Application Note 23 Micrel

Application Note 23
MICRF001 Antenna Design Tutorial
by Tom Yestrebsky

Introduction using some basic terms. The problem is further simplified

because antenna systems in these applications are usually
Every wireless system is composed of the following five
connected directly to the transmitting and receiving units.
components:
It has been determined that the best overall antenna for such
• Data encoder
applications is simply a “piece of wire”. Certainly no antenna
• Baseband-to-RF transducer is less expensive, especially when the “wire” is built into the
• Antenna system electronic circuit board. It only remains then to choose the
• RF-to-baseband transducer form factor of this “wire.” By this we mean whether the wire is
straight, coil, or a single loop. In many instances even the
• Data decoder
form factor is dictated by product packaging constraints. For
This is illustrated in the block diagram of Figure 1. example, when the package must be very small and com-
The MICRF001 UHF receiver IC, developed by Micrel, pro- pletely enclosed, a coil or loop will be the preferred choice,
vides a low-cost solution for the RF-to-baseband transducer assuming the range constraint can also be met.
in Figure 1, for applications in the 300MHz to 440MHz The MICRF001 UHF receiver is designed to be connected
frequency band. Integrated and discrete solutions also readily directly to the antennas described above and achieve range
exist for the data encoder/decoder functions and for the base- performance adequate for most applications. Other high-
band-to-RF transducer (commonly called the transmitter). performance antennas exist, but cost constraints prohibit
Undeniably, of all the elements in Figure 1, the antenna their consideration in all but the highest-performance applica-
system is the most difficult to design and optimize. There are tions. This application note will only discuss relative perfor-
several reasons for this. First, many designers lack sufficient mance characteristics of the three most popular antennas—
working experience with antennas to gain an intuitive feel, straight wire (monopole), (helical) coil, and loop—in the
especially in low-power, low-cost applications. Antenna mea- context of what is generally important to the user (range
surement and characterization requires sophisticated and performance, size, and ease of design). For a more thorough
expensive test equipment, which may not be readily avail- treatment of the theory, consult one or more of the references
able. Also, antenna analysis often relies on simplifying as- in the bibliography.
sumptions, which may not hold in all cases, and often leads The intent of this application note is to provide the user with
to measurement inconsistency. sufficient guidance to develop an antenna system for the
Reading this application note will not make one an antenna MICRF001—simply, quickly, and with a reasonable degree
expert. Antenna design and optimization is too complex and of performance—especially for inexperienced users. If after
driven by variables which are often beyond the designer’s applying the concepts discussed here, rage performance still
control. To add insult to injury, the entire problem is further is not adequate, further antenna optimization may be at-
complicated if the antenna is located remotely from the tempted; however, one should not expect significant range
receiver through a transmission line. In these cases imped- improvements to come from these further efforts. Antenna
ance matching networks may need to be designed. system optimization is closely linked to the “law of diminishing
Fortunately, the problem of selecting an appropriate antenna returns.” This simply means that one can derive most of the
is not as overwhelming as it seems. Most low power remote- optimum antenna performance with a modest amount of
control wireless applications are sensitive not only to range, effort, and some simple guidelines. Beyond this point, incre-
but to cost and packaging constraints as well. And the most mental improvements become increasingly costly, and yield
appropriate antennas for these applications are fairly simple only marginal range benefit.
structures. They can be easily characterized and compared

Antenna System

Data Data Baseband-to-RF RF-to-Baseband Data Data

In Encoder Transducer Transducer Decoder Out

Figure 1. Wireless Communication System—Simplified Block Diagram

QwikRadio is a trademark of Micrel, Inc. The QwikRadio ICs were developed under a partnership agreement with AIT of Orlando, Florida
Micrel, Inc. • 1849 Fortune Drive • San Jose, CA 95131 • USA • tel + 1 (408) 944-0800 • fax + 1 (408) 944-0970 • http://www.micrel.com
July 1999 1 Application Note 23
Application Note 23 Micrel
Perhaps a better approach, where significant further range lobed in Figure 2c. Notice also that the radiation pattern in
improvement is needed, is to consider other more efficient Figure 2b is more highly directive than that of Figure 2a.
antenna types, assuming all other constraints (for example, Directivity is anther characteristic of antennas, which the
packaging) can be met. Discussion of such other solutions is reader may investigate further through the references.
beyond the scope of this application note. 90°
Each section of this application note is self-contained, with 20° 60°
significant passages italicized. This should help the reader to

