks for my families including My friends for
their remarkable moral and Business Support and encouragement throughout the study.
iii
DEDICATION
I dedicated this thesis manuscript to my kind and beloved families and my heartful loved
friends for treating and nursing me and to those who cannot afford basic needs and education.
iv
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBEREVATIONS
ASE Amhara Seed Enterprise
ARARI Amhara region Agricultural Research institution
AAGSR African Agricultural status report
CSA Central Statistical Agency
CRD Compete randomised design
ESE Ethiopian Seed Enterprise
ESSP Ethiopian Seed Strategies Program
HT Harvesting technologies
IPMS Improving Productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian Farmers
MHTM Modern harvesting and threshing method
MoARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
PHM Post-harvest management
PHT Post-Harvest Technology
PICS Purdue Improved Crop Storage
PSG Private Seed Grower
QSAE Quality Standard authority of Ethiopia
StPics Storage Structure of Purdue Improved Crop Storage
StQ Storage Structure of Quintal
StSG Storage Structure of Gota
StSWH Storage Structure of ware house
THTM Traditional Harvesting and threshing Method
WWBoARD Wenberma Wereda Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development
TABLE OF CONTENTENTS
List of contents page
v
1.1. Background and Justification 1
THESIS APPROVAL SHEET i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
DEDICATION iv
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBEREVATIONS v
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURE xii
LIST OF APPENDIX TABLE xiii
LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURE xiv
ABSTRACT xv
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 .Statement of the Problem 3

1.3. Objectives of the study 4
1.2.1. General objective 4
1.2.2. Specific Objectives 4
Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1. Seed 5
2.2. Wheat Production in Ethiopia 5
2.4. Harvesting mechanisms of bread wheat 8
2.4.1. Post-harvest system 8
2.4.2. Post-harvest losses 9
2.5. Bread wheat seed production Constraints 10
2.6. Technologies and Practices to Reduce Post-Harvest Losses 12
2.7. Factors that initiate post-harvest Lose and Seed deterioration 13
2.7.1 Biotic Factors 13
2.7.2. Abiotic factors 13
Table of contents(continued)
2.8. Effect of storage methods on viability and vigor 15
vi
2.9.1. Seed quality test 16
2.9.2. Physical quality 16
2.9.3. Thousand Seed Weight 17
2.9.4. Moisture Content 17
2.9.5. Physiological seed quality test 18
Chapter 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 19
3.1. Description of the Study Area 19

3.2. Sampling size and survey of seed for harvestingand post-harvest Methods 19
3.2.1. Seed sampling 20
3.3. Methods of Data Collection 21
3.4. Seed quality Tests 21
3.4.1. Physical purity test 22
3.4.2. Thousand Seed weight determination 22
3.4.3. Moisture determination 22
3.4.4. Physiological quality test 23
3.4.5. Germination test 23
3.4.6. Speed of germination 23
3.4.7. Seedling shoots and root length 23
3.4.8. Seedling dry weight 24
3.4.9. Vigor index 24
3.5. Experimental Design 25
3.6. Method of Data Analysis 25
Chapter 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 26
4.1. Demographic and Household Characteristics 26

4.1.1. Distributions of household by sex 26
4.1.2. Distribution of sample household by age and family size 27
4.1.3 Educational level of the household 27
4.1.4. Number of cattle production and land resource the farmers 28
4.1.5. Source of labor for seed production 29
vii
4.1.7. Seed Source and reasons for select quality seed 30
4.1.8. Farmers Agronomic Practices of Wheat Production 31
4.1.9. Sowing time and the appearance of herb 32
4.1.10. Farmers seed cleaning and threshing methods 33
4.1.11. Sources of information for wheat Technology in study area 34
4.1.12. Seed Management and harvesting Methods 35
4.1.13. Bread wheat seed Storage Area and structure and duration of Time 36
4.1.14 Duration of bread wheat storage time, transportation system and moisture
identification 36
4.1.15. Packaging and labeling of bread wheat seed 38
4.1.16. Reasons for Marketing Problem in the Study Area 38
4.1.17. Reasons for food insecurity and farmers suggest for post-harvest lose
reduction 39
4.2. Estimated post-harvest loses of bread wheat using quadrant for different
kebeles in different harvesting methods. 41
4.3. Cost -benefit analysis 42
4.3.1. Benefit of modern over traditional postharvest technologies 42
4.4. Evaluation of seed quality Test 42
4.4.1. Physical purity 42
4.4.2. Moisture Content 43
4.4.3. Thousand Seed weight 43
4.4.4. Standard Germination 44
4.4.5. Physiological seed quality (vigor) of bread wheat seed collected from farmers
and ESE 45
4.5. Physical and physiological Seed quality test in Traditional and Modern harvesting
Chapter 5.CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 48

46
5.1. Conclusions 48
5.2. Recommendations 49
Chapter 6. REFFERENCES 50
Appendices 59
viii
APPENDIX FIGURE 67
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 68
ix
LIST OF TABLES
List of table’s page
Table 1: Wheat production regions of Ethiopia under private peasant holdings for 2018/19
Meher Season (CSA, 2018) 7
Table 2: Number and proportion of sample households by sex at Wenberma district during
2019/2020 Main cropping season 26
Table 3:- Distribution of sample household by age and family size 27
Table 4: Educational level of the householdat Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main
cropping season 28
Table 5: Number of cattle production and land resource in ha at Wenberma district during
Table 6 : Source of labor for seed production at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main
cropping season 29
Table 7: Grown Bread wheat at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season
30
Table 8: Seed Source and reasons for select quality seed at Wenberma district during
Table 9: Agronomic practice of bread wheat at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main
cropping season 32
Table 10: Sowing time and the appearance of herb 33
Table 11: Reasons clean bread wheat seed and Threshing Condition of bread wheat floor at
Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season 33
Table 12: Sources of information for wheat production at Wenberma district during
Table 13: Seed Management and harvesting Methods at Wenberma district during 2019/2020
Main cropping season 35
Table 14: Farmers estimation for Bread wheat seed yield and structure and duration of Time
at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season 36
x
Table 15: Duration of bread wheat storage time, transportation system and moisture
identification at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season 37
Table 16: Packaging and labeling of bread wheat seed at Wenberma district during 2019/2020
Main cropping season 38
Table 17: Reasons of Marketing problem and Seed buyers at Wenberma district during
Table 18: Reasons for food insecurity and suggestions to reduce post-harvest seed lossat
Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season 40
Table 19: Harvesting Losses from each kebeles in kg /ha and % weight losses 41
Table 20: Mean percentage of Physical purity of the bread wheat collected from different
storage structures 43
Table 21: Mean percentage comparison of standard germination parameters among different
Storage Methods and ESE 45
Table 22: Mean percentage comparison Physiological seed quality (vigor) of bread wheat
seed collected from farmers and ESE 45
Table 23: Mean percentage comparision b/n Modern and Tradional/Manual harvesting and
threshing methods 46
xi
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure page
Figure 1: Geographical map of the Study Area 19
xii
LIST OF APPENDIX TABLE
List of Appendix Table Page

Appendix Table 1:ANOVA table for Mean percentages of physical, physiological, vigour and
of different storage methods 59
Appendix table 2: A standard questionnaire for wheat bread production by postharvest
technology farm owners and their Experience for seed production 60
Appendix Table 3: Minimum Seed Certification Standards of Wheat seed in Ethiopia QSAE,
2000 66
Appendix Table 4: An example of cost benefit analysis when the farmers use manual and
modern harvesting 66
xiii
LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURE
Appendix Figure 1: an example of pictures in the study area, seedling measure and laboratory
test 67
xiv
ABSTRACT
Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the various cereal crops largely grown in the
highlands of Ethiopia. Eventhogh,in the study area there is inapeopraite use of harvesting
and post harvest methods. By considering it, assess the overall status of harvesting and post-
harvest methods on the effect bread wheat seed losses in wenberma, North western
Ethiopia,2019/2020 main cropping season. The study contained Assessment method (122
respondents), laboratory test using complete randomized design physical purity conducted at
Bahir Dar University College of Agriculture Envirometal Science and also physiological
quality test conducted at Ethiopian seed enterprise Bahir Dar Branch seed laboratory test at
2020. Field sampls by using quadrants also important to determine the quantity losses using
X fashion at five places taken the samples and picked the lost seeds immediately after
harvesting of the seed. The survey was analyzed using SPSS version 20 and the laboratories
were analyzed by SAS version 9.2. Harvesting method also analyzed T-test and excel for
quadrant sampling. The survey data showed that 18.9% respondents practiced manual/trad
itonal harvester where as 45.9% respondents adopted combine harvester 35.2% respondents
use both manual and combine harvester. Storage methods were Gota, Storage in quintal
(polypropylene), Storage in PICS and Storage in warehouse (40.4%, 48.2%, 11.5% and 0%),
respectively. And also from the quadrant result manual harvesting 4.74 %/ha and combine
harvesting 3.69 % / ha seed losses, respectively. In standard germination Storage in ware
house recorded the lowest means of percentage seed lost (4.5%) and storage in gota recorded
the highest means of percentage seed lost (26.0%). From Modern harvesting and threshing
methods by using T-test moisture content (12.7%), thousand seed weight (43.8%). As we
conclude from this study from the survey result the respondents use Storage in Gota, Storage
in quintal and some of them use PICS bag and none of used to well ventilate Storage ware
house. And also the majority of the respondents harvest their seed by combine harvest. By
considering it some recommendations put i.e. give the awareness about seed production for
the farmers. Furthermore this study will be detailed studying by another institution, to put
further recommendation. Because of this report was practiced only a single wereda and also
laboratory test did not include other harvesting and post-harvest methods.
Key words: Losses, Quadrant,combine harvestor and Manual harvesting
xv
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background and Justification
Bread wheat (Triticum Aestivum L.) is one of the various cereal crops largely grown in the
highlands of Ethiopia (Hussain M et al.,2002). It is produced largely in the southeast, central
and northwest parts of the country. Small amount is produced in the rest of the south and
north regions. Goshu et al, (2019) stated that Ethiopia is one of the largest Sub-Saharan
African wheat producers and ranks second to South Africa in terms of total wheat area
coverage and the amount produced (Hei et al., 2017). Major wheat growing areas in Ethiopia
were Alemaye,Sinana, Balerobe,Agarfa, Debre Birhan,Debre Elias,Mojo, Debrezeit, Akaki,Y
etnora,Gonder,Adet,West Gojjam (wenberma) and Nekemte were the most wheat production
areas (Belay Simane et al., 1999).
According to BogaleAyana (2020) report traditionally, the crop is used for making bread,
Dabokolo, porridge, Kinche and other types of foods. The straw is good source for animal
feed and also used for thatching roofs in rural areas. FAO (2017) report satated that bread
wheat is not only for making bread, biscuit and pastry products, but also for the production of
starch and gluten. The raised bread loaf is possible because the wheat kernel contains gluten,
an elastic form of protein that traps minute bubbles of carbon dioxide when fermentation
occurs in leavened dough, causing the dough to rise.
Ethiopia is the greatest producer of wheat in sub-Saharan Africa, however, it is not self-
sufficient in its wheat production and imports an average >1 million tons per annum for the
1
years 2006-2015 (Index Mundi, 2016). Ethiopia continues to be a net importer of wheat due
to many factors including war and crop failures (Hailu Gebremaryam, 1991), postharvest
loss and population growth out pacing increases in production (Reuben et al., 2005).
Increasing yield is frequently cited as an important issue for increasing food security (Bekele
et al., 2009).
According Adugnaw Anteneh & Dagninet Asrat (2020) There are 4.7 million wheat-
producing farmers in Ethiopia. Of these, more than three-quarters (78%) live in Oromia and
Amhara regions. Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples’ of Ethiopia (SNNP) accounts
for 13% and the Tigray region accounts for only 8%. Less than 1% of the wheat farmers live
in other regions of the country (Minot et al., 2015). And also in 2020/2021 main cropping
season in wenberma wereda 215.3 ha was used for seed multiplication purpose, from these
coverage area of bread wheat 7333 quantal of bread wheat were harvested
(WWBoARD,2021).
According to (CSA, 2019) data the Amhara national regional state (ANRS) is one of the
major wheat growing regions of the country. Because of its importance for the food security
and income of small scale producers and its overall contribution to the economic growth of
the agricultural sector, wheat has been among priority crops which have been enjoying better
research and development attention in the region (ARARI, 2020).
Meher Season Post-harvest crop production survey indicated that a total land area of about
12,727,191.21 hectares was covered by grain crops i.e. cereals, pulses and oilseeds, from
which a total volume of about 315,602,058.49 quintals of grains were obtained, from private
peasant holdings (CSA, 2018). Out of the total grain crop area, 81.39% (10,358,890.13
hectares) was under cereals. Teff, maize, sorghum and wheat took up 24.17% (about
2
3,076,595.02 hectares), 18.60% (about 2,367,797.39 hectares), 14.38% (1,829,662.39
hectares) and 13.73% (1,747,939.31 hectares) of the grain crop area, respectively Cereals
contributed 87.97% (about 277,638,380.98 quintals) of the grain production. Maize, teff,
wheat and sorghum made up 30.08% (94,927,708.34 quintals), 17.12% (54,034,790.51
quintals), 15.33% (48,380,740.91 quintals) and 15.92% (50,243,680.72 quintals) of the grain
production, in the same order (CSA, 2019).
According to Mohamed Ali and AbrihamTaddese (2018) Postharvest losses occur at different
points (harvesting, drying, threshing, winnowing, transportation and storage and they put for
Reduction of postharvest losses requires an appropriate intervention through the well-
coordinated effort of many governmental and non-governmental institutions. Crop yield per
area (amount of crop harvested per amount of land cultivated) is the most commonly used
impact indicator for agricultural productivity activities. Crop yields are inevitably affected by
many factors, these are weather, input price, changes in farming practices, amounts of
fertilizer used quality of seed varieties, post-harvest lose, and use of irrigation (CSA, 2018).
According to Selesh Tilahun (2018) there are two types of harvesting mechanisms: first is
traditional method of harvesting: the harvesting of crops is traditionally done by manual
methods: these harvesting of major cereals, pulse and oilseed crops are done by using sickle
whereas tuber crops are harvested by country plough or spade. All these traditional methods
need intensive labor and consume long time. The second one is mechanical harvesting
methods. In these methods harvesting machine is one of the important technologies. From
different harvesting machines mower is very important for small scale agriculture sector. But
for large scale agriculture sector combiner is preferable. Mechanization is an important
element of agricultural growth (Daum & Birner, 2020) and the factor for the transformation of
agricultural production or the rural communities at large (Schmitz & Moss, 2015). Traditional
farms that are predominantly dependent on the productivity of agricultural labor were not able
3
to meet the dynamic food and nutrition security needs of the society (Fuglie & Rada, 2013).
In Ethiopia, most of the agriculture activities are in small scale. Therefore, mower will be
effective cereal crop harvesting equipment (Selesh Tilahun , 2018). Farmers in the study area
used different types of harvesting and threshing methods and also different post harvest
methods.
1.2 .Statement of the Problem
However, elsewhere in the amahara region as well as wenberma wereda postharvest handling
operations from harvesting to storage are still labour intensive being mainly done manually
and highly lost their time, seed and financial economy (Hassen et al .,2000). However,
nowadays in major wheat growing areas in wenberma kebeles, wheat is harvested using
combine harvester being operated on hire service arrangement and manual harvesting.
Particularly, the majority of farmers prefer to use combine harvester for harvesting and
threshing of their crop unless there are topographic limitation or unavailability of harvesting
machinery. Apart from the use of combine harvester and different post harvet methods, there
are no any other improved harvesting and storage methods used in Wenberma wereda.
Therefore, the current study would be focus on identification and evaluation of methods for
harvesting and storage Materials and also their effect on seed losses used by smallholder
farmers.
1.3. Objectives of the study
4
1.2.1. General objective
To assess the overall effect of harvesting and post-harvest methods on bread wheat seed
quality and quantity losses of seed to enhance productivity in the study area.
1.2.2. Specific Objectives
 To assess the farmer’s experience, perception and agronomic practice for quality seed
production in the target area.
 To determine the bread wheat seed losses due to traditional and modern harvesting
technologies.
 To investigate quality of seeds losses in different harvesting and storage methods.
5
Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Seed
According to Dominguez et al, (2001) seeds play a key role in human history and agriculture.
It is instrumental in the domestication of wild species into cultivated plants. Prehistoric
humans (probably women) were the first to recognize the values of seeds as planting materials
. Since the early days of agriculture the importance of seed as the carrier of most important
characteristics for crop production has been recognized (Tura Barek, 2018). Harvesting seed
from preferred plants has been the basis of crop domestication and consequently of agriculture
(Tripp, 2001).
It is a critical input in crop production whether agriculture is practiced at commercial or

