INTERNSHIP REPORT

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

"Jnana Sangama", Belagavi- 590 01

INTERNSHIP SEMINAR REPORT

ON
“SOLAR MANUFACTURING EQUIPMENT APPLIANCES”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under the Guidance of

Mr. JOYSUN D’SOUZA., M.Tech,LMISTE,MIE

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
A.I.T, Chikkamagaluru
Submitted by
SONU LS (4AI17EE036)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ADICHUNCHANAGIRI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
CHIKKAMAGALURU-577102, KARNATAKA
2020-2021

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ADICHUNCHANAGIRI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

CHIKKAMAGALURU-577102
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Internship work entitled “SOLAR MANUFACTURING EQUIPMENT
APPLIANCES” is a bonafide work carried out by Mrs. SONU L S, 4AI17EE036, 8th Semester B. E. in partial
fulfillment for the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical and Electronics Engineering of the
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, during the year 2020 - 2021. It is certified that all
corrections/suggestions indicated for Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the report. The Internship report
has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements of the prescribed for the said degree.

Signature of Guide Signature of Coordinator

JOYSUN D’SOUZA Mr. SACHIN S

Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
Department of EEE Department of EEE
A I T, Chikkamagaluru A I T, Chikkamagaluru

Signature of HOD Signature of Principal

Dr. G. R. VEERENDRA M. E. Ph.D Dr.C.T.JAYADEVA.Ph.D
Professor and Head Department of EEE A I T, Chikkamagaluru
A I T, Chikkamagaluru

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ADICHUNCHANAGIRI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi)
CHIKKAMAGALURU, INDIA -577 102

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DECLARATION

I, SONU L S (4AI17EE036) student of 8th semester B.E, in the Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, A.I.T, Chikkamagaluru declare that the Internship report entitled “SOLAR MANUFACTURING
EQUIPMENT APPLIANCES” has been carried out by me and submitted in partial fulfillment of the course
requirements for the award of degree in Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical and Electronics Engineering of
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi during the academic year 2020-2021.

Date:
Place: Chikkamagaluru
SONU L S

(USN: 4AI17EE036 )

Dept. of E&EE AIT, Chikkamagaluru

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INTERNSHIP CERTIFICATE

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere and humble Pranamas to their Holiness PARAMAPOOJYA JAGADGURU
PADAMABHUSHANA BHAIRAVAIKYA SRI SRI SRI Dr. BALAGANGADHARANATHA
MAHASWAMIJI and his Holiness JAGADGURU SRI SRI SRI Dr. NIRMALANANDANATHA
MAHSWAMIJI and SRI SRI GUNANATHA SWAMIJI and seek their blessings.

It’s my pleasure to express deep gratitude and sincere thanks to my internship seminar guide Mr. JOYSUN
D’SOUZA, Assistant Professor, Department Of Electrical and Electronics.

I also express my sincere thanks to the kind co-operation shown by the co-ordinator Mr. SACHIN S, Assistant
Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics.

The cooperation of Dr. G. R. VEERENDRA, Professor and Head, Department of Electrical and Electronics is
beyond comparisons and I am extremely obliged to him.

I owe the success of the technical seminar to my beloved principal Dr. C.T. JAYADEVA without whose constant
encouragement, the completion of technical seminar would not have been possible.

The satisfaction that accompanies the completion of any task would be incomplete without naming the people who
made it possible and whose constant guidance and encouragement made the work seek perfection.

I take this opportunity to thank and express our gratitude to my dear parents who have given us the right education
because of which I have been able to reach this stage and have always been a source of inspiration.

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CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

Chapter 1: COMPANY PROFILE 9

Chapter 2: INTRODUCTION
2.1 SOLAR ENERGY 11
2.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT 12
2.3 PV MODULE 13
2.4 AVAILABLE CELL TECHNOLOGIES 13
2.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC’S 17

Chapter 3: INTERNSHIP OVERVIEW

3.1 EFFECTS ON PV MODULES 19
3.2 OTHER PARTS OF SOLAR PLANT 22

Chapter 4: CONCLUSION 38

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CHAPTER-1

COMPANY PROFILE

LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS was set up in 2016 in Bangalore, India with a focus on
developing Solar as sustainable energy alternative India. Our energy solutions are viable both in
the near term and over the longer term providing maximum energy

We strongly believe in the sun’s potential to significantly address the problems associated with
power obtained from non-renewable sources of energy. It is with this passion that we aim to
work and provide solar solutions to our customers. Quality has always been of utmost priority
for us, and with this drive we challenge ourselves to provide the same in the most cost effective
manner.