Y-Axis
quickly identify and digest the most important passages in 150° 30°
each section without getting bogged down in unwanted
detail.
X-Axis
180° 0°
Antenna Characteristics
Before discussing individual antenna types, it may help the
reader to understand basic characteristics common to all 210° 330°
antennas. However, this section is not required reading for
anyone who simply wants to quickly select and apply an
antenna to the MICRF001. Those individuals should read 240° 300°

“Comparison of Antenna Types” describing the desired an- 270°

tenna. Figure 2a. Half-Wave (1⁄2λ) Dipole Radiation Pattern

Reciprocity Theorem of Antennas 90°
The “reciprocal nature of antennas” means that the electro- 20° 60°
magnetic characteristics of a transmit antenna are equivalent
to those of a receive antenna, assuming the antennas are 150° 30°
identical in form-factor and orientation. A more general theo-
rem known as the “reciprocity theorem of antennas” is as
follows1: If a voltage is applied to the terminals of antenna A,
180° 0°
and the current is measured at the terminals of another
antenna B, then an equal current (in both amplitude and
phase) will be obtained at the terminals of antenna A if the
210° 330°
same voltage is applied to the terminals of antenna B. This
simply means that any antenna can function equally as
well as a transmit antenna or receive antenna. 240° 300°

Radiation Pattern and Orientation Effects 270°

Every antenna exhibits its own unique energy profile in the 3- λ) Dipole Radiation Pattern
Figure 2b. Full-Wave (1λ
dimensional space around the antenna. This 3-dimensional 90°
energy profile is called the antenna’s radiation pattern. These 20° 60°
Lobes
patterns are derived theoretically, assuming a uniform, sinu-
soidal current distribution in the antenna, and that the an-
150° 30°
tenna is located in free-space away from other objects and
ground, unless otherwise stated. The real radiation pattern
will then vary from the theoretical pattern as these assump-
180° 0°
tions break down.
As an example, the radiation patterns for three different wave
lengths of linear dipole antenna are illustrated in Figures 2a– Null
210° 330°
2c. The angle of view in Figure 2a–2c. is from the side of a
vertically oriented straight wire.
Peak
240° 300°
The patterns indicate relative response intensity as a function
270°
of (polar) angle in the X-Y axis (the “plane of the paper” X-axis
oriented horizontally). Since these are only 2-dimensional Figure 2c. 11⁄2λ Dipole Radiation Pattern
figures, the intensity in the Z-direction (the direction “coming
This example also demonstrates an antenna radiation pattern’s
out of the paper” when the X-axis is oriented horizontally) is
dependence on length. Dipole antenna pattern is fundamen-
not shown. It should be understood that the field pattern
tally determined by antenna length, although this is not true
wraps around the antenna in the X-Z plane to form a torus
for all antenna types. The multilobe response in Figure 2c
pattern.
comes about from the fact that the antenna is longer than 1
These patterns are made up of lobes. Peaks are simply lobe wavelength of the operating frequency, which elicits addi-
maximums, and nulls are simply lobe minimums. In Figures 2a tional constructive and destructive interference of the energy
and 2b, only a single lobe exists, while the pattern is multi- emanating from the antenna in 3-dimensional space. One

Application Note 23 2 July 1999

Application Note 23 Micrel
further observation is that, for the dipole antenna, no energy antenna through the concept of gain. A half-wave dipole
emanates from the ends of the antenna. antenna is commonly used. Another common reference
X-Axis antenna is called an isotropic radiator. This is an idealized,
lossless antenna that radiates equally well in all directions.
These two antennas are described analytically in Reference
Dipole Data for Radio Engineers 2, Chapter 27. Antenna gain is then
Antenna defined as:

