River Response to Baselevel Change: Implications for Sequence Stratigraphy

Author(s): S. A. Schumm
Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Journal of Geology, Vol. 101, No. 2, 100th Anniversary Symposium: Evolution of
the Earth's Surface (Mar., 1993), pp. 279-294
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30081152 .
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 River Response to Baselevel Change:
Implications for Sequence Stratigraphy1

S. A. Schumm
Department of Earth Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523

ABSTRACT
Baselevel is the imaginary horizontal level or surface to which sub-aerial erosion proceeds. It is sea level. Controversy
surrounds the effect of baselevel change on river behavior, the rejuvenation of landscapes, and the delivery of sediment
to the shelf-slope depositional system. The effect of baselevel change depends upon many factors, such as rate of
change, amount of change, direction of change, river character, and dynamics and erodibility of the sediment source
area. In most cases the effects of baselevel change will be moderate, and they can be accommodated by changes of
channel pattern, width, depth, and roughness. Therefore, the delivery of large amounts of sediment to a shoreline or
continental shelf probably reflects not only baselevel lowering, but significant uplift of the sediment-source area and
perhaps climate change.

Introduction
In the 19th century, it was believed that the con- effects of baselevel change. Geomorphologists have
cept of global eustatic changes of baselevel pro- concentrated on landform response, whereas stra-
vided a great unifying generalization that permit- tigraphers have concentrated on the depositional
ted worldwide correlation of erosion surfaces record. In order to obtain a fuller understanding
(Chorley 1963). Subsequent recognition that conti- of the complex phenomenon of baselevel change,
nental stability was a prerequisite put an end to several aspects of the baselevel problem will be
these attempts because major transgressions and considered in this paper: (1) the definition of base-
regressions could be attributed to continental level; (2) the effect of baselevel change on rivers;
warping (Chorley 1963, p. 959). Recently, geolo- (3) the effect of baselevel change on the continental
gists have assumed that eustatic baselevel changes shelf; and (4) discrimination among the causes of
can be used as a basis for global correlation of increased sediment delivery to the coast (baselevel
stratigraphic units (Vail et al. 1977; Posamentier change, climate change, tectonics). It is clear that
et al. 1988), and therefore, baselevel concepts may with the available data solutions can only be par-
provide a link between geomorphology, sedi- tially achieved. It is hoped, however, that even
mentology, stratigraphy, and economic geology speculation concerning these topics may be of
that could be particularly beneficial to all con- value.
cerned. Nevertheless, serious problems face the se-
quence stratigrapher, because the depositional rec-
The Concept of Baselevel
ord can be greatly complicated or even controlled
by climate change and tectonics (Sloss 1991; Miall Ninety years ago Davis (1902) published an influ-
1986; Galloway 1989a, 1989b). In addition, much ential paper in The Journal of Geology on base-
depends upon river response to baselevel change, level, stream grade, and landscape planation in
because the complex fluvial system can respond in which he attempted to clarify Powell's rather am-
varying degrees and by different methods. biguous description of baselevel. Although Powell
There are two very different perspectives on the (1875) clearly stated that sea level is the "grand"
or general baselevel to which a landscape is low-
1 Manuscript received June 5, 1992; accepted December 1, ered, he confused the issue by defining local and
1992. temporary baselevels and by describing the base-

[The Journalof Geology, 1993, volume 101, p. 279-294] © 1993 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. 0022-1376/93/10102-004$1.00

279

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280 S. A. SCHUMM

level surface as an inclined plain. The Powell fluctuation of stream profiles as a result of climatic
definition of baselevel contained three ideas (Davis and tectonic change. He confuses baselevel with
1902): (1) baselevel is the lower limit of subaerial stream profiles, and he states that baselevel con-
erosion, which is sea level; (2) there are local and trols nothing, although it clearly controls the lower
temporary baselevels reflecting rock resistance and end of the stream profile. The AGI Glossary of Ge-
structure; and (3) there is a baselevel that slopes ology (Bates and Jackson 1987) still includes two
toward sea level and is determined by the gradient definitions which confuse cause (baselevel) and ef-
of major streams. Unfortunately Powell confused fect (erosion surface). A further problem is that, as
cause (baselevel) with effect (the baselevel surface), Thornbury (1969, p. 104) points out, we apparently
and this has led to misunderstandings of the con- can't even agree as to its spelling (base level, base-
cept. Davis (1902, see Crickmay 1974, p. 170) illus- level, baselevel). I prefer the latter as it eliminates
trated this confusion by showing that baselevel had the hyphen when the word is used as an adjective.
been defined in the pre-1902 literature as: (1) sea- It is unfortunate that Powell's baselevel concept
level at the coast; (2) a level not much above that became so confused, but in order to define base-
of the sea; (3) an imaginary surface sloping with level, as it will be used here, one need only turn to
mature or old streams; (4) the lowest slope to the definition of the words base and level. Base is
which rivers can reduce a land surface; (5) a slow the lowest part, and level is a horizontal line or
reach in a stream; (6) a condition in which rivers plane positioned along a horizontal axis. Therefore,
cannot corrade or in which they are balanced be- in the sense that the term was created, baselevel is
tween erosion and deposition; (7) a certain stage in effectively sea level, although we know that rivers
the history of rivers when vertical cutting ceases erode slightly below it.
and their slope approximates a parabolic curve; (8)
a plain of degradation; (9) an ultimate planation; The Effect of Baselevel Change on the
and (10) an imaginary mathematical plane. Fluvial System
Following this review Davis (1902; King and
Schumm 1980, p. 8) concluded that the concept of It seems very logical that baselevel lowering will
baselevel should be limited to the first meaning, rejuvenate a drainage network and deliver large
"an imaginary level surface," and to define it sim- amounts of sediment downstream. Support for
ply as the level base with respect to which normal these conclusions comes from experimental stud-
sub-aerial erosion proceeds; to employ the term ies (Holland and Pickup 1976; Schumm et al. 1987)
"grade" for the balanced condition of a mature or and from observations of the headward incision of
old river; and to name the geographical surface that arroyos, gullies, and channelized streams (Schumm
is developed near or very near to the close of a et al. 1984). Fisk (1944) concluded that Pleistocene
cycle, a "peneplain," or "plain of gradation." sea-leveling lowering caused excavation of allu-
Davis did not solve the semantic problem (Ma- vium and bedrock incision far up the Mississippi
lott 1928; Johnson 1929; Chorley and Beckinsale River valley, and on a smaller scale, even a single
1968; Thornbury 1969) A recent and even more meander cutoff can cause local steepening and up-
confusing and incorrect usage is illustrated by the stream channel degradation (Winkley 1976). E. W.
following definition: "baselevel, above which a Lane (1955), an eminent river engineer, concluded
particle cannot come to rest and below which de- that, when a river is affected by a baselevel rise or
position and burial are possible" (Sloss 1962). Sedi- fall or by a horizontal shift of the river mouth (fig-
mentary particles do come to rest, and they are ure 1), the river will degrade or aggrade to restore
stored above baselevel during the erosional evolu- its equilibrium profile. After all, the channel must
tion of a landmass. Perhaps Wheeler (1964a, 1964b) continue to carry its load of sediment with a given
has modified the definition to the greatest extent water discharge and this requires a given gradient
by suggesting that, with constant sea level, base- that must be restored either by erosion (figure lb)
level fluctuates by rising and falling above and be- or by deposition (figure la,c).
low the land surface as sediment supply and energy In contrast to Lane, Leopold and Bull (1979) con-
conditions change. "At any given moment the cluded that baselevel changes affect the vertical
earth's lithic surface is divisible into innumerable position of a river only locally and to a minor ex-
areas, each of which is characterized by one or tent. They argued that not only is stream gradient
other of two processes-deposition and erosion. important, but that channel pattern, roughness,
The boundary between any two or these areas is and shape (Rubey 1952) can also adjust, in order to
at baselevel" (Wheeler 1964a, p. 603). Wheeler is absorb the effect of baselevel change. They based
obviously not considering baselevel but rather the their conclusion partly upon a study of a cutoff in