We, at LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS, recognize the importance of every step taken
towards to building a greener and safer future. By harnessing the inexhaustible energy of the sun,
we offer efficient and advanced solutions for energy requirements for today and tomorrow.
LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS provides turnkey EPC solar energy solutions from
concept to commissioning for solar PV and also operation and maintenance services throughout
the lifetime of the project. Led by visionary leaders and industry veterans, we provide end-to-end
solutions including engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) services for our customers
seeking to build photovoltaic solar power plants.

Our expertise and experience gathered from executing solar PV plants across various terrains and
regions hold us in good stead to provide world-class project management services that provides
the shortest gestation time-period to complete our projects without any compromise on the
quality. Solar Power Plants executed by us rank amongst the highest generation PV plants in
India with consistently high Plant Performance Ratios throughout the year.

Why LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS

 LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS provides end-to-end services to design the most
suitable and optimal solar solution for your roof. It specializes in sizing, designing and
implementing the roof tops solar solutions..
 We have been involved in the successful installation of a number of these solutions. The
team members include technical expertise from the prestigious Indian Institute of Technology

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Banaras Hindu University with Core Knowledge of Electronics ,Our Team consist of
Experienced People who had served at Managerial Level in MNCs, Our Technical Ground Staff
have been working on solar technology for last 10 years and have previous work experience of
installing solar power plant in Industries, Airports ,Hospitals,Hotels, Cold Storages as well as in
Residential.
 LIGHT WAVE POWER SOLUTIONS has access to the best quality, most efficient and
cost effective equipments from the best suppliers in the country.

What We Do

Free site and energy demand assessment.

 Free consultation for all types of Solar PV plants.

 Solar PV plant design and installation.
 Solar PV plant performance simulation.
 Project Management and monitoring.
 Operation and maintenance

Vision

A team of youth with the diversified experience contributing the planet to go green and save
environment. Strive to provide the world’s best solar products in terms of quality, price and
performance. Aggressively capitalize on the emerging Grid and Off Grid opportunities. Partner
with the world’s best solar companies for delivering the best quality products.

Promote Clean & Green energy Solutions for benefit to the society and environment.

Mission

Providing Sustainable Business Solution in the field of Renewable Energy.

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CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION
2.1Solar energy

Radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a
range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary solar-powered
resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the
available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is
used.

Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and photovoltaic. Solar energy's uses
are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar applications includes space heating
and cooling through solar architecture, potable water via distillation and disinfection, day
lighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial
purposes. To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use solar panels.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on
the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use
of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar
techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal
mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

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2.2 Photovoltaic Effect

Photovoltaic effect, process in which two dissimilar materials in close contact produce an
electrical voltage when struck by light or other radiant energy. Light striking crystals such as
silicon or germanium, in which electrons are usually not free to move from atom to atom within
the crystal, provides the energy needed to free some electrons from their bound condition. Free
electrons cross the junction between two dissimilar crystals more easily in one direction than in
the other, giving one side of the junction a negative charge and, therefore, a negative voltage
with respect to the other side, just as one electrode of a battery has a negative voltage with
respect to the other. The photovoltaic effect can continue to provide voltage and current as long
as light continues to fall on the two materials. This current can be used to measure the brightness
of the incident light or as a source of power in an electrical circuit, as in a solar power system
(see Fig... 1).

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2.3 PV MODULE

Cell Array

2.4 Available cell technologies

 Monocrystalline Si
 Multicrystalline Si
 Thin film
 Amorphous Si
 Cadmium Telluride
 CIGS
 Organic
 CSP

1. Mono Crystalline

• Most efficient commonly available module 15-20%

• Expensive to produce
• Circular cell creates wasted space on module

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Mono crystalline Multi crystalline

2. Multi Crystalline

• Less expensive to make than single crystalline module

• Cells slightly less efficient than a single crystalline 14-16%

• Square shape cells fit into module efficiently using entire space

3. Thin Film
A thin-film solar cell (TFSC), also called a thin-film photovoltaic cell (TFPV), is a solar cell that is made

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by depositing one or more thin layers (thin film) of photovoltaic material on a substrate. The thickness
range of such a layer is wide and varies from a few nanometers to tens of micrometers. Many different
photovoltaic materials are deposited with various deposition methods on a variety of substrates. Thin-film
solar cells are usually categorized according to the photovoltaic material used.