subsistence levels, by large or small-scale producers or in favourable or less favourable
environments (Louwaars and Gam, 1999). The domestication of wild species into crop plants
probably started with the collection, storage and utilization of the seed not only for food, but
also for planting a major step in the evolution of settled agriculture (EIAR, 2010).
In modern agriculture, seed is a vehicle to deliver almost all agriculture-based technological

innovations to farmers so that they can exploit the genetic potential of new varieties (Tura
Barek, 2018). It is considered to be the most affordable external input for farmers, and many
of its benefits are assumed to be ‘scale-neutral (vangastel and ZewdieBishaw, 2004).
6
2.2. Wheat Production in Ethiopia
Agriculture is the pillar for the growth of the Ethiopian economy. The agricultural sector has
shown improvement from time to time and takes the highest contribution to the development
of the country’s economy. Sustained growth in agricultural productivity and modernization
supported by continued investment in a large public extension structure that extends from the
federal to regions were the main drivers for the large contribution of the agricultural sector to
the country’s economy (AGSR, 2018; Bachewe et al., 2018). Under agricultural production
system, commodities like crops, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables and fruits are produced every
year.
According to CSA (2019) and Negassa et al. (2013), Ethiopia takes the first rank with an
average annual production of 360 million quintals between 2011 and 2014 production
seasons. Yet, regarding total yield, since small-scale farmer’s dominance relied on rain feed
agriculture, and due to their traditional production system, Ethiopian wheat ranks 67th
worldwide even below other sub-Saharan countries (Goshu et al., 2019; Hei et al., 2017;
Minot et al., 2015). Empirical studies on assessment of wheat yield indicate that other African
countries such as Egypt, South Africa and Kenya have 67, 35 and 30 quintals per hectare,
respectively.
Wheat is one of Ethiopia’s main staple crops in terms of both production and consumption.
For caloric intake, wheat is the second-most important food in the country behind maize
(FAO 2014). Wheat is mainly grown in the highlands of Ethiopia, and the two main wheat-
producing regions (Oromia and Amhara) account for about 85 percent of the national wheat
7
production (CSA, 2018). Wheat is typically grown by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia.
According to CSA (2019)report in the 2018/2019 meher 4 season, about 4,761,643 farmers
grew wheat, and more than 1,747,939.31hectares (ha) of land were dedicated to wheat
cultivation, 15.39% (48,380,740.91quintals) percent of the national grain area an average
yield of 27.64 Qt/ha.
Ethiopian wheat growers utilize the long rainy season (meher) as most wheat is rain fed, the
main growing season which starts in June and starts decreasing in rainfall events in October,
with the wheat harvest starting in December (CSA,2018). Ethiopian wheat is predominantly
grown in the mid- to highlands, at elevations of 1900-2700 m ; soil types across Ethiopia
include clay rich Vertisoils, less clay rich Nit sols, black soils, red soils and brown soils; and
annual temperatures of the wheat growing regions range from 6 – 23 ˚C (White et al., 2001).
While wheat is an important cereal in Ethiopia’s production systems, wheat yields are
relatively low. Recent estimates show that wheat farmers in Ethiopia produce, on average, 2.1
t/ha, (MOA, 2012).
Some of the common bread wheat varieties under production in Ethiopia includes: Dendea,
Digelu, Kekeba, Galema, Alidoro, Hidassie, Kubsa, Batu, Mitike, Wabe, Simba, Hawi,
Warera, Dure, Dodota, Meraro,ogolocho,shorimaAbolla, Pavon, Dashen, Kenya -1, Densa,
Simbo, Megal, Enkoy and Laketch (CSA, 2018).
Table 1: Wheat production regions of Ethiopia under private peasant holdings for 2018/19
Meher Season (CSA, 2018)
Regions No of Area of production Yield ton/ha

