ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1. Metals and Their Alloys

2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
4. Composites
Why Metals Are Important

High stiffness and strength - can be

alloyed for high rigidity, strength, and
hardness
Toughness - capacity to absorb energy
better than other classes of materials
Good electrical conductivity - Metals are
conductors
Good thermal conductivity - conduct heat
better than ceramics or polymers
Classification of Metals

Ferrous - those based on iron

Steels
Cast irons
Nonferrous - all other metals
Aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium,
zinc, lead, tin, molybdenum, tungsten, gold,
silver, platinum, and others
Superalloys
Ferrous Metals

Based on iron, one of the oldest metals

known
Ferrous metals of engineering importance
are alloys of iron and carbon
These alloys divide into two major groups:
Steel
Cast iron
Together, they constitute approximately 85% of
the metal tonnage in the United States
 Properties of Steel
 Tensile
strength and
hardness as
a function of
carbon
content in
plain carbon
steel (hot
rolled)
 Stainless Steel (SS)
Highly alloyed steels designed for
corrosion resistance
Principal alloying element is chromium,
usually greater than 15%
Cr forms a thin impervious oxide film that protects
surface from corrosion
Nickel (Ni) is another alloying ingredient in
certain SS to increase corrosion protection
Carbon is used to strengthen and harden SS,
but high C content reduces corrosion
protection since chromium carbide forms to
reduce available free Cr
 Nonferrous Metals
 Metal elements and alloys not based on iron
 Most important - aluminum, copper, magnesium,
nickel, titanium, and zinc, and their alloys
 Although not as strong as steels, certain
nonferrous alloys have strength-to-weight ratios
that make them competitive with steels in some
applications
 Many nonferrous metals have properties other
than mechanical that make them ideal for
applications in which steel would not be suitable
Aluminum and Magnesium

Aluminum (Al) and magnesium (Mg) are

light metals
They are often specified in engineering
applications for this feature
Both elements are abundant on earth,
aluminum on land and magnesium in the
sea
Neither is easily extracted from their natural
states
Properties of Aluminum

High electrical and thermal conductivity

Excellent corrosion resistance due to
formation of a hard thin oxide surface film
Very ductile metal, noted for its formability
Pure aluminum is relatively low in strength,
but it can be alloyed and heat treated to
compete with some steels, especially
when weight is taken into consideration
Copper

One of the oldest metals known to

mankind
Low electrical resistivity - commercially
pure copper is widely used as an electrical
conductor
Also an excellent thermal conductor
One of the noble metals (gold and silver
are also noble metals), so it is corrosion
resistant
 Copper Alloys

Strength and hardness of copper is

relatively low; to improve strength, copper
is frequently alloyed
Bronze - alloy of copper and tin (typical  90%
Cu, 10% Sn), widely used today and in ancient
times
Brass - alloy of copper and zinc (typical  65%
Cu, 35% Zn).
Highest strength alloy is beryllium-copper (only
about 2% Be), which can be heat treated to
high strengths and used for springs
Nickel and Its Alloys
Similar to iron in some respects:
Magnetic
Modulus of elasticity  E for iron and steel
Differences with iron:
Much more corrosion resistant - widely used as
(1) an alloying element in steel, e.g., stainless
steel, and (2) as a plating metal on metals such
as plain carbon steel
High temperature properties of Ni alloys are
superior
Nickel Alloys

Alloys of nickel are commercially important

and are noted for corrosion resistance and
high temperature performance
In addition, a number of superalloys are
based on nickel
Applications: stainless steel alloying
ingredient, plating metal for steel,
applications requiring high temperature
and corrosion resistance
Titanium and Its Alloys