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3(a) Amorphous Silicon

• Most inexpensive technology to produce

• Metal grid replaced with transparent oxides
• Efficiency 6-9%
• Can be deposited on flexible substrates
• Less susceptible to shading problem
• Better performance in low light condition that with crystalline modules

Fig. Amorphous Silicon solar cell

3(b) Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics describes a photovoltaic (PV) technology that is
based on the use of cadmium telluride thin film, a semiconductor layer designed to absorb
and convert sunlight into electricity. Cadmium telluride PV is the first and only thin film
Fig. Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell

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photovoltaic technology to surpass crystalline silicon PV in cheapness for a significant

portion of the PV market, namely in multi-kilowatt systems. Best cell efficiency has
plateaued at 16.5% since 2001.
3(c) CIGS

Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is a direct-bandgap material. It has the highest
efficiency (~20%) among thin film materials. Traditional methods of fabrication involve vacuum
processes including co-evaporation and sputtering. Recent developments at IBM and Nanosolar
attempt to lower the cost by using non-vacuum solution processes.

Fig.showing CIGS solar cell

3(d) Organic solar cell

An organic photovoltaic cell (OPVC) is a photovoltaic cell that uses organic electronics--a
branch of electronics that deals with conductive organic polymers or small organic molecules for
light absorption and charge transport.

The plastic itself has low production costs in high volumes. Combined with the flexibility of
organic molecules, this makes it potentially lucrative for photovoltaic applications.
Molecular engineering (e.g. changing the length and functional group of polymers) can change
the energy gap, which allows chemical change in these materials. The optical absorption
coefficient of organic molecules is high, so a large amount of light can be absorbed with a small
amount of materials. The main disadvantages associated with organic photovoltaic cells are low
efficiency, low stability and low strength compared to inorganic photovoltaic cells.

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Fig. showing Organic Solar Cell

2.6 Advantages & Disadvantages of Photovoltaic’s

Advantages

 Electricity produced by solar cells is clean and silent. Because they do not use fuel other than
sunshine, PV systems do not release any harmful air or water pollution into the environment,
deplete natural resources, or endanger animal or human health.
 Photovoltaic systems are quiet and visually unobtrusive.
 Small-scale solar plants can take advantage of unused space on rooftops of existing buildings.
 PV cells were originally developed for use in space, where repair is extremely expensive, if not
impossible. PV still powers nearly every satellite circling the earth because it operates reliably
for long periods of time with virtually no maintenance.
 Solar energy is a locally available renewable resource. It does not need to be imported from other
regions of the country or across the world. This reduces environmental impacts associated with
transportation and also reduces our dependence on imported oil. And, unlike fuels that are mined
and harvested, when we use solar energy to produce electricity we do not deplete or alter the
resource.

A PV system can be constructed to any size based on energy requirements. Furthermore, the
owner of a PV system can enlarge or move it if his or her energy needs change. Some toxic
chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, are used in the PV production process. These
environmental impacts are minor and can be easily controlled through recycling and proper
disposal.
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Disadvantages

 Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce than conventional sources of energy due in
part to the cost of manufacturing PV devices and in part to the conversion efficiencies of the
equipment. As the conversion efficiencies continue to increase and the manufacturing costs
continue to come down, PV will become increasingly cost competitive with conventional fuels.
 Solar power is a variable energy source, with energy production dependent on the sun. Solar
facilities may produce no power at all some of the time, which could lead to an energy shortage
if too much of a region's power comes from solar power.

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CHAPTER-3
INTERNSHIP OVERVIEW

3.1 EFFECTS ON PV MODULES

☼ Shading and dirt

Photovoltaic cell electrical output is extremely sensitive to shading. When even a small portion
of a cell, module, or array is shaded, while the remainder is in sunlight, the output falls
dramatically due to internal 'short-circuiting' (the electrons reversing course through the shaded
portion of the p-n junction).