holders Production(ha) tone/ha
Tigray 312708 107929.86 214003.14 1.98
Afar - - - -
Amhara 1645432 554661.74 1404707.481 2.53
8
Oromia 1713504 898682.57 2669917.77 2.97
Somali - - - -
BeninshangulGumz 8455 2455.71 5908.35 2.41
SNNP 525386 127246.59 34919.60 2.67
Gambella - - - -
Harari 3405 - - -
Wheat can be cultivated in a wide range of agricultural environments (Farooqet al., 2009). It
can grow over a wide range of elevations, climatic conditions, and soil fertility conditions
(Belay Simane et al., 1999). The crop is grown at an altitude ranging from 1500 to 3000
meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.) between 6-16oN latitude and 35-42°C longitude in
Ethiopia (Belay Simane et al., 1999, Dereje Gorfuand Eshetu Ahimed (2012) The most
suitable agro-ecological zones, however, fall between 1900 and 2700 (m.a.s.l.) (Bekele et al.,
2000). Even though the optimal growing temperature is 25°C, it can be grown in temperatures
ranging from 3 to 32°C. The ideal daily temperature for different stages of wheat
development varies from 20-25°C for germination, 16-20°C for good tillering and 20-26°C
for proper plant development. The optimal rainfall for wheat is between 900-1100 mm
throughout the growing season, but wheat can be grown in xerophytic to littoral moisture
regimes with average annual rainfall between 250 to 1750 mm Dereje Gorfu and Eshetu
Ahimed (2012). Wheat can be grown under different soil types but well-drained fertile loamy
to sandy loam soil with a PH of 6 to 7.5 is suitable for its growth (Tana et al., 2018).
2.4. Harvesting mechanisms of bread wheat
Harvesting: is the first step of postharvest and is the last step of crop production. The method
and condition of the harvest affect the further handling, processing, and storage of crops.
Premature harvest causes loss of quality of seeds, and due to high water content, they will
9
deteriorate in the store (Mohamed Ali and AbrhamTaddese, 2018). Nonetheless, Ethiopian
farmers commonly harvest most crops after physiological maturity is attained and when the
moisture content reaches as low as 13% or below (Ashagari, 2000). The time of harvesting is
determined by the degree of maturity. With cereals and pulses, a distinction should be made
between maturity of stalks (straw), ears or seedpods and seeds, for all that affects successive
operations, particularly storage and preservation and also over mature crop harvest causes
biological and physical losses of crops by consistent wetting and drying of crops (kiaya,
2014). According to Victor kiaya report (2014) harvesting Loss is also caused by employment
of improper harvesting methods such as: Rough handling; untimely harvesting; lack of
appropriate and/or poorly-designed harvesting tools, equipment, and harvesting containers.
Different parts of plant are harvested by different harvesting methods: in case of forage, the
whole plant is trimmed off; in case of cereal seeds, partial or part of the plant is threshed and
cleaned; and straw or chaff is removed for further processing. Small scale produces performed
threshing and harvesting by threshing combines harvesters (equipped through community
groups) while in developing countries threshing and harvesting carried out by hand unlikely
cause damage or deterioration of crops in store. Large-scale commercial producers use
mechanical harvester equipment; their use is limited due to the production of cash crops. Post-
harvest risk of crop damage in storage is reduces by manual harvesting Small scale produces
performed threshing and harvesting by threshing combiners (kiaya , 2014).
2.4.1. Post-harvest system
Post-harvest system is the delivery of a crop from the time and place of harvest to the time
and place of consumption, with minimum loss, maximum efficiency, and maximum return for
all involved (Mohamed Ali and Abrham Taddese, 2018).
The post-harvest system consists of a set of operations which cover the period from harvest
through to consumption. An efficient post-harvest system aims to minimize losses and
maintain the quality of the crop until it reaches the final consumer. When food losses are
10
minimized, both food security and income increase, and this are of vital importance for small
and medium farmers, particularly in developing countries (Kiaya, 2014). From a socio-
economic point of view, the implementation of an efficient post-harvest system in any
community must provide equitable benefit to all those involved in the system (Grolleaud,
2002).
2.4.2. Post-harvest losses
Postharvest loss can be defined as the degradation in both quantity and quality of a food
production from harvest to consumption (kiaya, 2014). Quality losses include those that affect
thenutrient/caloric composition, the acceptability, and the edibility of a given product (kiaya,
2014). These losses are generally more common in developed countries (Kader, 2002).
Quantity lossesrefer to those that result in the loss of the amount of a product. Loss of
quantity is more common in developing countries (Gorny, 2010).
Post-harvest loss can occur at any stage along the post-harvest chain affecting crop quality
and food security efforts (Kumera et al., 2020). Understanding the circumstances around
harvest and post-harvest of a given crop may help reduce post-harvest losses and improve
income of farm households (Tesfaye Sololmon et al., 2014).
According to the FAO (2017), food production will need to grow by 70% to feed world
population which will reach 9 billion by 2050.Further trends like increasing urban population,
shift of lifestyle and diet patterns of the rising middle class in emerging economies along with
climate change put considerable pressure strain on the planet’s resources: declining freshwater
resources and biodiversity, loss of fertile land, etc. Consequently, there is a need for an
integrated and innovative approach to the global effort of ensuring sustainable food
production and consumption (Nellemann et al., 2009).
11
In the meantime, while the number of food insecure population remains unacceptably high
(FAO, 2012), each year and worldwide, massive quantities of food are lost due to spoilage
and infestations on the journey to consumers (FAO, 2011). In some African, Caribbean and
Pacific ACP countries, where tropical weather and poorly developed infrastructure contribute
to the problem, wastage can regularly be as high as 40-50% (SPORE, 2011). Obviously, one
of the major ways of strengthening food security is by reducing these losses.
2.5. Bread wheat seed production Constraints
In Ethiopia, the present huge volume and the rapid growth in production and demand offers a
unique opportunity for the development of the seed sector and trade in varieties and planting
materials (Abebe Atilaw et al., 2011). Unlike grain production, seed production requires great
care, more precision in procedures and more technical skill. In order to have access to quality
seed, it is important to follow plant breeding rules and regulations; undertake systematic
increase of the limited quantity of breeder seed to obtain larger quantity of seed to be
distributed to seed growers; and introduce internal quality control procedures within genetic
and physiological quality of seed during the process of multiplication, post-harvest
management, storage, and labeling until the time for subsequent sowing (Abebe Atilawet
al.,2011).
Wheat production is mostly farm to fork which means the farmers produce more of it for their
consumption at home and less of it for the market(Gebreselassie et al., 2017; Mamo et al.,
2016). The reason behind this is due to the existence of several production constraints (Hei et
al., 2017). These directly lead to less production and productivity, incompetency and
underdevelopment
12
of the wheat market.
Hei et al, (2017) and Tadesse et al. (2018) addressed wheat production and appraisal on
farmers’ wheat production constraints and harvesting and post-harvest methods, one agro-
ecologies of Ethiopia by applying participatory rural appraisal tools and stated that wheat rust
diseases, the high cost and shortage of input, unpredictable rain, lack of credit access and
weed were among the major wheat production constraints. Specifically, as the researchers
discussed, limited availability of rust-resistant varieties exposed wheat products to a variety of
diseases, and they conclude that to enhance wheat production and productivity in Ethiopia,
there should be development of disease-resistant varieties which considers farmers’
preference and their capacity to purchase it. On the other hand, during bad production season,
less production leads to shortage, and consumers may face the highest expense which is out
of their capacity. Of course, availability of storage facility can solve the problem of imbalance
between supply and demand which is the result of variation of season. However, due to lack
of storage facility, wholesalers and other wheat traders could not store their required amount
of wheat, and they are forced to rent another warehouse (Gebreselassie et al., 2017).
Both naturally occurred and human-made problems challenge producers and traders to
produce and trade more amount of wheat. Research by Taffesse et al. (2012) on productivity
growth in Ethiopiaidentified that both naturally occurred and human-made gaps that are
hinders for low development ofwheat sector include low levels of input use by the farmers,
low levels of irrigation, soil degradation and soil erosion and inadequate agricultural research
and extension services.
13
Infrastructure(highly affect on marketing, harvesting and post-harvest methods) is the basic
necessity which can facilitate both production activities Anteneh and Asrat (2020). Shortage
of infrastructure can lead to other multiplier effects to other sectors. According to the report of
FAO (2017) due to lack of basic infrastructures which can be a bridge between rural and
urban areas, the growth of agro-industry did not reach its required level of development.
2.6. Technologies and Practices to Reduce Post-Harvest Losses
Drying: Physiological maturity attained by the cereal and legumes at moisture content
between 35 and 45% is crop dependent. Temperature affects the storage of seeds at moisture
content between 10 and 14% (kiya, 2014). For high-quality yield of crops, timely harvesting
and drying are necessary. Losses during grain/seed drying may occur due to birds, rodents,
insect pests, and other animals. Grain molds cause severe damage to inadequately dried grain.
The recommended moisture content for safe storage of most grains is 13% or below. Moisture
meters are used to determine the optimum moisture content of grains (kiaya, 2014).
Kiaya(2014) reported that,biologically active seeds deteriorate readily under most of the
circumstances due to fungal contamination and attack of insects and other pests. The main
purpose of drying is to reduce the respiration in seeds (Drying can itself affect the quality of
the seeds. Extensive drying under very high temperature can damage the seed. In summer
season, simple drying methods are used through exposure to sun and adequate wind Mahmud
(2016). The alternative drying methods have been devised for high-yielding varieties and
improved farming practices and irrigation to deal with increased production or harvesting in
wet season in multi-cropping (Mujumdar, 2010).
14
Threshing:In the Ethiopian context, the common methods of threshing under small-scale
farmers’ conditions are: (i) manually using hands, mainly for maize (shelling); (ii) manually
beating with sticks; (iii) animal trampling; and (iv) at times pounding with mortar and pestle
(Kiaya,2014). However, the most common method is animal trampling (Alemu Dawit,
2016).Primary processing starts with pod threshing and de-hulling of the whole seeds. During
threshing/shelling, the grains are separated from the husk (in the case of small cereals) or
from the cob (in the case of maize)(Mohammed Ali and AbrihamTadesse, 2018).
Cleaning: The threshed seeds are generally impure, due to the presence of straw, stones, inert
matter, etc. Traditionally in rural areas, sieves are used for small-scale primary processing
(kiaya, 2014). The simplest cleaning method in cereal seeds involves tossing the beans into
the air and letting the wind carry off the lightest impurities (Mohammed Ali and
AbrihamTadesse, 2018). The traditional way of threshing and winnowing leads to
contamination of grains/ Seeds with foreign matter (pebbles, dirt, and cow dung) and loss of
grains due to the foreign matter dropping in to grains and the wind blowing grains/ Seeds
away with chaff. Some innovative farmers have started to use canvas or plastic sheeting on
their threshing and winnowing floor to minimize these risks (kiaya, 2014).
2.7. Factors that initiate post-harvest Lose and Seed deterioration
2.7.1 Biotic Factors
Hodge et al. (2014) reported that Pest problems and these natural chemical changes generally
proceed more rapidly under higher temperatures and greater relative humidity. For every 10ºC
15
rise in temperature the speed of a chemical change is doubled. Besides happening more
rapidly at higher temperatures and humidity, these changes can also happen more quickly due
to pest attack. Good postharvest handling and storage can slow down all these loss making
changes (kiaya, 2014).
The rate of biotic factors depends on several environmental factors, including temperature,
relative humidity, air velocity, and atmospheric composition (concentration of oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and ethylene), and sanitation procedures (Kader, 2002). Bio-deterioration generally
occurs during storage, losses due to mechanical damage, scattering, or spillage are
characteristics of the different post-production operations, from harvest to processing by
Mohammed Ali and AbrhamTadesse (2018).
2.7.2. Abiotic factors
Abiotic factors, such as low and poor distribution of rainfall in lowland areas, plant lodging in
half of the highlands, soil erosion, disease, and weeds also contribute to significant wheat
yield losses in the country (kiaya, 2014). For instance, an estimate suggests that plant lodging
can cause 10 to 30 percent of yield losses (Lemma et al., 1990). According to the African Post
Harvest Loss Information System, wheat grain yield losses in Ethiopia during harvesting,
drying, handling operations, farm storage, transportation, and market storage in 2012 were
estimated at 14.2 percent. Finally, the way farmers’ plant wheat seed also contributes to low
wheat productivity. Traditionally, Ethiopian farmers plant wheat seeds using hand
broadcasting. Compared with direct seeding, broadcasting reduces yields due to poorer seed-
to-soil contact and delayed germination, higher competition between plants for inputs because
of uneven seed distribution, and difficulty in controlling grassy weeds (kiaya, 2014). While
16
row planting can reduced these limits of broadcasting, its higher labor requirement undermine
economic viability (Vander casteelen et al. 2013). In abiotic factors Envirmental factors are a)
Temperature:High temperature hastens the rate of biochemical processes and triggers more
rapid deterioration that results in rapid losses, especially in seeds with high moisture content
(Shelar et al., 2008). High temperatures are well known to result in increased rates of
respiration, deterioration and water loss in fresh produce, leading to reduced market value and
decreased nutritional value. According to (USDA, 2004) reported that, Measured air and
pulp temperatures in Sub Saharan Africa and India were so much higher than the optimum
postharvest handling temperatures recommended for maintaining optimum quality that shelf
life theoretically would be only one half or even one quarter of the potential In general, the
higher the temperature the shorter the storage life of horticultural products and the greater the
amount of loss within a given time, as most factors that destroy the produce or lower its
quality occur at a faster rate as the temperature increases (Atanda et al., 2011).
b) Humidity There is movement of water vapour between stored food and its surrounding
atmosphere until equilibrium of water activity in the food and the atmosphere. A moist food
will give up moisture to the air while a dry food will absorb moisture from the air. Fresh
horticultural products have high moisture content and need to be stored under conditions of
high relative moisture loss and wilting (except for onions and garlic). Dried or dehydrated
products need to be stored under conditions of low relative humidity in order to avoid
adsorbing moisture to the point where mold growth occurs (Atanda et al., 2011).
c) Altitude within given latitude the prevailing temperature is dependent upon the elevation
when other factors are equal. There is on the average a drop in temperature of 6.5°C (Belay
Simane et al., 1999) for each kilometer increase in elevation above sea level. Storing seed at
high altitudes will therefore tend to increase the storage life and decrease the losses in seed
provided it is kept out of direct rays of the sun (FAO, 2017).
2.8. Effect of storage methods on viability and vigor
17
According to Kiya (2014), facilities, hygiene, and monitoring must all be adequate for
effective, long term storage. In closed structures (granaries, warehouses, hermetic bins, silos),
control of cleanliness, temperature, and humidity is particularly important. It also very
important to manage pests and diseases since damage caused by pests (insects, rodents) and
molds can lead to deterioration of facilities (e.g. mites in wooden posts) and result in losses in
quality and food value as well as quantity (Zewdie Bishaw, 2004)..
The highest seed yield in agriculture achieved in normal condition of nutrition and
environmental conditions (Kiani et al., 2013). The storage condition affected on seed quality
and in final on seed yield after cultivation (Kapoor et al., 2010). The storage potential of seed
lots is related to their stage of deterioration (vigour status) on entering storage. If the storage
environment exerts any form of stress (e.g. changes in temperature or relative humidity in
uncontrolled storage), high vigour seed lots will be better able to withstand such
environmental stresses and will decline in quality at a slower rate than lower vigor seed lots
(Shelar et al., 2008). Even under controlled storage conditions (i.e. low temperature and low
seed moisture content), performance after storage is dependent on the vigor status of the seed
lot (ISTA, 2009).
Besides the harvest season, storage conditions are also extremely important for the
maintenance of seed physiological performance from the field (kiaya, 2014). Under
inadequate conditions, seeds may suffer a considerable loss in quality up to the sowing time
(Scariot et al., 2017). One of the factors that may influence storage quality is the ability of the
system to avoid gas exchange with ambient air, since it directly influences the respiratory
rates of the seeds (Gupta A, 2004). Thus, the hermetic storage may conserve the seeds for a
longer period of time, in comparison to the conventional storage, because it diminishes the
gas exchanges between the seed mass and the external environment, thus reducing the
18
respiratory rate, the attack of pests and, consequently, deterioration (Jonfia-Essienet al.,
2010).
2.9. Seed Quality
Quality seed is at the core of the technology package needed to increase agricultural
production, food production, and rural economic development (Alemu Dawit, 2011), and also
Quality seed should have the: high germination and vigor, genetically and physically pure,
free from seed born disease and insect pest with relatively low moisture contain (Verma et al.,
2007).Recognition of these quality parameters led to the establishment of field and seed
standards, and different test methods and procedures to verify whether the seed for sale meets
these standards (Zewdie Bishaw, 2004).
2.9.1. Seed quality test
To identify the quality problems and their probable cause through determine their quality that
is their suitability for planting, to determine the need for drying and processing and specific
procedures that should be used (singh, 2015).
The primary aim of the seed testing is to obtain accurate and reproducible results regarding
the quality status of the seed samples submitted to the seed testing laboratories (ISTA,2004).
Seed testing is determining the standards of a seed lot viz. physical purity, moisture and
germination thereby enabling the farming community to get quality seeds (Singh, 2011).
19
2.9.2. Physical quality
Purity analysis is to determine the percentage composition by weight of pure seeds, seeds of
other species, and inert particles that make up the sum total of the sample (Government of
Alberta,2009. The laboratory analysis also identifies and quantifies impurities (seeds of other
crops, weeds and inert matter) that may occur in the seed lot (ISTA, 2004). Purity test is the
first test to be made. Seed samples can contain impurities such as weed seeds Umaraniet al,
(2006). Pure seed is defined as seeds of the cultivar stated by the sender or found to
predominate in the purity test (Khare and Bhale, 2005). It is the seed of an allotted crop
produced by a grower, which includes all botanical varieties and cultivars of that particular
species (ISTA, 2004).
2.9.3. Thousand Seed Weight
Thousand seed weight is usually performed at the same time during the purity test (ISTA,
1996). It can be determined through two methods such as eight replications of 100 seeds each
were taken randomly from the pure seed fraction and weighed and then calculate the average
weight per 100 seeds and directly counting thousand seed and weighing (Ralph, 1997). A
thousand seed weight within the seed lot may vary due to different factors such as varietal
differences, interplant competition for light, water, and nutrient and the effect of diseases that
contribute to a wide range of seed size (Zewdie Bishaw, 2004). The sample of seed lot is
screened to simulate what would happen when the seed lot is cleaned and processed, and then
1000 seeds are weighed to produce the weight of 1000 seeds in grams (ISTA, 2005). It has the
advantage to calculate sowing rates accurately a 1000-seed weight is needed with a
germination test (ISTA, 2004). During screening a small seeds are removed with processing
(Fuziana, 2011).
20
2.9.4. Moisture Content
Moisture content is one of the most important factors determining grain/seed quality during
harvesting, storage, trading, processing, and transportation because high moisture will create
problems for farmers, especially during postharvest activities such as mold growth, higher
insect infestation, loss in seed germination, and low market price (Hossain,2016). Moisture
content of cereal grains/seeds is one of the most important characteristics for determining
quality. It is important in determining the proper time for harvest and the potential for safe
storage (Zewdie Bishaw, 2004). It is also an important factor in determining the market price,
because the dry matter of grain/seeds has more value than the water it contains and because
costs of drying for safe storage must be taken into account (Weinbergaet al., 2008).
Traditionally, cereal grain/seeds has maximum moisture content (MC) of 12.5 percent at
receivable and this has been set to comply with the international shipping standard of 12%
moisture content (Nigel, 2006). Grains (barley, corn, millets, oats, rice, rye, sorghum, triticale,
and wheat) containing 12 percent moisture or less and pulses (beans, soybean, chickpeas,
lentils, and dry peas) containing 10 percent moisture or less can be safely stored for food
purposes indefinitely (Ralph, 1997). Mould and fungi development increase, colour darkens
and the exposure of the grains/seeds to moisture starts to stimulate germination, commonly
referred to as sprouting (Stuart et al., 2010). In the processing of grain for flour and other food
products and for animal feeds, moisture content of the materials is important information for
efficient processing, achieving desired behavior of the materials, and in obtaining desired
high-quality products (Fuzianaet al., 2011). Standard methods for determining moisture in
grain/seed require oven drying for specific time periods at specified temperatures by
prescribed methods. Because such methods are tedious and time consuming, they are not
suitable for general use in the grain trade, and other rapid testing 12 methods have been
21
developed (Struat.o.Nelson and Trabelsi S, 2010).Most of the modern practical grain moisture
testers work on the principle of sensing electrical characteristics of the grain, which are highly
correlated with moisture content (Stuart et al., 2010).
2.9.5. Physiological seed quality test
The physiological quality of the seed includes germination capacity, viability, and vigor.
Germination capacity refers to the ability of the seed to emerge and develop into a normal
plant under favorable conditions (Dekker, 2004). ISTA (2004), define germination as the
emergence and development of the seedling to a stage where the aspects of its essential
structures indicate whether it is able to develop further into a satisfactory plant under
favorable conditions. Seed vigor becomes important when environmental stresses occur at
sowing and it is particularly relevant in species that are more sensitive, or when species are
sown in mixtures and seedling competition becomes a factor. According to ISTA (2004), seed
vigor is the sum total of those properties of seeds which determines the level of activities and
performance of the seed lot during germination and seedling emergence.
22
Chapter 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1. Description of the Study Area
The study was carried out in Wenberma District west Gojjam zone ofAmhara region of
Ethiopia, during 2019/2020 maincropping season. Itis located 36º49’O” E longitude and 10º
41 ‘O”N Latitude with an altitude of 2500 m a.s.l and also the administrative town of
Wenberma is Shendi.
It is located at about 165 km Southwest of Bahir Dar and 426 km from Addis Ababa.
Its annual rain fall is 1100-1500 mm; the agro ecology is Weinadega and kola. Wenberma has
ideal soil and climatic condition for the production of many crops. Maize, bread wheat, teff,
pepper, finger millet, potato, vegetables, coffee, sugarcane, haricot bean and sesame are
grown in the farming system (WWBoARD, 2020).
23
Figure 1: Geographical map of the Study Area
3.2. Sampling size and survey of seed for harvestingand post-harvest Methods
The study was conducted in Wenberma District in West Gojjam zone of Amhara region
North western Ethiopia during 2019/2020 cropping season. This wereda was selected
purposively on the basis of its large wheat seed production area, number of seed growers and
representativeness of the farming system. Sample wheat seed growers were randomly selected
from the list of farm households in the study areas, Markuma (211 seed producers),Waz (269
seed producers) and Dend (69seed producers) According to (WWBoARD, 2020). The sample
size was determined proportional to the size of wheat seed grower farmers and use of post-
harvest technologies. The structured questionnaire was administered via these sampling units.
N
n= (Yamane, 1967)
1+ N ( E) 2
24
Where n =sample size; N=total seed producers and E= level precision
When N=549; E=8%
549
n= =122
1+549 ( 0.08 ) 2
From this total samples distribute each kebele with in the proportion of their amount of seed
multiplier persons. Markuma 47, Waz zinges 60 respondents’ and also from Dend kebele 15
seed multipliers.
3.2.1. Seed sampling
Harvesting and post-harvest methods used in the study areas were (Traditional and Modern
harvesting methods) and also different post-harvest methods were applicable for laboratory
test. For laboratory test, seed samples from harvesting methods were collected from 22
farmers all kebeles randomly 11 from modern harvesting and threshing method (MHTM) and
11 traditional harvesting and threshing methods (THTM) by using mathematical calculation
from the total seed multipliers. On the other hand four samples were taken randomly selected
from three kebeles (one kg Store in Gota and one kg store in Quintal, one kg store in PICS
and ware house store from Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE) purposely selected from
voluntary and acceptable respondents. From field samples by picked up the all fallen seeds
inside the quadrant after harvesting and threshing the combiner and also manual using X-
fashion at five places layout the quadrant and measuring in g and convert to kg finally has
been gotten total plot grown area seed loses.
25
3.3. Methods of Data Collection
The study contained both primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected from the
sample farmer respondents, Wereda agricultural experts, federal seed enterprise experts and
personal communication and secondary data from published (literatures and journals) and
unpublished materials, internet, District and zonal Agricultural offices. To realize the
interview schedule, enumerators were first recruited and trained on methods of data collection
and the contents of the interview schedule. Questionnaire was pre-tested prior to the
implementation of the interview.
3.4. Seed quality Tests
All samples were analyzed for seed quality (physical purity, thousand seed weight,
germination). All tests were conducted according to ISTA rules (ISTA, 2004). The samples
collected during the survey, the first from modern harvesting and threshing method (MHTM)
the second sampling was traditional harvesting and threshing method (THTM) and analyzed
for seed quality test in three replication. For Storage Methods (storage in quantal,storage in
Gota, Storage in pics and storage in Ware house) four kg of samples were collected from
different storage methods within four replication (ISTA, 1999). Purity test was conducted at
the seed testing laboratory College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar
university and physiological quality tests was conducted at Ethiopian seed Enterprise Seed
laboratory test room at Bahir Dar branch. The samples were collected during the survey for
analyze for moisture content, physical purity, thousand seed weight and germination.
26
3.4.1. Physical purity test
Samples were collected from harvesting methods (manual and combiner) during survey
were subjected to the physical quality analysis. A sample of 1kg from each source was well
mixed and reduced to sub-sample (working sample) of 120g using mechanical seed divider
with three replication of 40g and was divided into four fractions (pure seed, other crop seed,
weed seed and inert matter) and analyzed. For testing Seed storage structure (storage in
quantal,storage in Gota, Storage in pics and storage in Ware house) quality test was Four
replication 25g were divided into four fractions (pure seed, other crop seed, weed seed and
inert matter) and analyzed After analysis, the percentage of each fraction (based on weight)
was calculated as follows (ISTA, 1996).
weight of Pure Seed