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Journalof Geology CENTENNIAL SPECIAL ISSUE 281

a) deposits .. . that the direct influence of the late-

Wisconsin sea-level fall extended no farther upval-
ley than the latitude of Baton Rouge" (Autin et al.
1991, p. 552), 370 river kilometers above Head of
Passes. This is only a fraction of the distance to
the head of the Mississippi alluvial valley at Cairo,
b) Illinois, 1536 river kilometers upstream from Head
of Passes. Nevertheless, an effect extending 370
km upstream is neither local nor minor. Blum's
(1992) studies of the Colorado River of Texas lead
him to a similar conclusion. Furthermore, Pleisto-
c) cene sea-level lowering caused only 23 m of inci-
sion by the Trinity and Sabine Rivers on the Texas
continental shelf (Thomas and Anderson 1989, p.
566). The subsequent sea-level rise caused deposi-
tion for a distance of only 150 km upstream
(Thomas and Anderson, 1993). Further investiga-
tion shows that there was incision to a depth of 40
Figure 1. When baselevel changes or the position of the m (Thomas and Anderson, 1993), but this is far less
mouth of a stream shifts laterally, the stream profile will than the 120 m of sea-level lowering (Fairbanks
be established at a higher or lower elevation. (a) baselevel 1989).
rises from position 1 to 2, (b)baselevel falls from position The question regarding the impact of baselevel
1 to 2, (c) the mouth of the stream shifts horizontally change on the fluvial system does not have a ready
from position 1 to 2 (after Lane 1955). answer. If baselevel effect is minimal in some cases
but significant in others, then other variables must
the canyon of the San Juan River, where baselevel play an important role. At least 10 variables appear
was lowered about 40 m, but the tiny streams that significant, and they can be grouped as follows: (1)
drain the cutoff are apparently unable to incise into baselevel controls, including direction, magnitude,
the bedrock wall of the canyon so this may not be rate, and duration; (2) geologic controls, including
a good example. Leopold et al. (1964, p. 260) cite lithology, structure, and nature of valley alluvium;
surveys that indicate a reservoir controls deposi- (3) geomorphic controls, including inclination of
tion in the river for only a short distance upstream exposed surfaces, valley morphology, and river
where the backwater curve intersects the original morphology and adjustability.
streambed profile. The initial surveys showed that Baselevel Controls. The direction of baselevel
the gradient of deposition above dams varied be- change obviously determines whether a river will
tween 30 and 60% of the original slope of the chan- aggrade or degrade, but the magnitude of the
nel, and even after an additional 22 yrs of sediment change appears to be most important. If baselevel
accumulation, these slopes did not steepen sig- lowering is small, a channel can adjust to a change
nificantly. It may be that the period of record is of slope by changing its pattern, by increasing bed
too short, because, when this type of deposition roughness, or by changing shape, and in this man-
occurs, the channel is filled first, and then sedi- ner accommodate a baselevel change. If the change
ment is spread over the entire valley floor. It is not is large, river incision is likely, and if it is very
simply a matter of filling the channel, therefore, large, rejuvenation of the entire drainage network
but also of regrading the valley, which will take may result.
considerably more time. In contrast, channel inci- The rate of change is also important, and some
sion occupies only a small part of the valley floor experimental work has demonstrated that when
and can occur rapidly. the lowering of baselevel is fast, a stream incises
Studies in the Mississippi valley by Durham vertically with little lateral migration, whereas
(1962) and Saucier (1981) contradict Fisk's (1944) when the change is slow, considerable lateral mi-
conclusions that the river incised into bedrock gration takes place, permitting the channel to ad-
throughout the lower Mississippi valley during just its slope (Yoxall 1969; Wood et al. 1992b).
maximum glaciation and minimum sea level, be- Also, with rapid incision, all discharge events,
cause the valley was never swept clean of sedi- even the largest flows, will be concentrated in a
ments. Saucier (1981) concluded from the "extent narrow deep channel. This increases the energy of
and shape of the prism of Holocene backswamp the flow, and the affect of the baselevel lowering