If the current drawn from the series string of cells is no greater than the current that can be
produced by the shaded cell, the current (and so power) developed by the string is limited. If
enough voltage is available from the rest of the cells in a string, current will be forced through
the cell by breaking down the junction in the shaded portion. This breakdown voltage in
common cells is between 10 and 30 volts. Instead of adding to the power produced by the panel,
the shaded cell absorbs power, turning it into heat. Since the reverse voltage of a shaded cell is
much greater than the forward voltage of an illuminated cell, one shaded cell can absorb the
power of many other cells in the string, disproportionately affecting panel output. For example, a
shaded cell may drop 8 volts, instead of adding 0.5 volts, at a particular current level, thereby
absorbing the power produced by 16 other cells. Therefore it is extremely important that a PV
installation is not shaded at all by trees, architectural features, flag poles, or other obstructions.

Most modules have bypass diodes between each cell or string of cells that minimize the effects
of shading and only lose the power of the shaded portion of the array (The main job of the
bypass diode is to eliminate hot spots that form on cells that can cause further damage to the
array, and cause fires.).

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Sunlight can be absorbed by dust, snow, or other impurities at the surface of the module. This
can cut down the amount of light that actually strikes the cells by as much as half. Maintaining a
clean module surface will increase output performance over the life of the module.

Fig. VI Characteristics showing effect of dirt on solar cell

• Depends on orientation of internal module circuitry relative to orientation of the shading

• Shading can half or even completely eliminates the output of a solar array

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☼ Temperature

Module output and life are also degraded by increased temperature. Allowing ambient air to flow
over, and if possible behind, PV modules reduces this problem.

In 2010, solar panels available for consumers can have a yield of up to 19%, while commercially
available panels can go as far as 27%. Thus, a photovoltaic installation in the southern latitudes
of Europe or the United States may expect to produce 1 kWh/m²/day. A typical "150 watt" solar
panel is about a square meter in size. Such a panel may be expected to produce 1 kWh every day.
On average, after taking into account the weather and the latitude.

Fig: V-I Characteristics showing effect of Temperature

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3.2 OTHER PARTS OF SOLAR PLANT

1. BATTERY

Battery basics

Battery = device stores electrical energy (chemical to electrical and vice versa)

Capacity = amount of electrical energy battery will contain

STATE OF CHARGE= available battery capacity Depth of discharge = energy taken out of
battery
Efficiency= (energy o/p) / (energy i/p)

Battery Details

TYPES

 Primary (Single Use)

 Secondary (Rechargeable)
 Shallow 20% DOD
 Deep Cycle 80% DOD

Unless lead acid batteries are charged upto 100%, they will lose capacity over time

1.1 Types of battery connections

1. Serial Connection

Portable equipment needing higher voltages use battery packs with two or more cells connected
in series. Figure 1 shows a battery pack with four 1.2V nickel-based cells in series to produce
4.8V. In comparison, a four-cell lead acid string with 2V/cell will generate 8V, and four Li-ion
with 3.6V/cell will give 14.40V. A 12V supply should work; most battery- operated devices can
tolerate some over-voltage.

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Fig.1: Serial connection of four NiCd or NiMH cells

Adding cells in a Series increases the voltage; the current remains the same.

Figure 2 illustrates a battery pack in which “cell 3” produces only 0.6V instead of the full 1.2V.
With depressed operating voltage, this battery reaches the end-of-discharge point sooner than a
normal pack and the runtime will be severely shortened. The remaining three cells are unable to
deliver their stored energy when the equipment cuts off due to low voltage. The cause of cell
failure can be a partial short cell that consumes its own charge from within through elevated self-
Discharge or a dry-out in which the cell has lost electrolyte by a leak or through inappropriate
usage.

Fig.2: Serial connection with one faulty cell

Faulty “cell 3” lowers the overall voltage from 4.8V to 4.2V, causing the equipment to cut
off prematurely. The remaining good cells can no longer deliver the energy

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2. Parallel Connection

If higher currents are needed and larger cells with increased ampere-hour (Ah) ratings are not
available or the design has constraints, one or more cells are connected in parallel. Most
chemistry allows parallel configurations with little side effect. Figure 3 illustrates four cells
connected in parallel. The voltage of the illustrated pack remains at 1.2V, but the current
handling and runtime are increased fourfold.

Fig 3: Parallel connection of four cells

With parallel cells, the current handling and runtime increases while voltage stays the same.

A high-resistance cell, or one that is open, is less critical in a parallel circuit than in serial
configuration, however, a weak cell reduces the total load capability. It’s like an engine that fires
on only three cylinders instead of all four. An electrical short, on the other hand, could be
devastating because the faulty cell would drain energy from the other cells, causing a fire hazard.
Most so-called shorts are of mild nature and manifest themselves in elevated self- discharge.
Figure 4 illustrates a parallel configuration with one faulty cell.