Abundant in nature, constituting  1% of

earth's crust (aluminum is  8%)
Density of Ti is between aluminum and
iron
Importance has grown in recent decades
due to its aerospace applications where its
light weight and good strength-to-weight
ratio are exploited
Properties of Titanium
 Coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively low
among metals
 Stiffer and stronger than Al
 Retains good strength at elevated temperatures
 Pure Ti is reactive, which presents problems in
processing, especially in molten state
 At room temperature Ti forms a thin adherent
oxide coating (TiO2) that provides excellent
corrosion resistance
Applications of Titanium
 In the commercially pure state, Ti is used for
corrosion resistant components, such as marine
components and prosthetic implants
 Titanium alloys are used as high strength
components at temperatures ranging up to
above 550C (1000F), especially where its
excellent strength-to-weight ratio is exploited
 Alloying elements used with titanium include
aluminum, manganese, tin, and vanadium
Zinc and Its Alloys

Low melting point makes it attractive as

a casting metal, especially die casting
Also provides corrosion protection when
coated onto steel or iron
The term galvanized steel refers to steel
coated with zinc
Widely used as alloy with copper
(brass)
Superalloys
1. Iron-based alloys - in some cases iron is
less than 50% of total composition
 Alloyed with Ni, Cr, Co
2. Nickel-based alloys - better high
temperature strength than alloy steels
 Alloyed with Cr, Co, Fe, Mo, Ti
3. Cobalt-based alloys -  40% Co and 
20% chromium
 Alloyed with Ni, Mo, and W
 Virtually all superalloys strengthen by
precipitation hardening
Ceramics

Defined as an inorganic compound

consisting of a metal (or semi-metal) and
one or more nonmetals
Important examples:
Silica - silicon dioxide (SiO2), the main ingredient in
most glass products
Alumina - aluminum oxide (Al2O3), used in various
applications from abrasives to artificial bones
More complex compounds such as hydrous
aluminum silicate (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), the main
ingredient in most clay products
Properties of Ceramic Materials

High hardness, electrical and thermal

insulating, chemical stability, and high
melting temperatures
Brittle, virtually no ductility - can cause
problems in both processing and
performance of ceramic products
Some ceramics are translucent, window
glass (based on silica) being the clearest
example
 Three Basic Categories
of Ceramics
1. Traditional ceramics - clay products such
as pottery, bricks, common abrasives,
and cement
2. New ceramics - more recently developed
ceramics based on oxides, carbides, etc.,
with better mechanical or physical
properties than traditional ceramics
3. Glasses - based primarily on silica and
distinguished by their noncrystalline
structure
Traditional Ceramic Products

Pottery and Tableware

Brick and tile
Refractories
Abrasives
Products of Oxide Ceramics

Abrasives (grinding wheel grit)

Bioceramics (artificial bones and teeth)
Electrical insulators and electronic
components
Refractory brick
Cutting tool inserts
Spark plug barrels
Engineering components
 Alumina
ceramic
components
(photo
courtesy of
Insaco Inc.)
Carbide Ceramics
 Includes silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten carbide
(WC), titanium carbide (TiC), tantalum carbide
(TaC), and chromium carbide (Cr3C2)
 Production of SiC dates from a century ago,
and it is generally included among traditional
ceramics
 WC, TiC, and TaC are hard and wear resistant
and are used in applications such as cutting
tools
WC, TiC, and TaC must be combined with a
metallic binder such as cobalt or nickel in
order to fabricate a useful solid product
Nitrides
Important nitride ceramics are silicon
nitride (Si3N4), boron nitride (BN), and
titanium nitride (TiN)
Properties: hard, brittle, high melting
temperatures, usually electrically insulating, TiN
being an exception
Applications:
Silicon nitride: components for gas turbines,
rocket engines, and melting crucibles
Boron nitride and titanium nitride: cutting tool
materials and coatings
Glass
A state of matter as well as a type of
ceramic
As a state of matter, glass refers to an
amorphous (noncrystalline) structure of a solid
material
The glassy state occurs when insufficient time is
allowed during cooling from the molten state to
form a crystalline structure
As a type of ceramic, glass is an inorganic,
nonmetallic compound (or mixture of
compounds) that cools to a rigid condition
without crystallizing
Functions of
Other Ingredients in Glass
 Act as flux (promoting fusion) during heating
 Increase fluidity in molten glass for processing
 Improve chemical resistance against attack by
acids, basic substances, or water
 Add color
 Alter index of refraction for optics
Glass Products