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282 S. A. SCHUMM

is greatly enhanced. In alluvial valleys in the the river is straight or sinuous and a baselevel fall
southeastern United States much of the flow was causes a steepening of the gradient, the river could
spread over the valley floor prior to channelization, become more sinuous and adjust to changes of
and this flow was, in effect, non-erosive. Following slope without major incision. However, a braided
initial rapid incision, floodwaters were concen- river could only incise.
trated in the enlarged channel, and incision moved Although all of the 10 controls are important,
rapidly upstream (Schumm et al. 1984). Therefore, not all require a detailed discussion. For example,
rapid baselevel change appears to have a more sig- regarding geologic controls, either there are bed-
nificant upstream impact, than does a slow change. rock controls or there are not, and regarding base-
Duration of baselevel changes is probably less level controls, either baselevel rises or falls. Chan-
important than magnitude and rate, although it is nel confinement by valley morphology or cohesive
intimately related to both. If the duration is long, alluvium will be discussed first because it has a
the rate will be slow, and many adjustments of the bearing on other controls.
fluvial system can occur to negate the effects of the
long-term baselevel change. However, if baselevel Nature of Alluvium and Channel Confinement
lowering is large, rapid and short, the impact will
be significant, and channel incision can still be oc- The cohesiveness of the sediment forming the bed
curring upstream, even after baselevel has returned and banks of a channel seems very important in
to its original position. determining how far upstream the effect of a base-
Geologic Controls. In many cases, bedrock or level lowering can propagate. Experimental studies
structural controls will prevent or delay the effect in low-cohesion sediments have shown that nick-
of a baselevel change from moving upstream. If so, points will not migrate indefinitely upstream
baselevel fluctuations will not affect the fluvial (Brush and Wolman 1960) because: (1) as the nick-
system or be reflected in the stratigraphic record point reach lengthens, its slope is reduced until
until the local control is removed. it is nearly equal to the slope of the stream; the
If the valley alluvium is cohesive, incision may nickpoint cannot be identified when the slope of
be propagated rapidly upstream. If there is a resis- the nickpoint reach is approximately 20% of the
tant layer (root mat, sod, compacted sediment, co- average slope of the river; (2) as slope reduction
hesive silt and clay over sand), a nickpoint can re- takes place, stream competence declines to the
tain its identity and migrate for long distances point that bedload movement ceases; (3) consider-
upstream. If the alluvium is sandy, the effect of the able bank erosion takes place in cohesionless sedi-
baselevel change can be dissipated in the wide and ment so that widening of the channel occurs and
shallow channel that results when incision into stream competence declines.
this type of sediment occurs. Unlike channels formed in low-cohesion sedi-
Geomorphic Controls. The surface exposed by ment, channels in cohesive sediment incised along
baselevel lowering is very important in determin- the entire length of a flume (Begin et al. 1980,
ing the impact of the lowering (Miall 1989). If base- 1981). In Begin's experiments, water that spread
level is lowered abruptly, as along a scarp (figure widely across the flume became concentrated in
lb), the results will be very different from the situ- the incised channel. This concentrated the energy
ation when baselevel is lowered gradually, as when of the flow in the narrow deep channel, which, in
a shoreline retreats across a gentle continental turn, enhanced incision and headward erosion. Be-
slope (figure l c), or one equal to the gradient of the gin's results are similar to those that occurred
river (Wood et al. 1992a). when baselevel was lowered in a 9 by 15 m rainfall-
The morphology of the valley in which the erosion facility. Because of the cohesive nature of
stream flows is important in determining the abil- the sediment and a relatively large lowering of
ity of a river to adjust to baselevel change. If the baselevel, incision was propagated through the
channel is in a wide valley or flowing across a drainage network to the smallest tributaries. As
plain, it has the ability to shift laterally. A channel a result, the drainage pattern was extended, and
confined within a narrow valley can only aggrade sediment yields increased significantly (Schumm
or degrade. et al. 1987, p. 34-44).
Finally, and most important, is the morphology When incision occurs in valleys with fine sedi-
and the sensitivity or adjustability of an alluvial ments, water is concentrated in the incised chan-
river. For example, depending upon its morphol- nel, and erosion can extend for very long distances
ogy, a river may be able to adjust its pattern and upstream. For example, when baselevel was low-
shape in order to adjust to a baselevel change. If ered 3 m by excavation, a headcut formed in the

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Journal of Geology CENTENNIAL SPECIAL ISSUE 283