A weak cell will not affect the voltage but will provide a low runtime due to reduced current
handling.

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Fig. 4: Parallel/connection with one faulty cell

3. Serial/Parallel Connection

The serial/parallel configuration shown in Figure 5 allows superior design flexibility and
achieves the wanted voltage and current ratings with a standard cell size. The total power is the
product of voltage times current, and the four 1.2V/1000mAh cells produce 4.8Wh.
Serial/parallel connections are common with lithium-ion, especially for laptop batteries, and the
built-in protection circuit must monitor each cell individually.

Fig.5: Serial/ parallel connection of four cells

This configuration provides maximum design flexibility

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1.2 Effects of Loads/sources wired in different combination.

1. Series connection.

Loads/sources wired in series

 Voltages are additive

 Current is equal
 One interconnection wire is used between two components (- to +)
 Combined module makes series string
 Leave the series string from a terminal not used in series connection

2. Parallel connection

Load/source wired in parallel

 Voltage remain constant

 Currents are additive
 Two interrconnection wires are used between two component (+ to + & - to -)
 Leave off either terminl
 Modules exiting to next component can happen at any parallel terminal

3. Dissimilar modules in series

• voltage remains additive

If A is 30V/6A and B is 15V/3A, resulting voltage will be 45V

• current taken on lowest value

For modules A and B wired in series, what be the current level of array 3A

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4. Dissimilar modules in parallel

• Amperage remains additive

For same modules A and B, current will be 9A

• voltage taken on lower value.

For same modules A and B, Voltage will be 15V

1.3 Battery capacity design:

Capacity

Ampere X Hours= Amp*Hrs 100AH = 100A * 1hrs

= 1A * 100hrs

=20A * 5hrs

• Capacity changes with discharge rate

• Higher the discharge rate,lower the capacity and vice versa

• Higher the temperature higher the percent of rated capacity

Rate of charge or/ discharge

Rate=C/T

C=battery rated capacity T= cycle time period

Maximum recommended charge or discharge rate=C/3 to C/5

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Functions of Battery

• storage for the night

• storage during cloudy weather

• portable power

• surge for starting motors

Due to the expense and inherent inefficiencies of batteries it is recommended that they only be
used when absolutely necessary

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2. CHARGE CONTROLLER

Charge Controller is necessary since the brighter the sunlight, the more voltage the solar cells
produce, the excessive voltage could damage the batteries. A charge controller is used to
maintain the proper charging voltage on the batteries. As the input voltage from the solar array
rises, the charge controller regulates the charge to the batteries preventing any overcharging.
Most quality charge controller units have what is known as a 3 stage charge cycle that goes like
this:

Fig: Charge Controller

1) BULK: During the Bulk phase of the charge cycle, the voltage gradually rises
to the Bulk level (usually 14.4 to 14.6 volts) while the batteries draw maximum
current. When Bulk level voltage is reached the absorption stage begins.

2) ABSORPTION: During this phase the voltage is maintained at Bulk voltage

level for a specified time (usually an hour) whiles the current gradually tapers
off as the batteries charge up.

3) FLOAT: After the absorption time passes the voltage is lowered to float level
usually (13.4 to 13.7 volts) and the batteries draw a small maintenance current

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until the next cycle.

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Fig: The relationship between the current and the voltage during the 3 phases of the charge cycle
can be shown visually by the graph below.

3. CHARGE INVERTER

Fig: Showing Charge Inverters

Square Wave power inverters: This is the least expensive and least desirable type. The square
wave it produces is inefficient and is hard on many types of equipment. These inverters are
usually fairly inexpensive.

Modified Sine Wave power inverters: This is probably the most popular and economical type
of power inverter. It produces an AC waveform somewhere between a square wave and a pure
sine wave.

True Sine Wave power inverters: A True Sine Wave power inverter produces the closest to a

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pure sine wave of all power inverters and in many cases produces cleaner power than the utility
company itself. It will run practically any type of AC equipment and is also the most expensive.
Many True Sine Wave power inverters are computer controlled and will automatically turn on
and off as AC loads ask for service.