Window glass
Containers – cups, jars, bottles
Light bulbs
Laboratory glassware – flasks, beakers,
glass tubing
Glass fibers – insulation, fiber optics
Optical glasses - lenses
 Glass-Ceramics
A ceramic material produced by
conversion of glass into a polycrystalline
structure through heat treatment
Proportion of crystalline phase range = 90%
to 98%, remainder vitreous material
Grain size significantly smaller than
conventional ceramics, which makes
glass-ceramics much stronger than the
glasses from which they’re made
Due to crystal structure, glass-ceramics are
opaque (usually grey or white), not clear
 Advantages of
Glass-Ceramics
Efficiency of processing in the glassy
state
Close dimensional control over final
shape
Good mechanical and physical properties
High strength (stronger than glass)
Absence of porosity; low thermal expansion
High resistance to thermal shock
Applications of Glass-Ceramics

 Cooking ware (e.g., Corning ware)

 Heat exchangers
 Missile radomes
Polymers
Defined as a compound consisting of
long-chain molecules, each molecule
made up of repeating units connected
together
There may be thousands, even millions of units
in a single polymer molecule
The word polymer is derived from the Greek
words poly, meaning many, and meros
(reduced to mer), meaning part
Most polymers are based on carbon and are
therefore considered organic chemicals
Types of Polymers
 Polymers can be separated into plastics
and rubbers
 As engineering materials, it is appropriate
to divide them into the following three
categories:
1. Thermoplastic polymers
2. Thermosetting polymers
3. Elastomers
where (1) and (2) are plastics and (3) are
rubbers
Thermoplastic Polymers -
Thermoplastics
Solid materials at room temperature but
viscous liquids when heated to
temperatures of only a few hundred
degrees
This characteristic allows them to be easily and
economically shaped into products
They can be subjected to heating and cooling
cycles repeatedly without significant
degradation
Symbolized by TP
Thermosetting Polymers -
Thermosets
Cannot tolerate repeated heating cycles
as thermoplastics can
When initially heated, they soften and flow for
molding
Elevated temperatures also produce a chemical
reaction that hardens the material into an
infusible solid
If reheated, thermosets degrade and char
rather than soften
Symbolized by TS
Elastomers (Rubbers)

Polymers that exhibit extreme elastic

extensibility when subjected to relatively
low mechanical stress
Some elastomers can be stretched by a factor
of 10 and yet completely recover to their original
shape
Although their properties are quite different from
thermosets, they share a similar molecular
structure that is different from the
thermoplastics
Reasons Why Polymers are
Important
Plastics can be molded into intricate part
shapes, usually with no further processing
Very compatible with net shape processing
On a volumetric basis, polymers:
Are cost competitive with metals
Generally require less energy to produce than
metals
Certain plastics are transparent, which
makes them competitive with glass in
some applications
Thermoplastic Polymers (TP)