Purity = x100
Weight of total Sample
3.4.2. Thousand Seed weight determination
Thousand seed weight was determined by counting thousand seed by manual counting
techniques from pure seed fraction in three and four replicates of 1000 seed and the average
seed weight was calculated (ISTA, 1996).
3.4.3. Moisture determination
27
Four replicates each with 13-15 g of seed were used to determination seed moisture content
following ISTA rules (ISTA, 1996). Samples collected from different storage structure. Three
replication for harvesting techniques (HT) the sample seeds collected from different
harvesting methods. Both methods were determined by Direct seed Moisture Taster
(Hydrometer G 86 From ESE Seed Laboratory).
3.4.4. Physiological quality test
The physiological seed quality test was the germination test and speed of Germination of was
determined, and also which determines the germination and subsequent seedling emergence.
of the seed lot.
3.4.5. Germination test
Germination test was conducted according to the ISTA (2004) rules, by taking three hundred
seed from pure seed fraction of each seed samples and planted on germination dish. Three
replicates of 100 seeds were planted harvesting techniques (HT) and four replication (storage
structure) placed at room temperature for 8 days until the final count was taken. On 8th days of
the final count seedlings were classified into normal, abnormal seedlings and dead seeds. The
germination percentage was calculated as follows
Number of Normal Seed lings

Germination (%) = ×100
Total Number of seed sown
28
3.4.6. Speed of germination
Three replicates each with 50 seeds were planted from each sources and kept at room
temperature until no further germination took place. Starting at fourth day of planting, each
day normal seedlings were counted until all seeds capable to produce normal seedlings had
germinated. An index was calculated by dividing the number of seedlings counted each day
for number of the days in which they were counted as follows (Maguire, 1962).
No . of normal Seedlings+…+ No . of Normal Seedlings

Speed of Germination (%) =
Days of first count days of Final count
3.4.7. Seedling shoots and root length
The seedling shoot and root length were assessed after the final count in the standard
germination test. Ten normal seedlings were randomly selected from each replicate. The shoot
length was measured from the point of attachment to the cotyledon to the tip of the seedling.
In the same way, the root length was measured from the point of attachment to the cotyledon
to the tip of the root. The average shoot or root length were calculated by dividing the total
shoot or root lengths by the total number of normal seedlings measured (Fiala, 1987).
29
3.4.8. Seedling dry weight
The seedling dry weight was measured after the final count in the standard germination test.
Ten randomly selected seedlings from each replicate were cut free from their cotyledons and
placed in envelopes and dried in an oven at 80 ± 1 °C for 24 h. The dried seedlings were
weighed to the nearest two place gram and the average seedling dry weight was calculated
according to (Fiala, 1987).
3.4.9. Vigor index
For each seed sources two vigor indices were calculated. Seedling vigor index I was
calculated by multiplying the standard germination percentage with the average sum of the
seedling length at final day of germination test. Seedling vigor index II was calculated by
multiplying the standard germination percentage with mean seedling dry weight (Fiala, 1987).
V.I = (G %) X (L), where G% is the standard germination percentage L is the seedling length
in (cm) V.II = (G %) X (DW), where G% is the standard germination percentage DW is the
seedling dry weight in (g).
In addition to questionnaire survey, harvesting lose also picked directly on field during
harvesting time determined by using 1x1m2 quadrant with five replicates per hectare on an X
fashion for both harvesting methods (manual and combine harvesting). Fallen seeds were
hand-picked from the whole quadrate and the amount lost calculated based on the total area
30
cultivated. Percentage lost calculated based on total production for the cultivated land. The
result was reported based on percentage.
3.5. Experimental Design
The experiment was contained both laboratory with complete randomized design (CRD) and
field (quadrant sampling) techniques. Harvesting and Post-harvest methods were used as
treatment of the study, in laboratory test. Complete Randomize design with four replication
for laboratory test for storage quality test and three replication harvesting techniques (HT)
seed quality test. The quadrant techniquies (X fashion) 1m x 1m (Engeman, Ray T. Sterner.
2002) also important for estimation of seed losses by picked up the all fallen seeds the field
(quadrant) immediately after harvesting of bread wheat both manual and combine harvester
by measuring the lost seeds in g and convert to kg then calculating total plot area lost .
3.6. Method of Data Analysis
Questionnaires were edited for completeness and consistency followed by data cleaning and
explanation. The data was coded and checked for any errors and omissions. The Statistical
Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 20 (Soleman H.Abu-Bader, 2011) was used to
analyze the collected survey using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Data collected
from laboratory test were analyzed using the hypothesizes T-test for samples collected from
manual harvesting and combiner harvesting and threshing methods. And also samples
collected from postharvest technologies a procedure of SAS version 9.2software for analysis
31
of variance (ANOVA) (Nourse, et al 1978) sampled collected from Different Storage
structures. Samples collected from field by using quadrant was analyzed by excel.
Chapter 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1. Demographic and Household Characteristics
House hold characteristics in the study area were classified based on distribution of household
by sex, age, family size and educational level.
4.1.1. Distributions of household by sex
The distribution of household by sex in the study areas were mainly male headed. About
87.7% households were male headed in three kebeles, in the survey areas (Table 2). Any
changes in farming and post-harvest technologies need to take into account the effects on both
genders to maintain this balance. Similarly Tiruneh et al. (1999) found that the decision to
grow improved Bread wheat varieties is a joint decision by over half of male-headed
households in Central Ethiopia. The survey result showed that female headed household
contribution in wheat production is only about 12.3% from sample farmers (Table 2). This
was attributed to various reasons including the problem of economic position of female
32
headed households such as shortage of labor, land, limited access to information and required
inputs, and other cultural influences. Men have an overall responsibility and contribute to all
farm operations and decision-making whereas; women can usually give their opinion for
made Gota (Stroud and Mekuria, 1992).
Table 2: Number and proportion of sample households by sex at Wenberma district during
2019/2020 Main cropping season
Gender
Male % Female % Total %
Kebele Dend 15 12.3 0 0 15 12.30
Markuma 38 31.15 9 7.34 47 38.52
Waz 54 44.26 6 4.92 60 49.18
Total 107 87.71 15 12.30 122 100
4.1.2. Distribution of sample household by age and family size
The average age of household was 34.44 years and ranges from 17 to 67years (Table 3). More
than half of the sample farmers were below average age, indicating the involvement of young
generation in farming activities, which has a positive effect on technology adoption and
33
practical application of extension services i.e. 34.33,34.4 and 34.98 were Dend ,Markuma and
waz,respectively (Table 3). According to Gezahagn, (2008) as the size of the household
increases the adoption of new technology also increases. This is because a family with large
number of household affords to provide greater amount of labor than that might be required
by improved wheat technologies.
The mean family size of the respondents was about 3.47 persons per household with a range
from 1 to 8 persons. On the basis of the kebele, the average family size was 2.53, 3.72 and
4.02 for dend, markuma and waz, respectively (Table 3).
Table 3:- Distribution of sample household by age and family size