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Grid Tie Power Inverters: Solar grid-tie inverters are designed to quickly disconnect
from the grid if the utility grid goes down. This is an NEC requirement that ensures that in the
event of a blackout, the grid tie inverter will shut down to prevent the energy it produces from
harming any line workers who are sent to fix the power grid. Grid-tie inverters that are
available on the market today use a number of different technologies. The inverters may use
the newer high-frequency transformers, conventional low-frequency transformers, or no
transformer.
Many solar inverters are designed to be connected to a utility grid, and will not operate when
they do not detect the presence of the grid. They contain special circuitry to precisely match
the voltage and frequency of the grid.

Fig: Showing inverter

Inverter features

An electronic device used to convert dc into ac

Disadvantages

 Efficiency penalty
 Complexity
 Cost

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4. SAFETY EQUIPMENT

1. Over-Current Protection of PV Systems

According to the National Electric Code, every wire that carries current needs to be protected
from exceeding its rated capacity. In fact, each ungrounded electrical conductor within a PV
system needs to be protected by over current devices such as fuses or circuit breakers. If the
current through a given circuit exceeds the rated amperage, the fuse or breaker will engage and
stop any potential problems down the line such as wires melting, fire, etc. The maximum over
current protection is nothing more than the maximum amperage each wire within your system
can carry.

2. Fuses

● Why Use a Fuse

With the positive and negative cables securely fastened to the battery terminals, and the solar
panel outside and exposed to the elements, any cable connection failure is most likely to happen
near the solar panel rather than at the battery. If the end of the negative cable touch any exposed
metal of the positive cable (or vice versa), a short circuit will occur. Huge amounts of electric
current will flow potentially causing sparks, melting the cable, and/or even causing the battery to
explode.

Fig: Showing a typical battery and solar panel connection

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3. DC circuit-breakers

In addition to fuses, protection of photovoltaic modules is provided by string circuit- breakers.

They protect photovoltaic modules from fault currents. For example, in large systems they
prevent regeneration from intact modules to modules with a short-circuit. Their advantage over
fuses is that they are immediately ready for use after a trip and when the cause of the trip has
been remedied.

Fig: Showing Circuit Breakers

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4. Grounding

A ground system provides four primary functions:

● To help disperse or divert energy from lightning strikes

● To provide safety in case some problem or fault energizes the cabinet or chassis
of equipment with dangerous voltages

● To provide a controlled RF return path for end-fed (single wire feed) or poorly
conFig...ured or improperly designed transmission-line fed antennas

● To provide a highly conductive path for induced or directly coupled radio-

frequency currents, rather than having them flow in lossy soil

A ground will NOT.....

A ground normally will not help reception. The exception is an antenna system design problem
or installation problem causing the antenna system to be sensitive to common mode feedline
currents. If adding a station ground helps reception or transmission, there is an antenna system
flaw.

A ground will not reduce the chances or number of lightning strikes. A properly installed and
bonded entrance ground can only reduce or eliminate lightning damage from hits.

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GRID TIE SOLAR SYSTEM

Fig: A typical Grid Tie Solar System

It is a photovoltaic (PV) system interacting with the utility, and can be with or without
batteries, that utilizes relatively new breed of inverters that can actually sell any excess power
produced by your solar array back to the utility grid. These systems are easy to install and since
some do not have batteries for back-up, the lack of batteries in these systems means no messy
maintenance or replacements to worry about. The solar modules can be mounted on roof or out
in the yard.

In this system, excess electricity produced is sell back at same retail rate in which one buy
electricity from utility company. This is called "net metering" and is the simplest way to setup
a grid-tie PV system. In such a system you only have one utility kWh meter and it is allowed to
spin in either direction depending on buying or selling energy

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CHAPTER-4

CONCLUSION

This internship has been an excellent and rewarding experience. I have been able to meet and
network with so many people that I am sure will be able to help me with opportunities in the
future. I learnt verbal communication, non-verbal communication, problem solving, time
management skills, observation, self-motivation and time management. I learnt to motivate
myself by getting encouragement from senior staff in the office.
When I first started I did not think that I was going to be able to make myself sit in an
office for eight hours a day, five days a week. Once I realized what I had to do I organized
my day and work so that I was not overlapping or wasting my hours. During task given by
company, I interacted with my interns and senior engineers to determine the problems. As
well internship indirectly helps to improve my communication skills, and strengthening as
well when communicating with others. During my internship period, I have received advice
from senior engineers and technician when mistakes were made; I took their advices in
positive way to improve my carrier.

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