Thermoplastic polymers can be heated

from solid state to viscous liquid and then
cooled back down to solid
Heating and cooling can be repeated many
times without degrading the polymer
Reason: TP polymers consist of linear and/or
branched macromolecules that do not cross-link
Thermosets and elastomers change
chemically when heated, which cross-links
their molecules and permanently cures
these polymers
Mechanical Properties of
Thermoplastics
Low modulus of elasticity (stiffness)
E is much lower than metals and ceramics
Low tensile strength
TS is about 10% of metal
Much lower hardness than metals or
ceramics
Greater ductility on average
Tremendous range of values, from 1%
elongation for polystyrene to 500% or more for
polypropylene
Thermosetting Polymers (TS)
TS polymers are distinguished by their
highly cross-linked three-dimensional,
covalently-bonded structure
Chemical reactions associated with
cross-linking are called curing or setting
In effect, formed part (e.g., pot handle,
electrical switch cover, etc.) becomes a
large macromolecule
Always amorphous and exhibits no glass
transition temperature
 General Properties of
Thermosets
Rigid - modulus of elasticity is two to three
times greater than thermoplastics
Brittle, virtually no ductility
Less soluble in common solvents than
thermoplastics
Capable of higher service temperatures
than thermoplastics
Cannot be remelted - instead they
degrade or burn
Elastomers
Polymers capable of large elastic
deformation when subjected to relatively
low stresses
 Some can be extended 500% or more and
still return to their original shape
 Two categories:
1. Natural rubber - derived from biological plants
2. Synthetic polymers - produced by
polymerization processes like those used for TP
and TS polymers
Natural Rubber Products
 Largest single market for NR is automotive tires
 Other products: shoe soles, bushings, seals, and
shock absorbing components
 In tires, carbon black is an important additive
It reinforces the rubber, serving to increase
tensile strength and resistance to tear and
abrasion
 Other additives: clay, kaolin, silica, talc, and
calcium carbonate, as well as chemicals that
accelerate and promote vulcanization
 Composite Material Defined

A materials system composed of two or

more distinct phases whose combination
produces aggregate properties different
from those of its constituents
Examples:
Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)
Plastic molding compounds with fillers
Rubber mixed with carbon black
Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a
synthesized composite)
 Composite Material
F 117

Carbon fiber

www.prezi.com

http://www.adherent-
tech.com/recycling_technologies
Why Composites are Important
Composites can be very strong and stiff,
yet very light in weight
Strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight
ratios are several times greater than steel or
aluminum
Fatigue properties are generally better
than for common engineering metals
Toughness is often greater
Possible to achieve combinations of
properties not attainable with metals,
ceramics, or polymers alone
 Disadvantages and
Limitations
 Properties of many important composites are
anisotropic
May be an advantage or a disadvantage
 Many polymer-based composites are subject to
attack by chemicals or solvents
Just as the polymers themselves are
susceptible
 Composite materials are generally expensive
 Manufacturing methods for shaping composite
materials are often slow and costly
Components in a Composite Material

Most composite materials consist of two

phases:
1. Primary phase - forms the matrix within
which the secondary phase is imbedded
2. Secondary phase - imbedded phase
sometimes referred to as a reinforcing
agent, because it usually strengthens the
composite material
 The reinforcing phase may be in the form of
fibers, particles, or various other geometries
 Classification of
Composite Materials
1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) - mixtures of
ceramics and metals, such as cemented
carbides and other cermets
2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) - Al2O3 and
SiC imbedded with fibers to improve properties
3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) - polymer
resins imbedded with filler or reinforcing agent
 Examples: epoxy and polyester with fiber
reinforcement, and phenolic with powders
 Functions of the Matrix
Material
Primary phase provides the bulk form of
the part or product made of the composite
material
Holds the imbedded phase in place,
usually enclosing and often concealing it
When a load is applied, the matrix shares
the load with the secondary phase, in
some cases deforming so that the stress is
essentially born by the reinforcing agent
 Reinforcing Phase

 Function is to reinforce the primary phase

 Reinforcing phase (imbedded in the matrix) is
most commonly one of the following shapes:
fibers, particles, or flakes
 Also, secondary phase can take the form of an
infiltrated phase in a skeletal or porous matrix
Example: a powder metallurgy part
infiltrated with polymer
Fibers

Filaments of reinforcing material, usually

circular in cross section
Diameters from ~ 0.0025 mm to about 0.13 mm
Filaments provide greatest opportunity for
strength enhancement of composites
Filament form of most materials is significantly
stronger than the bulk form