Kebeles N Mini Max Mean family size in N Min Max Mean
Age Number
Dend 15 25 50 34.33 Dend 15 1 5 2.53
Markuma 47 19 67 34.4 Markuma 47 1 8 3.72
Waz 60 17 65 34.98 Waz 60 1 7 4.15
Total 122 17 67 34.44 Total 122 1 8 3.47
4.1.3 Educational level of the household
34
The educational level of individuals in the study areas were observed that, about 80.33 % of
farmers could be read and write and also 19.67 % could not be read and write (Table
4).Rahmeto (2007) reported that farmer educational level influenced the adoption of new
agricultural technologies. Farmers with better education should be aware of information
sources and are more efficient in evaluating and interpreting available information about
innovations than those with less education (farmers those could not be read and write).
Table 4: Educational level of the householdat Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main
cropping season
Educational level
can read and write % cannot read and write % Total
Kebeles Dend 11 9.02 4 3.28 15
Markuma 34 27.87 13 10.66 47
Waz 53 46.72 7 5.74 60
Total 98 80.33 24 19.67 122
4.1.4. Number of cattle production and land resource the farmers
The average number of cattle 7.15 and ranges from 0 to 26 (Table 5). Those indicating that
the Number of cattle was very important for generation in farming activities and threshing
35
purpose although the farmers have no cattle production was difficult to generating farming
activities i,e during ploughing, threshing and planting time cattle’s have its own advantage .
From the survey result markuma was highest cattle production (9.4) catteles, i.e. 6.47, 9.4 and
5.58dend,markuma and Waz,respectively (Table 5). In the study area land resource was the
pillars for seed production, 1.99 was the average allocation in the study area from 0 to 8
hectare (table 5). Even though some farmers were have not self-land resource, i.e. they
produce seed by buying the land from other farmers in the form of contract from 1-3 cropping
season. The 1.67, 2.29 and 2.02 for dend, markuma and Waz was the average land allocation
each kebeles, respectively (Table 5). According to AbrhamAssefaet al, (2010) reported that
Livestock and land remain the most important component in Ethiopian farmers’ lives for daily
survival and economic security. However, cereal cropping is highly prioritized at government
and farm level at the cost of the livestock subsector, the environment, and natural resources.
Table 5: Number of cattle production and land resource in ha at Wenberma district during
Cattle prod N Min Max Mean land resource N Mini Max Mean
Dend 15 3 13 6.47 Dend 15 0 3 1.67
Markuma 47 0 18 9.4 Markuma 47 0 8 2.29
Waz 60 0 26 5.58 Waz 60 0 4 2.02
Total 122 0 26 7.15 Total 122 0 8 1.99
4.1.5. Source of labor for seed production
36
Wheat production is follow the sequential farming operations such as land preparation,
sowing, weeding, harvesting, threshing, winnowing, seed storage and marketing. Family was
the minor source of farm labor for bread wheat seed production in the study areas. The survey
result showed that the contribution of family labor in wheat production is about 22.95 %,
whereas hired labor contribution of farm activities was 77.05% (Table 6).The Result nearly
Similarly aginst to GirmaBoliso (2018) , reported thathired labor contribution of both family
and hired labor together for farm activities were 66.6% and 68.6% at Bore and Anna Sora
Districts, respectively. This implies that the majority of the respondents in the study areas
mainly used hired labour contribution.
Hired labour for seed production total
Yes % no % %
Kebeles Dend 14 11.48 1 0.82 15 12.30
Markuma 29 23.77 18 14.75 47 38.52
Waz 51 48.80 9 7.34 60 49.18
Total 94 77.05 28 22.95 122 100
Table 6 : Source of labor for seed production at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main
cropping season
37
4.1.6. Grown Bread wheat, Varities and criteria’s to selection
During the 2019/2020 cropping season, two improved varieties (kekeba and ogolocho) of
bread wheat (i.e. Kekeba and oglocho) were grown by farmers in the study area. About 51.6%
and 48.4% of farmers had produced bread wheat varieties, respectively (Table 7). The local
landrace covers the highest wheat production in the study area. On the other hand the farmers
were selected those two improved bread wheat verities were based on there get higher
yield ,size of the seed, resistance to hard wind and quality of the food 64.8%,31.1% ,3.3% and
0.8% ,respectively(Table 7). This finding is in agremment with Karta KaskeKalsaet al, (2019)
the main reason why those obsolete varieties were dominant in the studied area attributed to
farmers’ perception that these varieties are relatively high yielding, despite their susceptibility
to rust diseases.
Table 7: Grown Bread wheat at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season
N % Criteria’s to selection N %
No 0 0 quality of food 1 0.8
Yes 122 100 size of the seed 38 31.1
Kekeba 63 51.6 get higher yield 79 64.8
Ogolocho 59 48.4 cannot drop by wind during maturity 4 3.3
Total 122 100 Total 122 100.0
38
4.1.7. Seed Source and reasons for select quality seed
Farmers used informal sources such as own saved seed, local market/relatives, which
accounted for 73.8% and 1.6%, 6.6% and 18% for all three kebeles, respectively (Table 8). In
agreement with Girma Boliso(2018) reported that distribution of formal seed sources were
not enough to meet the increased demand of the farmers for improved seed, they were used
informal sources such as own saved seed, local market and relatives, which accounts 52.9%
and 29.5%, 33.3% and 49% and 15.7 % and 21.6% in Bore and Anna Sorra Districts,
respectively .
Farmers use different sources of seed for their production. The 73.8% of the respondents
indicated their source of seed was Ministry of Agriculture, whereas 1.6%, 6.6% and 18% of
the respondents indicated their source of seed to be research centers, own seed and local
market. Their reason for seed selection were productivity (45.1%), replacing their old variety
(9%), and quality (45.9%) (Table 8).
Table 8: Seed Source and reasons for select quality seed at Wenberma district during
reason for select qty seed N % Source of Seed N %
to replace the old type from Ministry of

11 9.0 90 73.8
agriculture
to get better quality university/research

56 45.9 2 1.6
center
to get more produce 55 45.1 own seed 8 6.6
39
Total from relatives/local
122 100.0 22 18.0
market
4.1.8. Farmers Agronomic Practices of Wheat Production
The respondents were minimize their weeds by herbicide Application (75.4%) and some of
them were hand weeding (24.6%) (Table 9).This idea inlined with Beyene Hailemariamet al,
(1991).Application of herbicides or hand weeding is the most commonly recommended weed
control measure in wheat farm.
Regarding the method of planting, the respondents indicated that they carryout wheat sowing
by 100.0% use row planting (Table 9).
There was a variation in the seed rate used by farmers in the study area that range from 100 kg
ha-1 to 400 kg ha-1. About 60.5%were responded that they used seed rate of 251-300 kg ha-
1), while those farmers that sow wheat at rate of 151-200kg,201-250 kg and 301-400 kg were
1.6 %,11.5%and 26.2%, respectively (Table 9). The recommended seed rate is 150 kg ha−1
for hand broadcasting and 125 kg ha−1 for drilling both for bread and durum wheat (IAR,
2010). The justification given by farmers for using the highest seed rate is due to poor quality
of the seed and in appropriate land preparation. In the study area all of the sample farmers
(100%) have applied inorganic (DAP and/or Urea) fertilizers to their wheat crop as a single
dose at planting time only.
40
Table 9: Agronomic practice of bread wheat at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main
cropping season
Per
Frequency cent
Weeding practice of Yes 30 24.6
No 92 75.4
Bread wheat
151-200 2 1.6
201-250 14 11.5
250-300 kg 74 60.7
Seed rate
300-400 32 26.2
Total 122 100.0
Planting Line
122 100.0
Method
Broad 0 0.0
Fertilizer No
0 0
Application Yes
122 100.0
41
4.1.9. Sowing time and the appearance of herb
The survey result showed that farmers start planting bread wheat with the onset of the rain
which is in most cases is from first July-August 30, with the optimum rain falling from or the
maximum concentration of planting date from July 15 to August 7 (Table 10). According to
Williamson et al, (2008)reported that different rates per unit area were used but not justified,
with some farmers determining their own preferred rates, a common practice which can result
in unnecessary costs (too frequent spraying), pest resistance, and human health issues
(excessive pesticide use).
Table 10: Sowing time and the appearance of herb
Time of bread Wheat seed sown N % when herb appear N %
first July 65 53.3 very young 4 3.3
at the end of July 31 25.4 Blooming 88 72.1
first august 21 17.2 during harvesting 17 13.9
at the end of august 5 4.1 in all stage 13 10.7
Total 122 100.0 Total 122 100.0
42
4.1.10. Farmers seed cleaning and threshing methods
The purpose of seed cleaning is to improve the physical quality of the seed by removing inert
matter, weed seed and other crop seeds, broken seeds or disease/insect damaged seeds. Seed
cleaning is carried out at different stages, right after threshing of the crop using wooden
implements (mantarebia, lameda) or at a later stage just before planting using homemade tools
(sefed, won fit). The study showed that about 49.2%, 25.4%, 12.3% and 13.1% of the farmers
clean the seed to improve quality, remove inert matter and other crop seeds, remove broken
seeds and avoid insect and disease damaged seeds, respectively (Table 11).The result confirm
to GirmaBoliso (2012) showed that about 37.2%, 18. 6%, 16.3% and 29.9% of the farmers
clean the seed to improve quality, remove inert matter and other crop seeds, remove broken
seeds and avoid insect and disease damaged seeds, respectively. On the other hand, in the
study area the respondents threshing condition of their floor were different floor for different
crop, prepare floor for new crop, using large polyethylene and the same for every year were
(55.7%,36.9%,7.4% and also 0%) , respectively (Table 11).
Table 11: Reasons clean bread wheat seed and Threshing Condition of bread wheat floor at
Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season
Reasons clean bread wheat seed N % Threshing Condition N %
to improve quality prepare new floor for new

60 49.2 45 36.9
crop
remove /damaged seeds 31 25.4 the same for every year 0 0
43
to remove weed seeds 15 12.3 different for different crop 68 55.7
to remove insects that cause