channel, which was estimated to have extended

100 km upstream (Qian 1990).
These observations show how different the ef-
fects of baselevel change can be upon a confined
(leveed) and an unconfined channel. In the first
case, vertical adjustment is the only option. In the
second case, the river can aggrade or degrade, but
lateral shift is the most likely result. When a river
is unconfined, it will distribute its sediment load
1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
widely over a plain. Avulsion will be frequent, but
1100
Time (years) the upstream effect will be much less than when
the channel is confined.
Figure 2. Changing length of lower Yellow River be-
tween 1200 and 1855 A.D. (from Ren and Xie 1990).
River Pattern Adjustment
Lane's (1955) argument that a stream will restore
channel of the East Prairie River of Alberta, Can- its gradient at a higher or lower level following a
ada, which flows through clayey and cohesive la- baselevel change (figure 1) is conceptually correct
custrine sediments (Parker and Andres 1976). The because if the river is initially at grade, then to
headcut migrated upstream 2134 m between 1966 move its sediment load and water discharge
and 1968 and an additional 8232 m between 1968 through the channel, the original gradient of the
and 1972. The arroyos of the southwestern United stream must be re-established. However, sediment
States, and channelized streams in the southeast- loads may be greater after channel incision and less
ern United States, also provide examples of long- after aggradation. Another fallacy in Lane's argu-
distance channel incision in relatively cohesive ment is the assumption that the maximum down-
valley fills (Schumm et al. 1984). An excellent ex- valley slope, the valley slope, and channel gradient
ample of the effect of confining a channel is pro- are identical. This is not the case, and the two-
vided by an extraordinary record of Yellow River dimensional perspective provided by figure 1 leads
deposition (1194-1855 A.D.) downstream of Yunti- to erroneous conclusions. For example, a sinuous
guan, which is now 200 km from the sea (Ren and river has a gradient less than that of the valley
Xie 1990). Before 1600 A.D. seaward extension of floor.
the Yellow River delta was very slow, at a rate of Sinuosity (P) is the ratio between channel length
about 40 m/yr. Sediment was spread widely across (Lc) and valley length (Lv), and it is also the ratio
the north China alluvial plain as the river mouth between valley slope (Sv) and channel gradient (Sc)
shifted frequently (figure 2). During the latter part as follows:
of the 16th century, an official of the Ming Dy-
nasty (Pan Jixun) caused the river to be confined Le Sv
by levees. This caused increased sediment delivery Lv Sc
(1)
to the delta, which grew at a rate of 1400 m/yr.
During the 17th century, the levees deteriorated Therefore, a straight channel has a sinuosity of
during a period of war, and the river spread its sedi- 1.0, and the gradient of the channel and the slope
ments widely across the plain. The result was a of the valley floor are the same. It has been demon-
reduction of delta growth to about 200 m/yr. Fol- strated that rivers can respond to major changes
lowing this period of disruption, an official of the of water and sediment load primarily by pattern
Qing Dynasty (Jin Fu), reconstructed the levee sys- changes (Schumm 1968), and that much of the pat-
tem, and the delta grew at a rate of 1700 m/yr tern variability of large alluvial rivers such as the
(figure 2). This rate decreased to an average of 600 Mississippi, Indus, and Nile reflect the variability
m/yr until 1855. The maintenance of the river be- of the valley slope.
tween substantial levees fixed the river position, The lower Mississippi River below Cairo, Illi-
and as a result its bed aggraded to about 10 m above nois can be used as an example. When the water-
the level of the North China Plain, as the delta surface elevation, which is a close approximation
prograded. In 1855, a major flood breached the of bed elevation, is plotted against valley distance
levee at Tongwaxiang, which caused a 7 to 10 m a longitudinal profile of the floodplain or valley
lowering of water surface elevation. This lowering floor is obtained (figure 3). This profile is irregular,
of local baselevel caused incision in the leveed as a result of neotectonics and tributary influences

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284 S. A. SCHUMM

Figure 3. Profile of Mississippi 300

River valley between Cairo, IL and

Old River, LA. This is a profile of 250
the floodplain or valley floor. The
effect of river sinuosity is removed
by plotting water-surface elevation 200

against valley distance.

150

100

50

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

VALLEYMILES FROM CAIRO

(Schumm 1986). When sinuosity for each of the 24 location in the valley. The channel distance is one-
reaches is obtained from four surveys covering a third longer than the valley distance, and the differ-
period of 150 yrs (figure 4), it is apparent that the ence in channel and valley slope reflects the sinu-
steeper reaches of the valley profile have the high- osity of the stream. The length of the channel is
est sinuosity and are the most subject to variations 1.5 times the length of the valley and, therefore,
of sinuosity, as meanders form and cutoff. Figures the stream gradient is one-third less than the val-
3 and 4 indicate that increased valley slope will ley slope (equation 1). If in the worst case, a verti-
cause river pattern to change from low to higher cal fall of baselevel from B to D and C to E is as-
sinuosity, which, in turn, aids in the maintenance sumed, channel incision and lateral erosion will
of channel gradient on a varying valley slope (equa- steepen the valley floor. If the channel is not con-
tion 1). However, if the valley slope change is too fined laterally, it can adjust to the increased valley
great, braiding will result (Schumm et al. 1987, p. slope (F-D) by increasing sinuosity to 2.0, and the
172-173). channel profile is extended to H. In this case, inci-
Figures 5 and 6 attempt to illustrate this concept sion ceases at point F in the valley and at point G
geometrically. Figure 5 shows the impact of the in the channel because the increase of sinuosity
lowering of baselevel in a valley with a stream of from 1.5 to 2.0 from G to H maintains a constant
sinuosity (P) of 1.5. The line A-C represents the channel gradient over the reach of increased valley
channel profile and the line A-B represents the pro- slope (F-D). The one-third increase of channel
file of the valley floor. Points B and C are at the length (sinuosity) between G and H compensates
river mouth, and points F and G are at the same for a one-third steepening of the valley floor from
F to D.
According to Lane's assumptions, the effect of
this baselevel fall would be propagated upstream
to point A, where an amount of erosion equal to
B-D would occur. However, because the stream
can adjust, the steepening of the valley floor will
not result in a change of stream gradient. Rather
the channel lengthens, and the effect of baselevel
lowering is propagated only a relatively short dis-
tance upstream. The distance will undoubtedly de-
pend on local conditions and the original slope of
the valley floor, but this exercise supports Saucier's
(1991) contention that Pleistocene sea level change
in the lower Mississippi valley was effective only
as far as Baton Rouge. The probability that a large
Figure 4. Sinuosity of Mississippi River for each reach river can adjust in this fashion is made more likely
of figure 3 for four surveys. by the fact that the baselevel changes in nature

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Journal of Geology CENTENNIAL SPECIAL ISSUE 285

Figure 5. Effect of a baselevel fall

(B-D) on channel length and pattern.
See text for discussion.