Y-Axis
max. radiation intensityEvaluation Antenna
gain = ,
max. radiation intensityReference Antenna
provided the input power is the same for the reference

is
Z-Ax
antenna and the antenna under evaluation.
90°
Figure 2d. Typical Dipole Antenna 20° 60°
1⁄2λ dipole
It should be obvious that two antennas (one transmitting, and
the other receiving), whose orientations are such that the lobe 150° 30°
maximums face one another, are optimally aligned. Thus one 1λ dipole
would not normally choose to orient a transmit antenna
vertically and receive antenna horizontally in the same plane, 180° 0°
since the receive antenna would only pick up a small amount
of the energy delivered into the 3-dimensional space around Peak
the transmit antenna. This is illustrated in Figure 3a. How- 210° 330°
ever, one could simply turn the receive antenna so that both
antennas are oriented in the same (vertical) direction, and the
240° 300°
antenna would be optimally aligned. This is illustrated in
Figure 3b. 270°

Figure 4. Antenna Gain and Directivity

Antenna Polarization
Antenna polarization is a characterization of the directional
behavior of the electric vector of the electromagnetic (EM)
wave emanating from the antenna. Figures 5a–5d illustrates
Figure 3a. Misaligned Antenna Radiation Patterns three types of polarization: linear, elliptic, and circular. These
names refer to the figure (line, circle, or ellipse) traced out by
the tip of the electric vector as it travels through space. Linear
polarization further breaks down into horizontal and vertical
polarization, depending on whether the antenna is oriented
horizontally or vertically. Polarization characteristics vary
with antenna type. For example, linear antennas like mono-
Figure 3b. Fully-Aligned Antenna Radiation Patterns poles, exhibit linear polarization, while helical antennas are
Antenna radiation pattern misalignment is a problem fundamentally circularly polarized. Ideally, transmit and
that exists in just about every system application. These receive antennas should exhibit compatible polarization
orientation effects manifest themselves as system range for optimum performance. However, as with orientation,
variations and are usually best understood through this may not always be possible due to other system or
experimentation. Many times, the user does not have the packaging constraints. Once again, the designer should
luxury to optimize antenna orientation, due to packaging try to mitigate this problem as much as possible, but
constraints, for example. The system designer should expect range variations to occur.
try to improve the orientation characteristics as much as X-Axis
possible, but expect application-dependent range varia-
tions to occur.
Antenna Gain
Y-Axis

For the sake of completeness we shall define antenna gain.

The concept is not, strictly speaking, so important, but defines
antenna radiation performance relative to a reference an-
tenna.
is
Z-Ax

The reference antenna may be any antenna type arbitrarily

chosen by the user. Performance of the antenna under
consideration can then be compared with the reference Figure 5a. Linear (Vertical) Polarization

July 1999 3 Application Note 23

Application Note 23 Micrel
X-Axis This implies that antenna size should be maximized to the
extent possible. Antenna size is generally not so important for
the transmitters in these low-power applications, since regu-
latory agencies usually limit the allowable effective radiated

Y-Axis
power or field strength. It is assumed the signal current could
be increased, no matter what the radiation resistance (that is,
increase current to offset antenna inefficiency). However,
due to the reciprocity theorem of antennas, higher radiation
resistance is desirable at the receive antenna since efficiency

is
Z-Ax
is important there, so the system designer should maximize
this parameter to the extent possible at the receiver.
Figure 5b. Linear (Horizontal) Polarization Antenna (Terminal) Impedance
X-Axis The impedance looking into the terminals of an antenna is
usually only important for signal power matching into a
transmission line (see “Impedance Matching”). Terminal im-
pedance is generally composed of a (real) resistance term
Y-Axix

plus a reactive term. For an antenna whose radiative losses

are much greater than its resistive losses, the resistive term
is called the antenna’s radiation resistance, previously de-
scribed.
If the antenna is small and placed close to the input pin of the
is
Z-Ax

MICRF001, as is most often the case, the entire structure can

be treated as a lumped, rather than distributed, circuit. In this
Figure 5c. Eliptical Polarization case, impedance matching the antenna to the input of the IC
X-Axis will yield little improvement in range.
If the antenna is located away from the IC, the antenna should
be coupled to the IC via a transmission line. In this case, the
antenna impedance must be known, so that it can be matched
Y-Axis

into the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.