16 13.1 Clean polyethylene 9 7.4
disease
Total 122 100.0 122 100.0
4.1.11. Sources of information for wheat Technology in study area
Most wheat growers were aware of and had information on improved wheat varieties,
agrochemical inputs, agronomic packages and seed storage. From the survey area the
respondents had information from kebele agri experts about farm, weed, seed storage and
seed threshing, whereas the farmers have no information about herbicides. The formal
agricultural extension service was the main source of information for new technologies such
as improved varieties, wheat agronomy, and fertilizers like medias/radio/TVs’ and mobile
phone (25.4%) ,traders for weed control and researchers 9.8% and 6.6%, respectively a good
source for farmers agricultural practice in the study area (Table 12). This result nearly similar
to Zewdie Bishaw (2004) reported that about 90% of farmers get information about new
technologies such as improved varieties, wheat agronomy, fertilizers, and herbicides through
formal agricultural extension services in major wheat producing parts of the Ethiopia and also
Tilahun Alaye (2019) reported that, there is no formal system of disseminating market
information to beneficiaries. The result also showed that 25.8% and 98.1% of the respondents
have access to credit and storage facilities respectively.
44
However, the survey results show that farmers use multiple sources of information such as
neighbors and other farmers. These appeared to be the second most important informal source
of information next to the extension services. Particularly information concerning improved
varieties, wheat agronomy and fertilizer a farmer gets from his/her neighbor of other farmers
play significant role in wheat production. According to World Bank (2011) places
government researchers and extension officers, and farmers in good stead for further capacity
building in post-harvest loss preventions, an area in need of improvement across sub-Saharan
Africa.
Table 12: Sources of information for wheat production at Wenberma district during
Source of information Frequency %
kebeleAgri Experts 71 58.20%
Research centers 8 6.60%
Radios/tvs/mobile 31 25.40%
Traders shop 12 9.80%
4.1.12. Seed Management and harvesting Methods
In the study area, about 48.4%, 30.3% and 21.3% of the farmers were male and female
farmers, male farmer only and all family members i.e. including medium children’s,
45
respectively (Table 13).This indicates the respondents participate all family members in seed
planting.
In the study area collection method the farmers were by hand/traditional method, by using
both manual and machines (threshing and collection methods of) 18.9%, 45.9 %and 35.2%,
respectively (Table 14), this indicated that the majority of the farmers in seed producer area
were used machine (45.9%) for seed production.This finding studied by the authors Hassena
et al,(2000) since the topography, infrastructure, and proximity to repair and maintenance
services in the study area are more suited to combine harvesting than most other regions in
Arsi region.
Table 13: Seed Management and harvesting Methods at Wenberma district during 2019/2020
Main cropping season
Collection Method %
seed sowing in your family N % N
male farmer only 37 30.3 by hand 23 18.9
male and female farmers 59 48.4 modern harvester 56 45.9
all family members by both modern harvester

26 21.3 43 35.2
and using hand
Total 122 100.0 122 100.0
46
4.1.13. Bread wheat seed Storage Area and structure and duration of Time
The storage structures used Gota plastered by cow dung and recently introduce storage bag
(PICS) were the most common and popular storage structures in the area, pics(Purdue
Improved crop storage) 48.4%,40.4 % and 11.5% respectively (Table 15). According to
kartakaskakalsa, 2019 reported that Traditional storage containers of wheat seed in the
surveyed area included woven bags (jute bags and polypropylene bags) (90.7%, n=150), gota
or gotera (8.0%) and metal/plastic drums (1.3%).
In the study area the majority of the respondents 28.7% had gotten the amount of yield from
their wheat cover area were, 3000-4000kg/hac (30-40 quintals/hec) (Table 14). This finding
result greater than CSA,2018 data ( 27.36 qu/ha) and CSA,2019 (27.64qu/ha) studies all
over the countries, and also nearly confirm to WWBoARD,2021 report the famer gets
34.1qu/ha was recorded Actual data stated.
Table 14: Farmers estimation for Bread wheat seed yield and structure and duration of Time
at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season
Storage structure N % Yield/ha N %
sack/ quantal with chemicals 1000-2000kg/ha 12 9.8

48.2
59
Gota/made from mud 49 40.3 2000-3000kg/ha 30 24.6
using pick without any chemicals 14 11.5 3000-4000kg/ha 60 49.2
47
Ware house 0 0 4000-5000kg/ha 20 16.4
Total 122 100.0 122 100.0
4.1.14 Duration of bread wheat storage time, transportation system and moisture identification
Respondents stored bread wheat seed 0-18 months for different purposes i.e. for sale, for seed
and store due to big harvest. The majority of respondents’ were store their seeds seven to nine
months (46.7%), to the duration of harvesting to sowing time (December -July), and also
some farmers were store zero to three months(1.6%). Farmers store their seeds 0-3,4-6,7-9,10-
12,13-15 and 16-18 1.6%,26.2%,41.7%,11.5%,10.7% and 3.3%, respectively (Table 15).
Dessalegnet al,(2017) reported that agood harvest and good storage conditions equate to a
better income for the farmers than rain at harvest and poor storage of grains, especially for
storage of 3-12 months. On the other hand the study area the farmer was transport their seeds
after harvest (field to their house and their house to sales market) were by Gary, donkey and
human power 45.1%, 42.6% and 12.3%, respectively. The majority of the farmers were
transport their seeds by using Gary 45% (Table 15), in the study area there was no transport
by car and airplane (0%) (Table 16).
Farmers inspected their seed identifying moisture content was different at the field and
storage area the respondents check their moisture content by visual observation (change
colour of the seed), from the study area the respondents check moisture content of the seed by
touch using their hand, using tooth, measure their weight and other method 52.5%, 47.5%, 0%
and 0% (Table 16), respectively. From the study area the majority of the farmers were check
the moisture content of seed using hand and tooth (52.5%) and (47.5%), respectively, This
indicates that there is no moisture tester in the study area and supportive organ to give
guideline of moisture measurement /Technology for the impact of moisture contents. This
idea contrast According to Dessalegnet al, (2017) reported that Farmers expressed their
48
interest of monitoring moisture control at storage using moisture meter and dryer if the price
of moisture meter was a limiting factor.
Table 15: Duration of bread wheat storage time, transportation system and moisture
identification at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season
duration of bread transportation N % moisture N %

wheat storage time N % system identify
0-3 month Donkey touch by

47.
2 1.6 52 42.6 tooth 58
5
4-6 month Gary measure

32 26.2 55 45.1 0 0
by weight
By hand
7-9 month Human 15 12.3 touch
52.
57 46.7 Car 0 0 64
5
Air plan 0 0
10-12 month by other

14 11.5 0 0
method
13-15 month 13 10.7
16-18 month 4 3.3
49
Total 122 100.0 122 100
122 100.0
.0
4.1.15. Packaging and labeling of bread wheat seed
From the study area the respondents were no experienced to fill and marked the bread wheat
seed due to improper quality management of seed, No legal assurance all and also lack of any
training for marked the seed respondents said NO (100.00%) Table 16). Kiaya V, (2014)
reported that Packaging should be designed to prevent premature deterioration in product
quality, in addition to serving as a handling unit.
Table 16: Packaging and labeling of bread wheat seed at Wenberma district during 2019/2020
Main cropping season
Marketing 2019 2020

problem
Packaging bread wheat N % N % N %
Yes yes 122 100. 0 0.0

0 0 0
No 122 100.00 No 0 0.0 122 100.0
Seed labor test Yes 24 19.7
No 98 80.3
50
4.1.16. Reasons for Marketing Problem in the Study Area
The study area indicates that marketing problem was the major challenge due to lack of seed
quality, absence of marketing chain (producer to consumer) and inflation and defilation of
seed price (56.6%, 28.7% and 14.8%), respectively (Table 16) were the bottleneck for farmer
seed production on the target areas, respectively. This is similar to Gebremedhinet al. (2019)
also revealed that sesame farmers in Humera district (Northern Ethiopia) sell the produce
immediately after harvest when the price is the lowest. Price instability, lack of awareness,
absence of appropriate storage materials, lack of infrastructure, the exploitive influence of
middlemen and limited access to market linkage and information are market problems
indicated by respondents. Marketing is the final and decisive element in the post-harvest
system, although it can occur at various points in the agro-food chain, particularly at some
stage in processing (kiaya, 2014).
Table 17: Reasons of Marketing problem and Seed buyers at Wenberma district during
Reasons of Marketing problem Seed buyers 2019 2020

N %
N % N %
lack of quality of seed 69 56.6 Merchants 91 74.6 22 18.03
absence of marketing 35 28.7 31

chain(producer to consumer) 25.6
Farmers
51
inflation and defilation of Ethio-seed 50 41.0
18 14.8 0
seed price Enterprise
50 41.0
ASE 0 0
122 18.03
PSG o 0
4.1.17. Reasons for food insecurity and farmers suggest for post-harvest lose reduction
Post-harvest loss can occur at any stage along the post-harvest chain affecting crop quality
and food security efforts. Understanding the circumstances around harvest and post-harvest of
a given crop may help reduce post-harvest losses and improve income of farm household. At
the study area the respondents were reflect some points cause food insecurity in given area i.e.
drought, disease, lack of peace ,inappropriate post-harvest technology , weed problem and
fluctuation of weathering condition 1.6%,10.7%,6.6%,21.3%,12.3% and 47.5%, respectively
(Table 18). This idea inclined (McCann, 1995) uncertain rainfall and very low levels of
irrigation make intensive cultivation with improved seeds and fertilizer risky.
In the study area the majority of the respondents were states inappropriate post-harvest
technology (47.5%) lack of peace (21.3%) bottlenecks for food security ,the result similar to
(FAO, 2017),Post-harvest losses in seeds can lead to a significant economic loss to the food
supply chain actors and the nation at large.
52
In the study area the farmers suggest to minimize post-harvest lose put different directions i.e.
use appropriate post-harvest management, use appropriate ecology and pesticide use correct
loan services to purchase of seed were 54.1%, 41% and 4.9% %, respectively (Table 20)
according to (Mohamed Ali and AbrahamTadesse,2018) cultural practices such as prompt
harvesting, proper drying before storage, etc., use of resistant crop varieties, admixing grain
with teff, finger millet, or inert dusts, use of hermetic storage containers, treatment of grain
with pesticides, and use of combination of different compatible options in an integrated
manner using integrated pest management (IPM). However, more efforts are needed to utilize
the existing technologies and to develop new, affordable, and more effective technologies to
mitigate PHLs of the selected commodities based on a value chain approach.
Table 18: Reasons for food insecurity and suggestions to reduce post-harvest seed lossat
Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season
Suggestions to reduce N %
Reasons for food insecurity N % post-harvest loss
Drought use appropriate post-

2 1.6 66 54.1
harvest management
Disease use appropriate ecology

13 10.7 50 41.0
and pesticide use
lack of peace correct loan services to

8 6.6 6 4.9
purchase seed
post-harvest technology
problem during crop 26 21.3
production
weed problem 15 12.3
53
imbalance weathering
58 47.5
condition
Total 122 100.0 122 100.0
4.2. Estimated post-harvest loses of bread wheat using quadrant for different kebeles in
different harvesting methods.
The overall seed losses due to harvesting operation in bread wheat was estimated to be 127.95
kg/ha and 157.0 kg/ha when the farmers harvest their wheat using manual harvesting and
combine harvester, respectively (table 19). The main reason for this loses could be due to
topographical location, the presence of trees on the field (machines do not harvest near to the
trees for security reason). Tesfaye Solomon et al, (2010) reported the highest 277 and lowest
142 kg/ha losses in Arsi and western Tigray in traditional methods. In kebeles Markuma and
Dend the mean harvesting losses were 47.4 kg/ha and 51.96 kg/ha, respectively when the
traditional harvesting method was implemented (table 19). On the other hand when combine
harvester was used in waz zingis and markuma, the losses were 39.5 kg/ha and 59.23 kg/ha
respectively. when it express in percentage losse with in tota yield in a hectar for manual and
combine harvesting and threshing losse 4.74%/ha and 3.69%/ha recorded, respectively.This
could be due to the total yield in combine harvesting was greater as we compared to manual
harvesting methods.
Table 19: Harvesting Losses from each kebeles in kg /ha and % weight losses
Harvesting methods Losses from each kebeles in kg /ha and Total losses
% weight losses
Dend Markuma Waz zingis
Manual harvesting 1.96 28.65 47.4 127.95 kg/ha
% of losses 1.82% 1.63% 1.29% 4.74%/ha
Combiner harvesting 58.27 59.23 39.5 157.0 kg/ha
% losses 1.33% 1.01% 1.35% 3.69%
54
4.3. Cost -benefit analysis
4.3.1. Benefit of modern over traditional postharvest technologies
The two major harvesting & threshing technologies of bread Wheat in the study area was
traditional and modern harvesting methods. From the survey result the famers harvesting and
threshing by modern harvester have been a great benefit than the farmers harvesting and
threshing by traditionally the data recorded from the farmers that use both manual and
traditional harvesting got 950 ETB/50 kg. Farmers sold their seed 2246 ETB/Q (Table 20).
Those farmers who used modern harvesting techniques 7140 ETB NP were profitable
(including their lunch and dinner according to the farmers interview). Net cash flow=TH-MH
(11050 (including lunch and other materials)-4860=7140). This idea in Agreement with
Selesh Tilahun (2018) data collected from farmers and agriculture sector of north shewa
zone shows, to harvest one hectare of wheat costs 12.5 birrX240 labor hour =3000 birr
excluding cost of lunch.
4.4. Evaluation of seed quality Test
With the assumption that seed collected from 22 farmers, 11 for modern harvesting (MHT)
and traditional (THT) and four treatment from different storage Structures (storage in Gota,
Storage in quintals, Storage in PICS and Storage in warehouse) could vary in terms of their
physical purity, standard germination, and physiological performance.
55
4.4.1. Physical purity
The mean percentage of pure seed ranged from 95.69 ± 0.19% to 98. 87± 0.32%. Type of
storage did not affect the mean percentage of pure seed stored in different structures (F=2.31;
DF =3; P=0.13) (Table 20 and Appendix table 1). Storage in gota recorded the highest
amount of seed lose as we compared the other storage methods (4.31%) but storage in ware
house recorded the least amount of seed lose (1.13%). This could be due to agronomic
practices, weed management system, harvesting and threshing methods of farmers and also
different storage method did not affect on physical purity . According to (Karta kaske et al.,
2019) farmers can benefit from the introduction and the scaling up of improved storage
technologies such as hermetic bags.
Table 20: Mean percentage of Physical purity of the bread wheat collected from different
storage structures
Storage structures PS WS IM OCS MC TSW
StG 95.69 1.13 2.38 0.81 11.38 30.54