will take place relatively slowly and not abruptly, river was 1.2 in figure 5, then the adjusted sinuos-
unlike during the experimental studies. The river, ity would be about 1.6 instead of 2.0. If the sinuos-
therefore, has more time to adjust by changing sin- ity of the river was 2.0 instead of 1.5 in figure 6,
uosity. then the adjusted sinuosity would be about 1.3 and
Figure 6 shows an abrupt rise in baselevel from instead of a straight channel, a sinuous channel
B to D for a valley profile A-B and a channel profile would cross the shelf.
A-C. Under Lane's assumptions, deposition would Further evidence for the type of channel re-
backfill the valley causing deposition equal to B-D sponse shown in figures 5 and 6 is demonstrated
at point A. This situation, identical to deposition by the experimental studies of Jeff Ware (1992 oral
behind a dam, will produce deposition, but when comm.). He lowered baselevel relatively slowly to
the valley aggrades to a slope (G-D) equal to the a maximum of 12 cm in a flume with a total length
original channel gradient (A-C), which is necessary of 18.4 m. This change would have doubled the
to transport water and the sediment load to the channel gradient. However, the effect of the base-
new shoreline at point F, deposition should cease. level lowering extended only 4 m upstream, and
On the reduced valley slope (G-D), sinuosity will the change in baselevel, as in figure 5, was accom-
decrease from 1.5 (A-H) to 1.0 (H-F). In this way, modated by an increase of sinuosity from 1.2 to 1.5
the gradient of the channel is maintained, and de- in the lower 4 m in the flume. It is clear, however,
position ceases at point G in the valley and point that pattern change did not totally compensate for
H in the channel. In this case, the effect of an the change of baselevel. This channel widened and
abrupt rise in baselevel was not propagated up- roughness increased, thereby assuming part of the
stream to point A because the effect was absorbed adjustment to the baselevel change. If some of the
by an adjustment of channel pattern from H to F. adjustment is accomplished by a depth decrease
Figures 5 and 6 show only two examples of base- (channel widens) and a roughness increase, then
level change, where the sinuosity of the river be- some sinuosity would persist even in the example
fore the change was 1.5. However, sinuosity could of figure 6.
range from 1.0 to about 2.5. If the sinuosity of the The Manning Equation for velocity of flow (V)
reveals that velocity is a function of hydraulic ra-
dius or average flow depth (R) gradient (S) and
channel roughness (n) as follows:

V 1.49 R2/3 1/2

n (2)

Ware's experiments showed that a sinuosity in-

crease, which resulted in a slope decrease, was only
part of the adjustment, and both depth (R) and
roughness (n) adjusted to decrease velocity and
stream power. Therefore, the obvious pattern
Figure 6. Effect of baselevel rise (B-D) on channel changes (figures 4, 5, and 6) may only absorb part
length and pattern. See text for discussion. of a valley slope or baselevel change, as suggested

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286 S. A. SCHUMM

by Leopold and Bull (1979). In addition, upstream

incision was producing more sediment, which re-
quired a steeper gradient.
Figure 7 carries the discussion farther by illus-
trating a change of baselevel from B to C, across
continental shelfs of different gradients (Miall
1989). In examples a and b, the slope of the conti-
nental shelf is gentler than that of the stream chan-
nel. In example c, it is identical, and in examples
d and e, it is steeper. In example a, the decrease in
slope is large. The channel cannot adjust to this by
a change of pattern or other channel characteristics
(equation 2), so aggradation takes place, and a
wedge of sediment is deposited. This increases the
gradient of the shelf, and it would decrease the gra-
dient of the stream from D to C but a decrease of
sinuosity compensates, as in figure 6. The slope of
the channel between D and C is the slope required
by the stream to transport the sediment load to C
as in figure 6. In example b, the reduction of slope
at B is not great, and the channel can compensate
by straightening and reducing sinuosity without
deposition. In example c, the slope of the shelf is
identical to the slope of the stream, and therefore
the channel can extend itself across the surface
without aggradation or degradation. Although as it
does so, the new channel will probably form by Figure 7. Effect of baselevel change across continental
developing natural levees and scouring slightly shelves of different inclination. See text for discussion.
into the existing surface. In example d, the slope
of the shelf is steeper than that of the stream, but
the increase is not large, and the stream can ac- merged with the unaffected upstream reach (figure
commodate this by an increase in sinuosity be- 8). After 8.5 hrs, incision had not extended beyond
tween B and C as in figure 5. However, in example 9 m upstream (Run 3D). With time the channel
e, the slope of the shelf is much steeper, and the would have undoubtedly adjusted further, but this
channel cannot adjust only by a pattern change. experiment best illustrates the declining rate of in-
Incision takes place, and the channel probably wid- cision upstream and the declining rate of sediment
ens and braids. This effect of this will be propa- delivery, as shear stress is progressively distributed
gated upstream for some distance (C to D) until over a greater channel length. As discussed earlier,
the channel can accommodate the slope change by the situation may be very different when a channel
a change of pattern as in figure 5 as well as by a is confined and its ability to shift laterally is re-
change of shape and roughness (equation 2). stricted.
The discussion so far has been with regard to It can be concluded that, depending upon the
the response of sinuous streams to an increase or circumstances of baselevel lowering, there can be
decrease of slope (figures 5, 6, 7). A braided stream, aggradation, degradation, or little change (Butcher
however, may not be able to adjust to a steeper 1989). Nevertheless, this is a very simplistic view
valley slope. Experimental studies of the effect of the response of the fluvial system to change. For
of baselevel change on braided streams by Ger- example, figure 8 shows that, as incision took
manowski (1990, written comm.) show that in place in the lower part of the flume, there was ag-
these wide channels, formed in low-cohesion sedi- gradation upstream in response to the sediment be-
ments, a baselevel lowering causes great channel ing fed into the channel. When baselevel was
instability. Nickpoints formed as baselevel was raised in this experiment, deposition eventually
lowered at the end of a flume by removal of 1.9 cm extended upstream to the 9 m limit of incision, but
thick boards, but they quickly lost their identity degradation was occurring above this point, as a
by reclining. The amount of incision decreased pro- result of the previous baselevel lowering. In fact,
gressively upstream until the rejuvenated reach in most incised channels, upstream degradation

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Journal of Geology CENTENNIAL SPECIAL ISSUE 287

(a)

(b)

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 16 17 18 l19

Distance Down Channel (m)