This requires a matching circuit at the antenna-transmission
line interface. A similar circuit is necessary to match the
transmission line to the input of the MICRF001. These
additional matching networks are only required when the
is
Z-Ax

antenna is located away from the input pin of the IC. This
subject is further discussed in “Impedance Matching”.
Figure 5d. Circular Polarization Antenna Resonance and Tuning
Antenna Radiation Resistance An antenna is defined as resonant if its terminal impedance
An antenna’s radiation resistance is a measure of its ability to is equal to its radiation resistance. This is equivalent to saying
radiate an applied signal into space, or to receive a signal that the terminal impedance contains no reactive impedance
from space. To calculate the radiation resistance, the an- component. Since the antenna impedance equals the radia-
tenna is assumed to be lossless. Then, for a given applied tion resistance at resonance, it can be said that the antenna
signal, the total radiated power (P) is calculated or measured, is operating at maximum radiating (or receiving) efficiency.
along with the current (I) in the antenna. Using the equation An antenna may be “tuned to resonance” at a given
frequency by incrementally adjusting the length or form
P = I2 × R factor of the antenna structure. The antenna will be
where: detuned by placing it in the vicinity of other metallic
P = total radiated power (W) objects (which introduces parasitic capacitance to the
I = rms antenna current (A) antenna). The antenna’s radiation pattern will also be
RR = antenna radiation resistance (Ω) modified by proximity to such objects. When tuning and
we associate the radiated power with a radiation “resistance” measuring an antenna system, it is important that the
RR. The radiation resistance is not a real (dissipative) resis- antenna be in its normally deployed state to account for
tance, but a measure of the power radiated into free-space for these parasitics. Otherwise, avoid placing the antenna
a given input current. The important observation about Ra- close to other metallic components.
diation resistance is that, for a given current into the antenna, Antenna Bandwidth
as radiation resistance increases, so does the antenna’s As one might expect, an antenna’s characteristics are valid
efficiency. It will be established later that, in general, larger over only a finite bandwidth. For narrow-band transmitters,
antennas are more effective “signal collectors,” and also commonly used with the MICRF001, bandwidth of commonly
exhibit higher radiation resistance than smaller antennas. used antennas is not an issue. Instances where bandwidth
Application Note 23 4 July 1999
Application Note 23 Micrel
might be important are where the MICRF001 is used to antenna type. This section contains rule-of-thumb informa-
receive one of several channelized frequencies and the tion which applies generally. However, relative performances
frequencies are spaced widely. It is difficult to quantize can be modulated by such variables as antenna length,
bandwidth, since the amount that the antenna characteristics orientation, and location to ground plane or parasitics. For
can vary from resonance, is application dependent. this comparison, the monopole is assumed to be a quarter-
Ground-Plane Effect on Antenna Performance wavelength long.
The presence or absence of a ground plane and the need Parameter Loop Helical Monopole
for a ground plane with an antenna is commonly misun- Design Simplicity 3 2 1
derstood. Unless otherwise stated, antenna characteris-
Range 3 2 1
tics are generally derived by assuming the antenna to be
in free-space, without any ground plane. (The rare excep- Size 2 1 3
tion to this is the monopole, as introduction of a perfect Parasitic Immunity 1 2 3
ground plan allows the monopole to be easily resolved Overall Performance 3 2 1
to, and analyzed as, a dipole.) In the absence of a ground Key: 1 = best relative performance
plane, the most important characteristics, antenna pat- 3 = worst relative performance
tern and terminal impedance, can be determined. When
a ground plane is brought into the vicinity of the antenna, Table 1. Antenna Performance Summary
these characteristics can be altered, in a manner that Monopole antennas are physically larger structures in-
may or may not improve system (range) performance tended for applications which demand the best range.
Antennas in the presence of a ground plane are generally Monopole antennas are also by far the easiest antennas
analyzed by the method of images. This approach removes to design and apply. Monopoles can be a single straight
the ground from the analysis, and places an image antenna wire protruding from PCB (the printed circuit board) or may be
in space at the appropriate dimensions to mimic the signal a (metal) trace built into the PCB (which can lower costs by
reflection associated with the ground plane. The image is not removing another assembly step). Often, straight wire mono-
a real antenna at all, but simply a mathematical construct to pole antennas protrude from the housing assembly, simply
account for the ground plane signal reflection. due to their size (for example, a 315MHz quarter-wave
One often sees it stated that the antenna must be located monopole is 8.9 inches long). Inductively loaded monopoles
above a “good” ground plane. “Good” usually refers here to are available which provide similar performance in a smaller
a ground plane that is sufficiently large and conductive to length, but at higher cost than a simple piece of wire. Range
allow prediction of the antenna’s characteristics with only a of monopole antennas is generally up to 100 meters when
small error to a (theoretical) infinite, perfectly conducting used with micropower OOK (on-off keyed) transmitters.
plane. This is not strictly necessary. Even without a good Small helical antennas are a good compromise, espe-
ground plane, the antenna will still radiate, but with a pattern cially where small size is important. The resulting as-
and impedance different than if the antenna were above a sembly generally can be completely enclosed, and made
good ground plane. The best way to think of the ground plane quite compact. Helical antennas are more difficult to set
is as an energy reflector from the antenna itself, which, up and optimize than monopoles since the antenna’s
depending on the distance from ground plane to antenna, characteristics are strongly influenced by coil diameter
sets up constructive and destructive interference of signal in and compactness of turns along the axial dimension.
space which alters the antenna pattern. The terminal imped- Further, small helical antennas are used in what is commonly
ance is altered due to the parasitic capacitance from antenna called the radial mode of emission, which is not treated in the
to ground plane. A good description of all this may be found literature as thoroughly as axial mode operation of large
in Antennas1, Sections 11.7 and 11.8. helical antennas1. Range is generally up to 60 meters when
For applications where one has the luxury to use or not used with micropower OOK transmitters.
use a ground plane, the choice is not particularly clear. Loop antennas provide the poorest range of the three
If, by using a ground plane, the modified antenna pattern, antennas under consideration, generally up to 30 meters
directionality, and terminal impedance yields the best when used with micropower OOK transmitters. Size is
system performance, then it should be used. Otherwise not particularly attractive, but is smaller than a quarter-
it should not. For applications where a ground plane wave monopole. Loop antennas can be rugged and low
must exist, or where no good ground plane can be cost when the antenna is completely integrated into the
allowed, the antenna should be optimized for that par- PCB. An alternative consideration is to use a less-than-
ticular condition. Finally, there is no reason an adequate quarter-wave monopole built into the PCB rather than a loop
antenna cannot be constructed, even if there is no good antenna. Such an antenna might provide the advantages of
ground plane to work against. a loop (ruggedness, cost) while providing better range.
Antenna Types It is convenient to think of the helical antenna as the general
structure, and that the monopole and loop antennas are
It is beneficial for users to appreciate how the three antenna simply degenerate forms of the helical. For example, com-
types (monopole, helical, loop) compare in general terms pletely stretching out the helical antenna yields a monopole,
before getting too involved in the theory surrounding each and compressing a helical antenna inwards yields a loop