StQU 97.14 0.94 1.63 0.29 11.38 31.25
StPIC 97.09 0.75 1.68 0.49 10.93 32.95
StWH 98.87 0.33 0.69 0.13 11.13 32.33
LSD 2.67 1.09 1.95 0.56 0.71 12.67
Error ±4.50 ±0.45 ±2.40 ±0.20 ±0.32 ±100.98
StG=Storage in Gota, StQU=Storage in quintal, StPIC=Storage in pics bag, Store in Ware
House, PS=pure seed, WS=Weed seed, IM=inert matter, OCS=other crop seed,
MC=moisture contents, TSW=Thousands Seed Weight
4.4.2. Moisture Content
The mean percentage of moisture content of different storages ranged from 10.93 ± 0.19% to
11.38± 0.30% (Table 20). Type of storage did not affect the moisture content (F= 0.6; df= 3;
56
P=0.6282) (table 20 and appendix table 1). Gupta (2004) reported that the moisture content of
seeds did not vary much amongst the different storage structures due to previous harvesting
moisture content.
4.4.3. Thousand Seed weight
The Mean percentage of thousand seed weight different storage ranged from 30.54±0.29% to
33.00±9.90%. Type of storage did not affect the thousand seed weight (F= 0.05; df= 3;
P=0.9862). Each Storage materials mean percentage TSW were 30.54%, 31.25%, 32.95a%
and 32.33% for StG, StQ, Stpic and StWH, respectively, recorded from the (Table 21). This
idea similar to Scariot, et al. (2017) report. The report explains that seeds stored in the
hermetic system present no different result for each storage methods.
4.4.4. Standard Germination
The mean percentage of standard Germination was ranged from 74.0±3.67% (gota) to
95.5±9.73% (ware house). Type of storage affected standard germination (F=3.76; DF=3;
P=0.001) (Table 21 and appendix table 1). Storage in Gota recorded the highest amount of
seed lose (26%) but storage in ware house recorded the least (4.5%).It meight that standard
germination was affected by different factors such as biotic factors like weevils and Abiotic
factors such as gas exchange and also storage condition of the materials. According to the
recorded result storage in ware house was agood gas exchenge and also permanent prevention
methods for biotic factors as we compared to traditional storage methods. Storage in gota was
recorded the least standard germination because of absence of permanent control methods
from biotic factors and also abmbient gas exchenge was affected the seed. Alemayehu et al.
57
(1999) reported that germination of seed samples collected from farmers (with few
exceptions) met the minimum germination standard for certified wheat seed in Ethiopia.
Mean percentage of dead Seedlings (lost seedlings) from different storage materials storage
ranged from 3.75± 0.21% ( warehouse) to 19.75±0.19% (gota). The Storage structures
showed significant effect on percentage of dead seedlings (F=11.09; DF=3; P =0.009) (Table
21 and Appendix table 1). This implies that different storage structures might have different
effect on normal seedlings and the storage methods influenced on dea seedlings. This idea
inagrement with Chattha et al. (2012) a decrease in the germination percentage of wheat seeds
stored in different storage methods the conventional system over 12 months. And also an
other auther Alimatu (2016) reported that different storage structure’s (polythene bags, cotton
bags and glass containers) the mean percentage of dead seedling, seed vigor and germination
irrespective found to different.
Table 21: Mean percentage comparison of standard germination parameters among different
Storage Methods and ESE
Storage methods StDG Abs DS

StG 74.0c 3.75 19.75a
StQua 92.5ab 1.75 5.75b
StPic 89.75b 3.5 6.75b
StWH 95.50a 0.75 3.75b
LSD 3.93 4.8 5.50
Error ±9.73 ±9.77 ±19.08
StG=storage in Gota, StQu=Storage in quintals, StPiC=Storage in pics, StWH=Storage in

Ware House, StDG=Standard Germination, Abs=abnormal seedling, DS=dead seedling
4.4.5. Physiological seed quality (vigor) of bread wheat seed collected from farmers and ESE
Mean percentage of different Storage methods for shoot length ranged from (11.88±0.22 % to
12.88±2.46%) Type of storage did not show significant difference on (f=0.09; df=3;
58
p=0.9627) Table 22 and Appendix Table 1. Root length, Vig I and VIG II for different Seed
Storage methods and show significantly Difference, but SHL, SDW and SPD were does not
show significantly difference among them (Table 23) and (Appendix Table 1), ths idea
inclined to suma et al,2013.The changes in seedling vigour index also closely followed the
changes in viability, since vigour index is directly depending on germination percentage and
seedling vigor, The mean percentage shoot length the highest and the lowest 12.38 and 11.88
for Storage in pics and storage quintals, respectively. In case of Speed of Germination storage
the highest and the lowest was recorded from Storage in ware house and Storage in quintals
(26.98 and 11.01) cm, respectively (Table 23).
Table 22: Mean percentage comparison Physiological seed quality (vigor) of bread wheat
seed collected from farmers and ESE
Storage SHL RL SDW ViG I SpDG ViG II

methods
StG 12.3 17.63c 0.06 909.5b 11.15 4.60b
StQua 11.88 18.22bc 0.07 1093.13ab 11.01 6.40a
StPic 12.38 20.9a 0.07 1108.25ab 11.91 6.13ab
StWH 12.00 20.0ab 0.06 1147.75a 26.98 5.86ab
LSD 1.97 2.14 0.02 164.04 32.60 1.34
Error ±2.45 ±2.87 ±0.001 ±16941.778 ±668.92 ±1.13
StG=storage in gota, StQu=Storage in quintals, StPiC=Storage in pics, StWH=Storage in
Ware House, SpD=Speed of Germination, SHL=shoot length, RL=Root length,
SDW=Seedling Dry Weight, ViG I=VIGII
4.5. Physical and physiological Seed quality test in Traditional and Modern harvesting
Harvesting methods that the farmers used in the study area were showed significance effect (p
≤ 0.01) (Table 23), For Weed seed, moisture content, thousand seed weight and speed of
germination, by considering the recorded data havesting in combiner was given the highest
result it is iniciated more seed seed lost during sowing time of bread wheat. Because of less
59
agronomic practice(gives the highest weed seed result), no further drying process of the
moisture content and Non selective Techniques of modern harvesting methods (by visual field
observation on the study area, 2020 and 2019). According to Bishaw and van Gastel (2008),
appropriate agronomic practices, including selecting suitable land, planting, rouging, and
controlling weeds and pests, are factors in producing quality seed. While others were not
significantly difference, i.e. pure seed, inert matter, other crop seeds, Standard Germination,
Abnormal seed, dead seedling, shoot length and Root length (p≤ 0.01) for (Table 23).
Table 23: Mean percentage comparision b/n Modern and Tradional/Manual harvesting and
threshing methods
Variables Treatment means P-Value

Modern Manual
PS 93.52 94.23 0.19
WS 2.6 1.33 0.0006
IM 3.02 3.94 0.89
OCS 0.86 0.50 0.15
MC 12.70 11.54 0.0001
TSW 43.98 35.18 0.0001
SpDG 7.85 16.50 0.0001
StG 89.18 91.34 0.09
Abs 2.63 2.06 0.93
Ds 8.15 6.64 0.15
SL 12.77 12.74 0.93
RL 20.69 20.68 0.99
PS=pure seed, WS=Weed seed, IM=inert matter, OCS=other crop seed, MC=moisture
contents, TSW=Thousands Seed Weight, SpD=Speed of Germination, SHL=shoot length,
RL=Root length, StDG=Standard Germination, Abs=abnormal seedling, DS=dead seedling
60
Chapter 5.CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Conclusions
In the target area from survey result, the majority of the respondents grow bread wheat for
different purpose, Even though good agronomic practice mandatory for quality seed
production, but the majorityof the respondents poor manegment practice only managed by
herbicide (75.4%) of the rspondents used selectve herbicide not manual weed manegment
system. And also had not any awareness about packaging lebel(100%) and moisture tester
(98%).
The respondent’s harvest their bread wheat seed were manual (18.9%) and combine harvester
(45.9%), in the study area the majority of the farmers were harvest their bread wheat were
seed by combine harvester. And also the farmer’s seed storage structure also Quintals
(polypropylene bag (48.2%)), Gota (40.3%),and PICs bag (11.3%) No person stores their
seed on warehouse.
From the sampling (quadrant result) during combine harvesting and threshing recorded
(3.69%/ha) Manual harvesting was recorded (4.74%/ha) (only during harvesting not include
other post-harvest methods).
In standard Germination highly significantly different, storage in warehouse was taken good
performance of means of percentage germination and recorded the least quality seed lost
(95.5%) and (4.5%), respectively. Storage in Gota taken least means of percentage
germination and recorded the highest qulity seed lost (74.0%) and (26.0%), respectivly.
61
In dead (lost ) seedling storage gota recorded the highest means of percentage was recorded
(19.75%) and the least means of percentage was recorded from storage in ware house
(3.75%).
In combine and manual harvesting technologies (12.7% and 11.53%), thousand seed weight
(43.98 and 35.18% gram), respectively recorded.
This research would be conducted relatively similar agro ecologies and on a single Wereda it
should be conducted at different Agro ecologies and all over the country, region, Zones and
over the weredas, Further investigation should be important for estimation of bread wheat
seed losses harvesting to sowing steps.
5.2. Recommendations
 Giving continues training for farmers, extension experts and development agents by
concerned staff, protection, quality maintenance, harvesting and post-harvest seed lose
for sustainable quality seed production using manual weed manegment even if after
used selective herbicide because lack of awareness about tag fil.
 The farmers should be highly take care during harvesting time in order to clean the left
over seed on the field and also during combine harvesting after the machine harvest.
 Highly beneficial harvest their seed on combine harvestor to minimize seed lost from
the field and cost minimiazation with respect to good agronomic practice,good
62
topographic location ad also proper moisture content of the seed during harvesting
and threshing time.
 The famers should be store their seeds in well ventilated warehouse by taken good
protection for minimize seed lose during sowing.
63
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74
Appendices
Appendix Table 1:ANOVA table for Mean percentages of physical, physiological, vigour and
of different storage methods
Sources of Variation DF Ps Ws Im Ocs mc TSW

Trt 3 0.19 ns 0.47ns 0.47ns 0.35 ns 0.19ns 4.65ns
Error 12 0.32 ns 0.75ns 2.40ns 0.20 0.32ns 100.9ns
Total 15
p-value 0.12 0.61 0.52 0.21 0.63 0.99
Cv 2.19 11.4 7.3 10.4 5.03 13.69
Trt=treatment,Df=degree of freedom,Ps=pure seed,WS=weed seed,im=inert

matter,Mc=moisture content , Cv=coefficient of variance and TSW=thousand seed
weight=ns non Significance
Sources of DF StdG SpDG Abs DS SL RL
75
Variation
Trt 3 367.40** 668.91ns 0.47ns 211.67*** 0.22 ns 2.89ns
Error 12 9.73** 658 .61 ns 0.75ns 19.08*** 2.45ns 9.28ns
Total 15
p-value 0.001 0.98 0.497 0.009 0.96 0.06
Cv 3.55 14.8 11.4 48.54 12.9 8.85
Continued (appendix table 1)
Trt=treatment,Df=degree of freedom, Cv=coefficient of variance,StdG=standard