Figure 8. Longitudinal profiles of braided streams

formed during baselevel lowering. Profiles indicate three
stages of adjustment during experiment 3. Effect of base-
level change ceased at meter 10 (9 m upstream) after 8.5
hrs (from Germanowski 1990 and written commun.).

causes downstream aggradation so that the stream

reaches are out of phase. Furthermore, studies of
incised channels reveal that the increased sedi-
ment loads generated by incision will lead to depo-
sition in a channel (figure 9). For example, stream (e)
capture rejuvenated a stream in Texas, which led
to rejuvenation of tributary streams, larger sedi-
ment loads, and downstream deposition (Shepherd
1979; Gardner 1983). This response has also been
noted during experimental rejuvenation of drain-
age networks (Schumm et al. 1987, p. 95). The end
result of this complex response of rejuvenated flu-
vial systems is highly variable sediment delivery Figure 9. Evolution of an incising channel from initial
incision (a, b), and widening (a, b, c, d) to deposition (c,
to the depositional basin, which is characteristic of d), and eventual stability (e). This evolution occurs at
fluvial sedimentary deposits (Johnson et al. 1985; one cross section through time, but it can be observed
Badgley and Tauxe 1990; McRae 1990; Schumm along the channel from upstream (a) to downstream (e)
1981). (after Schumm et al. 1984).

Effects of Baselevel Change on the

slope, and deposition will be minor. Nevertheless,
Continental Shelf
natural levees will form and channel avulsion will
Morphologic changes of the shelf-slope channels be common as channels become inefficient and are
are important, but the schematic two-dimensional abandoned (figure 10b). The shelf will be a dynamic
sketches of figure 7 provide only part of the story. surface modified by frequent avulsions. In figure
In figure 7a, where significant deposition is re- 7e, the shelf is incised, and sediment will be deliv-
quired to maintain the gradient of the channel, an ered to the shelf edge through the incised channel
alluvial fan or fan-delta will form as the uncon- (figure 10c). Unlike examples a and b of figure 10,
fined channel shifts widely across the shelf (Figure the incised channel should remain fixed in one po-
10a). A broad convexity will form in cross section, sition until it is filled by deposition.
and the shelf topography will become irregular and Small channels will also develop on the shelf, as
assume the morphology of a gently sloping bajada runoff from the sloping surface is concentrated and
surface that rises toward the major channels that dendritic drainage networks form (figure 10). These
cross the shelf. In figure 7b,c, and d, the channel channels will incise less than the main channel,
has adjusted its pattern to accommodate the shelf but because they are at a lower elevation than the

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288 S. A. SCHUMM

from smaller drainage basins, and (3) small valleys

that formed on the shelf by runoff draining from
only the shelf to form dendritic drainage patterns
(figure 10). For example, channels and valleys of
different dimensions have been described by Van-
Wagoner et al. (1990) on the Gulf Coast.
A series of experimental studies concerning the
effect of shelf inclination, rate of baselevel change,
and steepness of the sediment source area (sedi-
ment-yield rates) on the response to baselevel
change were performed at Colorado state Univer-
sity (Koss 1992; Wood et al. 1992a, 1992b). Koss
used the 9.2 by 15.5 m rainfall-erosion facility
(figure 11) to determine how a lowering of base-
level across a shelf sloping at 1% and down a 22%
slope affected the stream system and the shelf and
slope morphology. His experimental design resem-
bled figure 7b with a shelf inclination less than the
slope of the stream draining to the slope. During
12 hrs, Koss lowered the water level 7.2 cm, which
brought the shoreline across the shelf and 3.2 cm
below the shelf break (figure 11). This water level
was held constant for 4 hrs, and then the water
level was raised to its original position on the shelf.
Under these conditions, a fan delta developed at
Figure 10. Plan views and cross sections of three differ- the mouth of the stream that drained the sediment
ent shelf situations: (a) slope of shelf is gentle (figure 7a) source area (figure 11). During the first 3 cm of
and deposition produces a fan delta, which in the cross baselevel fall, the shoreline remained on the shelf,
section rises above the shelf surface and sets the stage the delta prograded rapidly, and water from the
for incision or avulsion, (b) slope of shelf is similar to stream spread over the delta and shelf surface.
valley slope (figure 7c) and the channel extends across Once the shoreline crossed the edge of the shelf
the slope building natural levees and being subject to and dropped below it, many small valleys formed,
avulsion, (c) slope of shelf is steep (figure 7e) and incision
occurs leaving smaller shelf channels perched above the and they extended upslope toward the available
incision. water. The channel or valley that captured the
most water grew fastest, and as a result it captured
more of the water supply and eventually joined the
main channel (figure 10a,b) they can readily cap- main channel at the delta head. When this oc-
ture it and shift its mouth laterally. This type of curred, fluvial sediments from the source area were
channel behavior has been well documented for a moved to the shelf edge and down the slope to form
different environment at the foot of the Book Cliffs a shelf-edge delta (figure 11). As this channel now
(Rich 1935), the Henry Mountains in Utah (Hunt et conveyed all of the runoff from the source area, the
al. 1953), and the Beartooth Mountains of Montana other defeated channels ceased headward growth.
(Ritter 1972), but the general morphologic situa- The major cross-shelf channel did not always
tion is similar. form at the center line of the delta; rather it fol-
Much of the preceding discussion relates to sea- lowed the track of the maximum water flow. In
level change over sloping surfaces of different in- one experiment it bisected the delta (A), and in the
clinations (figures 7, 10). However, when sealevel other it followed the margin of the delta (B). As the
lowering brings baselevel to the edge of the conti- water level rose, the small shelf valleys were filled
nental shelf and down the continental slope, chan- with reworked shelf sediments, whereas the cross-
nels will incise and valleys will form. In fact, there shelf valleys were filled with sandy source-area
should be small, medium, and large valleys on the sediment.
shelf as follows: (1) large deeply incised valleys These experiments suggest that coarse sedi-
(figure 10c) are the extension of major rivers drain- ments will be found in the cross-shelf valley and
ing large areas of the continent, (2) medium-sized finer reworked shelf sediments will fill the small
valleys are the extension of small rivers that drain shelf-edge valleys. Therefore, the experiments help

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Journalof Geology CENTENNIAL SPECIAL ISSUE 289

ently had little or no influence on source-area

stream behavior. As the delta formed there was de-
position in the lower valley above the delta, but
the effect was felt only in the lower part of the
drainage system. This experiment further supports
the conclusion that a baselevel change alone may
not greatly influence the upstream fluvial system.