July 1999 5 Application Note 23

Application Note 23 Micrel
antenna. So it is not unexpected that the helical performance To design a monopole antenna, simply calculate the
is generally between the two extremes of monopole and loop appropriate length, cut a wire, and attach directly to the
antenna. ANT (antenna) pin of the MICRF001. That’s all there is to
Monopole Antennas it.
Monopole antennas are commonly used in applications with For example, the appropriate length for a quarter-wave
the MICRF001 where range is important. These antennas monopole at 433.92MHz would be 2808 ÷ 433.92 = 6.47
are also very easy to design and tune simply by slight inches. Sophisticated antenna measurements are generally
changes in length. It is assumed the antenna is a quarter- not necessary unless a highly optimized design is desired.
wavelength long, which is typical of monopole antennas in the This makes the monopole very popular and easy to apply.
UHF band. Helical Antennas
90° A helical (coil) antenna is shown in Figure 8. Helical antennas
20° 60° may be constructed from copper, steel, or brass; from an
electronic component standpoint, it is simply an inductor.
150° 30° Compared to the monopole, which is essentially a two-
dimensional structure, the helical antenna is a 3-dimensional
structure. As stated earlier, a monopole can be thought of as
180° 0°
a “stretched-out” helical antenna. Helicals are difficult to
analyze because of their 3-dimensional nature, and are
usually empirically optimized.
210° 330°

240° 300°
270°
Drive Point
λ Monopole Over Ground Plane
Figure 6. 0.25λ (connect to ANT input)