Germination,Abs=abnormal seed,DS=damaged seed,SL=shoot length and Root legth
Continued(appendix 1)
Sources of DF Sdwt Vig I Vig II
Variation
Trt 3 0.00ns 45105.95 ns 1.14 ns
Error 12 0.00ns 16941.77 ns 1.13ns
Total 15
p-value 0.73 0.09 0.14
Cv 18.72 12.22 18.5
Trt=treatment,Df=degree of freedom, Cv=coefficient of variance,SDWt=seedling dry

weight,Vig I=vigour index one and Vig II=vigor index two
Appendix table 2: A standard questionnaire for wheat bread production by postharvest

technology farm owners and their Experience for seed production
Part one: Identification
Apart from
76
1.1. ZONE: ____________ 1.2. District: _______________
1.4.village: _________________1.5. Date: ___________________ 1.6. The farmer's

Name_______________
Part Two: The Behavior of the Farmer
2.1. Gender
1. Male 2. Female
2.2.: Marital status 0. single 1.maried
2.3. The education of the farmer
0. No learned 1. Who can read and write
2.4. Your age: ___ _______ years
Part Three: The Origins of Racial Development
3.1 How Much of the Land You Produced in 2011 1. (by immersion) 2: Own land
Rented: _______
3.2. How many cattle do you have?Calf ________ cow ------ bull
3.4 house size, male ___ female ___ total__
Gender / Age Number
0. Female> 15 -------- 2. Female> 15----------
1. male>15 ---------- 3. Male <15---------------
4. Male>45 ………. 5. Female >45……………
3.5. Do you usually buy workers for crop production? Yes (1) No (2)
3.6. If yes, how many employees will you buy? _________
77
3.7. Did you get credit when buying seeds? Yes (1) No (2) QNA (3)
3.8. If yes, where do you get the credit?
0. Own 1. Rich farmers 2.Traders 3.Cooperatives 4. Microfinance
5.others
Part Four:
4. Grown bread wheat varieties
4.1. Do you usually grow bread wheat? Yes (1) No (2)
4.2. If yes, which varieties of bread wheat are currently planted?
4.3. Did you grow other types of bread wheat in the past?
4.4. Did you use improved breeds? Yes (1) No (2)
4.5. If yes, what varieties do you have to follow for improved species?
What criteria did you use?
0. Because of the quality of the food 1 size of seed. 2. The color of the grain is good 3. the
yield is 4. The quality of the straw.5.Because it sells at a good price 6. It is resistant to flood .7
Because it is stored so much 8. It is easy to collect 9. To be pesticide tolerant
Part Five: Seed Source
5.1. What was your first source of wheat seed?
0. Ministry of Agriculture 1. University / Research Center
2. Trader 3. Non-Governmental Organizations
4. Buy from the farmer 5. Exchange with other crop-workers
6. Others (specify) ----------------------
5.2. Buy For Sale Yes (1) No (2)
78
5.3. If yes, how often do you buy wheat seeds?
1. Period 2. Every year
3. Passed (every three or more years)
5.4. Reasons to buy quality seed, sources)?
1. To replace the old type 2. To get better seed quality
3. To get more produce 4. Others ……………… ..
Part Six: Farm Packages
6.1. Are suitable farm packages provided for each of the different types of upgrades? 1. Yes 2.
No
6.3.2. Time to sow _____________ Method of sowing
6.3.3. Line (1) Scatter (2) 6.3.4 Seed Rate Kg / ha _____________
6.4. A farmer's perspective on the use of fertile land? Good (1) Medium (2) Poor (3)
6.4.1. If soil fertility is low, fertilizer will be applied (1) yes 2 (No).
6.4. If yes, what do you use fertilizer for wheat production? 1. Animalfrog 2. Compost 3. Urea
(4): No fertilizer
6.4.3. If you use urea and / or DAP, what do you mean per kg / ha
To DAP________ to urea
6.5 Seed Production
6..1. Do you have a separate farm for bread wheat seed? Yes (1) No (2)
6. 5.2. If yes, how long is it? -------------- And distance from the other? ------------------------
6.5.6. Produce by contract seed with Agricultural Ministries, NGOs, Research Centers, or
Universities Yes (1) No (2)
79
6.5.8. If yes, when? ____________ 6.5.9. If yes, which crop? ___________
6.5.10. If not, do you want to produce seed by contract? Yes (1) No (2)
6.5.11. If yes, why? ______________________________
6.7. Crop
6.7.1. Do you identify wheat-like plants? Yes (1) No (2)
6.7.2. If yes, how do you get rid of such plants?
6.7.3. When is it (at what stage) when does the herb appear?
Very young (1) blooming (2) during harvesting (3)
Part - 7 Seed Management and production
7.1. Who is sowing seed in your family? 1. Female farmer only 2. Male farmer only
3. Male and Female Farmer 4. Children 5.All Family Members 6. Others (specify) ----
Part 8. Harvesting Threshing and processing of wheat seeds
8.1. What method of collection did you use? 1. Mnual 2. Combiner 3. Others (specify)
8.2. What is the condition of your threshing floor? 1. Prepare a new crop for all crops
2. The same goes for every year
3. Identify different crops
8.3. Why do they usually clean bread? 1. To improve quality 2. To remove minor / damaged
seed 3. To remove weeds (other crops) 4. To remove insects that causes disease
Part 9. Storage Area and structure
9.1. Which storage structure did you use?
1. The barn /gotain the house 2. Chemical with in the bag/quantals
80
3.PICS 4. Concrete wall and floor from air vent/ware house
9.2 How much do you keep your storage capacity? --------------------- Qt
9.3 Do you identify seed and grain? 1. Yes 2. No
9.4. How Long Have You Store Bread wheat? Month 1, 0-3 2, 4-6 3,7-9 4, 10-12 5, 13-15
6,16-18 7, 19-21 8, 22-24 9, Over 24 months
If you store bread wheat, have you ever checked the quality? 1, Yes 2. If yes, how often 1 2
3 4 5
9.6. How and by what do you transport it to the market after storing bread of wheat? 1. by
donkey 2 by 3.gary 4.car 5.air plan
Part 10.Packaging and labeling
10.1 Have you ever filled out and marked your bread wheat? 1. Yes 2 No
10.2Who is your bread wheat / buyer? 1. Ethio seed -Sector Enterprise 2. Amhara seed-Sector
Enterprise 3, trader 4; farmers
10.3. There is a problem with the marketing of bread wheat 1. Yes 2. No
10.3.1 If yes, what are the main problems ----------------------------------------------?
Part 11.In what way the moisture content of bread wheat identified and Causes and
Damages for Bread wheat seed severity level?
0. Touch by tooth 1. Measure by weight (by weight) 2. Touch by hand 3. Mention others
3. When storage at field level (specify pests) 4.When storage in the house (specify pests)
Part 13.Field Testing and Certification
14.1. Have you examined your farm land from outside regulatory experts? A / Yes if it counts
14.2 If yes, at what level? ----------------------------------------------- How often? ----------
14.3. Is the seed you used tested with a laboratory quality standard? A. Yes B. No
81
14.4 If yes, for what quality measures?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------
14.5. Has your organization hired or hired a specialist for internal field management research?
1 Yes 2 No
14.6 If no, who will inspect and manage your farm?
Agricultural experts ----- 1 in 1 to 5 Groups ------ 3
Regional Experts ---- 2 by Federal Experts ------- 4
14. Reasons for food insecurity?
1. Drought 2. Disease 3.Food shortages 4. Lack of peace 5.post harvest problems In crop
production7. Weed Problem
15. What do you suggest to reduce postharvest loss?
Use an Appropriate post-harvest management (1), appropriate ecological and pesticide use
(2),
Correct loan services to purchase seed (3)
Comments: ________________________________________________________
Standard Seed
class
Breeder/ Pre- Basic Certified Certified Certified Commercial/
basic C1 2 4
Pure seed (min %) 98 98 97 97 95 95
Other varieties (max %) 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5
Other crop seed (max %) 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5
Weed seed (max %) - 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.5
Inert matter (max %) 1 2 2 2 2 3
Germination (min %) 90 90 85 85 85 80
Moisture content (max 13 13 13 13 13 13
82
%)
Appendix Table 3: Minimum Seed Certification Standards of Wheat seed in Ethiopia QSAE,
2000
Appendix Table 4: An example of cost benefit analysis when the farmers use manual and
modern harvesting
In manual harvesting MH
Total yield 35.5 quantals ETB fFC/per TCP TY CP ETB NP
HL/per
Threshing 20 hl/hec 150 60
TCP 3000 1200 4200 36qu 135
Harvesting 10 hl/Hec 130 60
TCP 1300 600 1900
Mowing 15 Hl/hec 150 60
Sickle 15 120 1800
TCP 2250 900 3150
Total cost 6550 2700 1105 4860 7140 ETB
0
Note: TCP =total cost price, CP= cost price, TY=total yield, FC=food cost, NP= net
profit, ETB=Ethiopian birr
APPENDIX FIGURE
Appendix Figure 1: an example of pictures in the study area, seedling measure and laboratory
test
83
Combiner Harvester after harvesting An Example when the farmer threshing by oxen
threshing left over the seed.
Direct Measure of Moisture

Measure of shoot length
PICs storage type Well ventilated seed storage before tag

photo edited by AddisuBirhanu, (2020 and 2021)
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
The author, Addisu Birhanu was born from his father Birhanu Gelaw and his mother
Bitewesh Demem Kebede on December 1992 in Gimjabet wereda, in Awi Zone of the
Amhara Regional State. He attended his elementary and junior education at Dingusha
Elementary and Junior School from his birth place 2000-2007. Then, He went to
Bekele kassa Secondary and Preparatory School in 2008, where he had left for two years
and he join again and Start his education 2011 in shindy Bekele kassa secondary and
preparatory school now changed to shindy Secondary and Preparatory School and he
completed his preparatory education in 2015. After the completion of his high school
education and preparatory Education, he joined University of Gondar College Agriculture
84
and Rural transformation Now Changed to University of Gondar college of Agriculture
and Environmental Science in 2016 and after his Study graduated with BSc. Degree in
Plant Sciences on July 7,2018. Soon after graduation, he joined Bahir Dar University School
of Graduate Studies to pursue his M.Sc. in Seed Science and Technology by getting chance by
scholar ship.
85

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BAHIR DAR UNIVERTY

COLLEGE OF AGRICUTLURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

GRADUATE PROGRAM IN SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ASSESSMENT OF HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST METHODS ON

M.Sc. Thesis Research report

Addisu Birhanu Gelaw

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

COLLEGE OF AGRICUTLURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

GRADUATE PROGRAM IN SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ASSESSMENT OF HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST METHODS ON

M.Sc. Thesis Research report

Addisu Birhanu Gelaw

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

(Triticuam astivum L.) Losses, in Wenberma district, North western Ethiopia , We hereby

_______________ _______________ _______________

Name of External Examiner Signature Date

____________________ _____________ _______________

Name of Internal Examiner Signature Date

____________________ _________________ _______________

Name of Chairman Signature Date

This is to certify that entitled “Assessment of Harvesting and Post-Harvest Methods on

Name of the Student

Signature and date _____________________

Name of the Advisors

Signature and date_____________________

2) Dereje Ayalew (PhD) (Co-adviser)

Signature and date___________________

Furthermore, it is unfair to forget acknowledgement of Wenbermaworeda Agriculture and

1.2 .Statement of the Problem 3

Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 5

3.1. Description of the Study Area 19

4.1. Demographic and Household Characteristics 26

Chapter 5.CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 48

List of table’s page

List of Appendix Table Page

1.1. Background and Justification

1.2 .Statement of the Problem

1.3. Objectives of the study

1.2.2. Specific Objectives

It is a critical input in crop production whether agriculture is practiced at commercial or

In modern agriculture, seed is a vehicle to deliver almost all agriculture-based technological

Regions No of Area of production Yield ton/ha

2.4. Harvesting mechanisms of bread wheat

2.4.1. Post-harvest system

2.4.2. Post-harvest losses

2.5. Bread wheat seed production Constraints

2.6. Technologies and Practices to Reduce Post-Harvest Losses

2.7. Factors that initiate post-harvest Lose and Seed deterioration

2.7.1 Biotic Factors

2.7.2. Abiotic factors

2.9. Seed Quality

2.9.1. Seed quality test

2.9.5. Physiological seed quality test

3.1. Description of the Study Area

When N=549; E=8%

3.2.1. Seed sampling

3.4. Seed quality Tests

weight of Pure Seed

_______ _ _________

______________ _ _________

____________ _ _______