Implications for Sequence Stratigraphy

The sequence stratigraphic models proposed by
Vail and his colleagues (Vail et al. 1977; Posamen-
tier et al. 1988) and their significance for hydrocar-
bon exploration appears to depend upon a global
mechanism, and they have chosen eustatic sea-
level change. However, a controversy has devel-
oped concerning this assumption, and Miall (1991)
and Galloway (1989a, 1989b) believe that tecton-
ism and changes of sediment delivery rates also
control the character of the shelf-slope deposits.
Sloss (1988, 1991) also argues for the significance
of tectonics and concludes that the eustatic expla-
nation is too simple. Galloway (1991a) states that
sediment delivery, subsidence rate, and eustatic
sealevel change can be of varying significance in
sequence stratigraphy. Sediment delivery can be af-
Figure 11. Map showing results of baselevel lowering
experiments. When water level was lowered slowly fected by tectonics, isostatic adjustment, climate,
across the shelf from position 1 to position 2, a shelf and of course sea-level change.
delta (A) formed. When the water level fell below the The controversy concerning the effect of a base-
shelf edge, numerous channels incised into the shelf to level change on river response is not surprising,
form small valleys (v). When one channel captured the considering the complexity of the fluvial and shelf-
flow, a cross-shelf valley formed that, during one experi- slope systems. A large number of variables influ-
ment, bisected the shelf delta (A). However, during an- ence the impact of baselevel change. As demon-
other experiment, the cross-shelf valley formed on the strated above, baselevel changes can have major,
margin of the delta (B). Both valleys delivered sediment intermediate, or minimal effects depending on bed-
from the source area and incised into the delta and shelf, rock and structural controls, the nature of the af-
and slope deltas, (A', B1) formed. Slope of the drainage
fected river, the amount and rate of baselevel
basin was 5%, of the shelf 1%, and of the slope 22%
change, the inclination of the newly exposed shelf
(from Koss 1992).
surface, and perhaps the hydrologic character of
the river. The impact on the shelf and slope will
to explain the three different types of channels or depend on their gradient and on the type and quan-
valleys identified on the shelf in the rock record tity of sediment delivered from the sediment
(VanWagoner et al. 1990, figure 26). The master source area, which depends upon erodibility of the
stream forms a large incised valley filled primarily available materials, climate and relief. Therefore,
with fluvial sediment. Smaller valleys that are in- on a global basis, the effect of a sea-level change
cised to shallower depths may reflect distributaries will be highly variable.
or smaller streams crossing the shelf. Finally the Although a variety of effects are possible, the
smallest valleys, that formed wholly on the shelf propagation of the effects of baselevel change along
and were never able to tap a supply of mainland a large alluvial river probably will be moderate,
sediment, are filled with silts and clays. In addi- moving upstream, but not for long distances. Total
tion, the seaward extension of a valley may not rejuvenation of the drainage system is not ex-
follow the shortest route across the shelf. pected, although the effect will be greatest where
Koss also determined that, although the fluctu- baselevel change is great, incision is rapid, and the
ating water level should have produced significant rivers are confined (figure 2).
changes in the channels of the source area, it appar- All of the above casts doubt upon the conclusion

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290 S. A. SCHUMM

of Aubrey (1989) that incision progressed inland

320 km from an early Cretaceous shoreline. Sea- a
level fall was about 50 m, which is consistent with
45 m of incision near the coast, but incision was
30 m about 320 km inland. This baselevel decline
would have increased channel gradients over this
distance by only 0.00016, which could be accom-
modated readily by channel adjustment (figures 5, b
6, and 7). A much greater baselevel change would
be required to cause 30 m of incision so far from
the coast. Because subsidence is cited as the expla-
nation for the subsequent filling of these incised
Figure 12. Comparison of (a) downfilling and (b) back-
valleys, Weimer's (1983) conclusion that uplift of filling in a valley.
much of the region was the cause of the inland
valley incision seems more reasonable.
As long-term accelerated sediment delivery to
the shelf-slope would be unlikely with a simple would be deposited upstream, and it should
baselevel lowering, it is probable that large accu- coarsen upward, as the coarser sediment eventu-
mulations of sediment reflect not only baselevel ally moves downstream on a steeper valley slope
change, but perhaps uplift of the sediment source (figure 12a). This type of valley-fill deposit should
area, which, in turn, could lead to orographic cli- be similar to a thin deltaic deposit. There should
mate change. Perhaps Sloss (1991) was correct in also be a marked change in the character (mineral-
suggesting that a pulse or expansion of the earth ogy, grain size) and volume of the sediment deliv-
causes the sequence-stratigraphic relationships by ered, as erosion progresses in the upper part of the
changing both baselevel and relief of the sediment- drainage basin. In contrast, the backfilling deposit
source area. It is likely that orogeny, epeirogeny, would fine upward as the coarser sediments are
and eustasy act together (Johnson 1971), perhaps progressively deposited farther upstream. Also, the
in response to changing rates of subduction (Gur- character and quantity of sediment should not
nis 1992), interplate stress (Cloetingh 1986), or change because most of the sediment source area
changes of heat loss or flow (Worsley et al. 1984). would not be affected by a rise of baselevel.
A major problem when dealing with complex It might also be possible to distinguish among
systems is convergence, which occurs when differ- baselevel, climate, and tectonic influences by the
ent processes or causes produce similar results change of sediment delivery with time (figure 13).
(Schumm 1991, p. 58-61). For example, increased Based upon experimental studies (Schumm et al.
sediment deposition on the shelf and slope could 1987) and field observations (Gellis et al. 1991),
be caused by baselevel change, climate change, or rapid baselevel lowering produces a major short-
tectonics. In fact, the explanation could be multi- term pulse of sediment (figure 13a). As incision
ple with all three factors interacting to produce the progresses through the drainage network, less sedi-
stratigraphic results. Nevertheless, it may be possi- ment is produced and much of it is stored in the
ble to discriminate among the effects of baselevel, newly developed incised channel (figure 9). Ger-
climate change, and tectonic influences. For exam- manowski's (1990) and Gardner's (1983) experi-
ple, a climate change or uplift that produced a ments, which showed that the rate of erosion fol-
higher sediment load relative to discharge would lowing baselevel lowering declined exponentially
lead to downfilling of a valley. The increased sedi- as the initial nickpoint lengthened (figure 8), sup-
ment load would lead to deposition where the val- port this conclusion. A similar result could be an-
ley profile lessened, and the valley would fill pro- ticipated from Ware's experiment when baselevel
gressively in a downstream direction (figure 12a). lowering was compensated by an increase of sinu-
In contrast, valley filling as a result of sea-level rise osity, a decrease of depth, and increased roughness.
would cause backfilling (figure 12b). The deposits When the baselevel change is slow, the impact will
should differ in several ways, although it may not be less and it will be delayed (figure 13a).
be possible to detect in outcrop. The downfilling The effect of uplift in the sediment source area
deposit should wedge out both up and down- should be pronounced and longer-lasting than the
stream, whereas the backfilling deposit should effects of a baselevel change, and there will be an
thicken downstream. The downfilling deposit exponential increase of sediment production as re-
should fine downstream, as the coarsest sediments lief increases (Schumm 1963). There will be a lag