Figure 6 illustrates the radiation pattern of a quarter-wave- Figure 8. Helical Antenna

length monopole above a ground plane. The radiation is
linearly polarized, either horizontally or vertically, depending Helical antennas are characterized as either small helicals,
on antenna orientation. Radiation resistance of a quarter- which operate in normal mode, or large helicals, which
wave monopole is approximately 37Ω, and does not vary operate in axial mode. By axial or normal, we convey the
much with presence or absence of ground plane3. Figure 7 direction of the radiation pattern: axial being along the axis of
indicates that the radiation resistance of monopole antennas the helix, and normal being at right angles to the helix axis. A
is length dependent. Resonance of a quarter-wavelength helical antenna is small if its diameter and length are both
monopole occurs when its length is slightly less than a much smaller than one wavelength. Helical antennas used
quarter-wavelength. with the MICRF001 are almost exclusively small helicals,
with a normal radiation pattern.
150
RADIATION RESISTANCE (Ω)

Figure 9 illustrates the radiation pattern of the small helix. We

120 observe the radiation pattern is similar in nature to the
monopole, and is also fairly insensitive to dimensional
90 changes, provided such changes are much smaller than a
wavelength.
60
90°
20° 60°
30

0 150° 30°
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
ANTENNA LENGTH (λ)

Figure 7. Radiation Resistance of

180° 0°
Monopole Over Ground Plane
Length of a resonant quarter-wavelength monopole antenna
made of wire may be calculated from the following equation 210° 330°
which takes into account the slight shortening for resonance:
2808 240° 300°
length =
frequency 270°

where: Figure 9. Helix Radiation Pattern

length = inches
frequency = MHz
Application Note 23 6 July 1999
Application Note 23 Micrel
Terminal impedance of the helical antenna is far less well the loop antenna is fundamentally circular. Finally, when the
characterized, simply because the impedance depends on loop area A < 0.01λ2, square and circular loops can be treated
numerous parameters: coil diameter, coil loop pitch, coil identically as long as the areas of the two loops are the same.
length (or number of turns), and frequency. Variations in any This means that for small loops it is not at all important that the
of these parameters can “detune” the antenna away from loop be circular, but it can be any closed loop structure.
resonance. For this reason the helical antenna is considered Loop antennas find applications mostly at the transmit-
to be more narrow-band than the monopole. As a result, ter, especially where ruggedness, size, and ease of
designing and optimizing helical antennas is usually construction are required.
done empirically. But even with this shortcoming, the
A good application for the loop antenna is the push-
helical is very popular, since it provides reasonable
button transmitter which attaches to a key chain, for RKE
range and very small size.
(remote keyless entry) applications. Such designs must
Radiation from small helical antennas is fundamentally ellip- be rugged, cheap, very small, and fully integrated. Fur-
tically polarized. A good discussion on the design of helical ther, the typical packaging is elliptical or circular in
antennas and coils is given in Reference Data for Radio nature, allowing a loop antenna to be constructed around
Engineers 2, Chapter 27, pages 27-11 through 27-13 and The the periphery of the assembly with little additional im-
Design of Impedance Matching Networks…5, Section 2.3.6. pact to PCB space.
Helical antennas are commonly found on LC (inductor-
To construct a loop antenna, make the loop as large as
capacitor) transmitters, where the L (helical coil) is both a part
possible, then simply “tune” the antenna to resonance
of the resonant network and the antenna—a very inexpen-
with a parallel capacitor. Typical values are 1pF to 5pF in
sive solution.
the UHF band, and the capacitor may be fixed or variable
Unfortunately, no simple expression exists for the de- depending on the application.
sign of a helical antenna, like exists in the previous
1000
section for the monopole. It is possible to calculate the

RADIATION RESISTANCE (Ω)