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Journal of Geology CENTENNIAL SPECIAL ISSUE 291

a) BASELEVEL span involved in the sketches of figure 13. The ris-

ing limb of each curve will depend upon the rates
of baselevel, tectonic, and climate change. Abrupt
changes of baselevel in channelized streams of
Mississippi set in motion a series of channel ad-
justments that were essentially completed in
about 50 yrs (Schumm et al. 1984), whereas some
of the large arroyos in the southwestern United
States require at least 100 plus yrs to produce a
b) TECTONICS curve similar to figure 13a (Gellis et al. 1990;
Schumm 1991).

Conclusions
It appears that for long sustained sediment delivery
to the coast, uplift is the most likely explanation,
because the upstream effect of baselevel change
will be moderate. This conclusion is supported by
the fact that the large rivers with large sediment
loads usually originate in orogenic belts (Dickin-
son 1988; Audley-Charles and Curray 1977). It is
further supported by Galloway's (1989a) conclu-
sion that "Volumes of sediment excavated by val-
ley incision of coastal plains exposed at relative
low stands are inconsequential in the context of
TIME
sequence stratigraphy volumes. Basins cannot be
Figure 13. Effects of (a) baselevel, (b) tectonic, and (c) filled by self-cannibalization." An important point
climate change on sediment delivery to the coast. See is that incised valleys on the continental shelf
text for discussion. range in width from "less than several miles to
many tens of miles" (VanWagoner et al. 1990).
This means that lateral erosion has widened the
before the effect reaches the coast, but with time, valleys and the channels are not confined. The Yel-
the decline of sediment delivery will be less than low River example (figure 2) confirms that when
for the baselevel change, and the higher rate of sed- channels are not confined, the impact of baselevel
iment delivery would persist for a long time (figure change will be limited in an upstream direction.
13b). The magnitude of the response would, of It is unfortunate that so many factors influence
course, depend upon the quantity of sediment the effect of baselevel change on the fluvial and
stored in the uplifted landscape and the resistance shelf-slope systems. Under certain circumstances,
of the rocks affected. Weak rocks will continue to the effect of baselevel change will be local and mi-
produce large amounts of sediment, whereas resis- nor; under other conditions, it will be significant.
tant rocks will produce less after the weathered In most cases, however, large alluvial rivers will
mantle is removed (figure 13b). be able to adjust to altered slopes by adjustments
A climate change (figure 13c) will have diver- of sinuosity, channel dimensions, and roughness
gent effects (Langbein and Schumm 1958). A (equations 1 and 2). Therefore, except under ex-
change from a humid to semiarid or to a markedly treme conditions, changes of baselevel will not re-
seasonal climate would produce the greatest in- juvenate the entire drainage network. A combina-
crease of sediment, whereas a change from humid tion of baselevel lowering, which would rejuvenate
to subhumid or to superhumid might have little the lower part of the fluvial system, and uplift,
effect (Langbein and Schumm 1958). A change which would rejuvenate the upper part, would de-
from humid to arid would greatly decrease sedi- liver large quantities of sediment to the coast and
ment delivery. Climate changes will be rapid produce the depositional sequences of great inter-
in comparison to most baselevel and tectonic est. Figure 14 is an attempt to summarize these
changes, and therefore, the response will be rapid conclusions visually. For most alluvial rivers, the
(figure 13c). effect of a baselevel change can be very significant
Unfortunately, little can be said about the time at the coast (km 0), whereas the effect of increased

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292 S. A. SCHUMM

relief depends upon its location. If near the coast

it will be dominant, but even at a great distance
(1000 km) it will have an impact at the coast, the
magnitude of which depends upon the quantity of
sediment delivered. In short, baselevel changes
could affect a valley for perhaps 300 km, as in the
Mississippi valley, whereas increased relief and, of
course, a climate change can affect the entire flu-
vial system.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Professor Frank Ethridge for a careful re-

view. The research of Wood and Koss was sup-
Distance (Km)
ported by National Science Foundation, Grant
Figure 14. Relative effect of changes of relief and base- CES-8802213. The research of Germanowski and
level (based upon an idea of Henry Posamentier). Dis- the author during preparation of this paper was
tance is upstream from baselevel at 0 km. See text for supported by the U.S. Army Research Office, Grant
discussion. 24608-GS-VIR.

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