100
length of a (resonant) helical once its diameter, coil
10
spacing, and material type are known. In most cases,
however, it is just as easy to arrive at a design empirically 1
by taking an overly long coil, and tuning it by clipping 0.1
away pieces until the antenna is resonant at the desired 0.01
frequency. Strictly speaking, this will require a piece of 0.001
specialized test equipment, such as a network analyzer. 0.0001
Otherwise, trim the structure for maximum range.
0.00001
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
PCB Loop Antennas ANTENNA CIRCUMFERENCE (λ)
Loop antennas are perhaps the least used antenna at the
receiver. These antennas have very low radiation resis- Figure 10b. Loop Radiation Resistance
tances and must be relatively large to be efficient signal vs. Loop Circumference
collectors, an important attribute at the receiver. Figures 10a
and 10b illustrate the radiation pattern and radiation resis- Impedance Matching
tance of the loop antenna, respectively. Radiation resistance Where electrically small antennas (that is, physical dimen-
is given as a function of Cλ, the loop circumference in sions significantly less than 1 wavelength) are connected
wavelengths. Even for Cλ = 0.5 wavelengths, the radiation directly to the MICRF001 ANT pin, the structure can be
resistance is under 10Ω. treated as a lumped circuit. This is because the phase across
90° the antenna is negligible. In such instances, impedance
20° 60° matching the antenna to the IC will not improve system range.
In applications where the antenna and IC are collocated,
150° 30°
impedance matching is not required.
In applications where the antenna is located away from the
IC, they must be interconnected using a transmission line. A
180° 0° transmission line is simply a way of conveying a signal
between two points without distortion or loss, as the line
provides constant incremental impedance4. For the trans-
210° 330°
mission line to function properly, the antenna impedance
must be “matched” into the transmission line impedance at
one end and the transmission line “matched” to the IC
240° 300° impedance at the other end. A commonly used type of
270° transmission line is coaxial cable which is available in a
Figure 10a. Loop Radiation Pattern number of standard impedance values.
The radiation pattern for a small loop is similar to those of both The concept of transmission line matching is too extensive to
the small helical and quarter-wave monopole. Polarization of be covered in detail in this section. Impedance matching is

July 1999 7 Application Note 23

Application Note 23 Micrel
generally regarded as an RF engineering problem, and there Antenna Testing and Measurement
are entire textbooks devoted to the subject.
An antenna’s theoretical and measured characteristics can
Users who require the antenna to be remote from the IC, vary widely, due to factors such as ground plane, antenna
and don’t already posses impedance matching exper- orientation, form-factor changes, and proximity to other ob-
tise, should seek outside guidance. Several references jects in the product assembly. Further modifications arise
for constructing matching networks 4,5 are provided in from objects at the installation sites, and elicit multipath
the bibliography. If it is at all possible, Micrel recom- fading, for which little can usually be done. In many cases,
mends that the antenna be attached directly to the IC to designers of MICRF001-like applications just empirically
avoid impedance matching issues. optimize their antenna systems. If this is not adequate, more
Multipath Fading thorough methods do exist to measure an antenna’s charac-
teristics. Such methods are too extensive to be completely
Multipath fading is a form of signal fading caused by signals covered here, and can be found in numerous references, for
arriving at he receive antenna with differing phases. This example, Antennas, Chapter 15. Unfortunately, such mea-
results because signals from the transmitter may follow surements require an RF expertise and more sophisticated
different paths in traveling to the receiver. Portions of the test equipment. An alternative, if cost permits, is to “contract
original signal may travel in a direct path, while others may out” such antenna characterization work. This will greatly
arrive at the receiver by reflecting off ground or other objects improve the chances that the work will get done right the first
in the locale. These differences in phase result in constructive time.
and destructive interference at the receiving antenna, which
affects the amplitude of the signal developed at the antenna. Bibliography
While a solution exists for this problem (called diversity 1. Kraus, J. D., Antennas, McGraw-Hill Co., 1950.
switching with multiple antennas), it is usually cost-prohibitive ISBN 07-035410-3
for MICRF001 applications.
2. Reference Data for Radio Engineers, 6th ed., compiled
Antenna testing is usually performed in an open field as a way by ITT (International Telephone and Telegraph),
of keeping multipath fading from corrupting the measurement Howard W. Sams and Co. Publishers, 1968.
process. Multipath fading effects are not related to the an- Library of Congress No. 75-28960
tenna, but to the local environment. While there is little one
3. Jasik, H., Antenna Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill
can do to mitigate the problem, it is important that the user
Co., 1961
understand that multipath fading will cause system range
variations from site to site. 4. Caron, W. N., Antenna Impedance Matching, ARRL
Press, 1989.
ISBN 0-87259-220-0.
5. Abrie, P. L. D., The Design of Impedance-Matching
Networks for Radio-Frequency and Microwave Amplifi-
ers, Artech House, Inc., 1985.
ISBN 0-89006-172-6.

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Application Note 23 8 July 1999